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STANDARD   CYCLOPAEDIAS   FOR   YOUNG    OR    OLD 

CHAMPLIN'S 

YOUNG  FOLKS'  CYCLOPEDIAS 

By  JOHN  D.  CHAMPLIN 

Late  Associate  Editor  of  the  American  Cyclopcedia 
Bound  in  substantial  red  buckram.     Each  volume  complete 
in  itself  and  sold  separately.      I2mo,  $3  oo  per  volume, 

COMMON    THINGS 

New,  Enlarged  Edition,  850  pp.    Profusely  Illustrated 

"A  book  which  will  be  of  permanent  value  to  any  boy  or  girl  to 
whom  it  may  be  given,  and  which  fills  a  place  in  the  juvenile  library, 
never,  so  far  as  I  know,  supplied  before." — Susan  Cooltdge. 

PERSONS   AND   PLACES 

New,  Up-to-Date  Edition,  985  pp.  Over  375  Illustrations 
"  We  know  copies  of  the  work  to  which  their  young  owners  turn 
instantly  for  information  upon  every  theme  about  which  they  have 
questions  to  ask.  More  than  this,  we  know  that  some  of  these  copies 
are  read  daily,  as  well  as  consulted;  that  their  owners  turn  the  leaves 
as  they  might  those  of  a  fairy  book,  reading  intently  articles  of  which 
they  had  not  thought  before  seeing  them,  and  treating  the  book  simply 
as  one  capable  of  furnishing  the  rarest  entertainment  in  exhaustless 
Quantities." — N.  Y.  Evening  Post. 

LITERATURE  AND   ART 

604  pp.     270  Illustrations 

"Few  poems,  plays,  novels,  pictures,  statues,  or  fictitious  characters 
.hat  children— or  most  of  their  parents— of  our  day  are  likely  to  inquire 
about  will  be  missed  here.  Mr.  Champlin's  judgment  seems  unusually 
sound.*' — The  Nation. 

GAMES  AND   SPORTS 

By  JOHN  D.  CHAMPLIN  and  ARTHUR  BOSTWICK 
Revised  Edition,  784  pp.      900  Illustrati6ns 

"  Should  form  a  part  of  every  juvenile  library,  whether  public  or 
.private." — The  Independent. 

NATURAL    HISTORY 

By  JOHN  D.  CHAMPLIN,  assisted  by  FREDERICK  A.  LUCAS 
725  pp.     Over  800  Illustrations 

"  Here,  in  compact  and  attractive  form,  is  valuable  and  reliable  in- 
formation on  every  phase  of  natural  history,  on  every  item  of  interest 
to  the  student.  Invaluable  to  the  teacher  and  school,  and  should  be  ~n 
every  teacher's  desk  for  ready  reference,  and  the  children  should  be 
taught  to  go  to  this  volume  for  information  useful  and  interesting." — 
Journal  of  Education. 

HENRY     HOLT    AND     COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  CHICAGO 


THE 


YOUNG  FOLKS'  CYCLOPEDIA 


OF 


GAMES  AND  SPORTS 


BY 

JOHN   D.    CHAMPLIN 

LATB    ASSOCIATB    BDITOR    Of    THE    AMERICAN    CYCLOPAEDIA 
AND 

ARTHUR   E.    BOSTWICK 
tCUtb  numerous   Illustrations 


NEW  YORK 
HENRY  HOLT  AND   COMPANY 


Copyright,  1890, 

BT 

HENRY  HOLT  &  CO. 


M 
G3ST 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


THE  YOUNG  FOLKS'  CYCLOPEDIA  OF  GAMES  AND  SPORTS  is  a 
compendium  of  recreations  of  all  kinds,  including  indoor  and  out- 
door games  and  plays,  athletic  and  rural  sports  and  pastimes,  chem- 
ical and  mechanical  experiments  and  amusements,  and  every  similar 
thing  that  can  interest  a  wide-awake  boy  or  girl.  Like  the  other 
volumes  in  the  Young  Folks'  Series,  it  is  in  cyclopaedic  style,  a 
novelty  in  a  work  of  this  kind,  rendering  its  articles  easy  of  refer- 
ence, and  combining  other  advantages  never  before  united  in  a 
similar  volume.  Intended  primarily  for  the  family,  for  the  use  of 
children  and  youth  of  all  ages,  it  will  be  of  equal  value  to  the 
adult,  as  it  includes  the  official  rules,  given  word  for  word,  of  ath- 
letic sports  and  standard  games,  and  the  official  records  of  athletic 
meets  and  events,  thus  making  it  a  work  of  reference  for  the  settle- 
ment of  disputed  questions  relating  to  such  matters.  To  insure 
accuracy,  such  articles  as  require  it  have  been  revised  by  competent 
experts. 

Among  the  features  of  the  work  are  a  brief  historical  sketch  of 
each  game  or  sport,  the  description  of  foreign  varieties  of  each,  a 
full  illustration  of  the  text  by  accurate  plans  and  diagrams,  and  a 
system  of  etymology,  as  in  the  other  volumes  of  the  series,  giving 
the  derivation  of  names  and  technical  terms.  While  the  "  padding" 
characteristic  of  too  many  such  works  has  been  rigorously  excluded, 
the  endeavor  has  been  to  make  the  explanations  full  enough  for 
simplicity  and  clearness.  Unlike  many  other  works  on  sports  and 
games  published  in  this  country,  which  are  merely  reprints  of  Eng- 
lish books,  this  cyclopaedia  has  been  written  for  American  use  from 
the  American  standpoint,  even  such  a  game  as  Cricket  being  treated 
as  it  is  played  in  the  United  States. 

While  the  illustration  is  very  full,  no  picture  has  been  inserted 
for  its  own  sake,  or  otherwise  than  as  an  aid  to  the  understanding 
of  the  text  or  the  elucidation  of  different  periods  of  games  and 
sports. 


iv  PREFACE. 

A  large  number  of  works  on  sports  and  kindred  subjects,  in 
many  languages,  have  been  consulted  and  freely  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  this  book,  which  is  believed  to  be  more  comprehensive  in  its 
scope  than  any  other  similar  publication.  The  editors  are  indebted 
to  Messrs.  A.  G.  Spalding  &  Bros,  for  permission  to  print  the  foot- 
ball rules  of  the  University  Athletic  Club,  and  the  official  rules  of 
other  athletic  sports. 

In  the  present  edition  the  description  and  rules  of  all  such  sports 
as  baseball,  football  and  tennis  have  been  brought  carefully  down 
to  date,  the  articles  on  cycling  and  golf  have  been  greatly  enlarged 
in  view  of  the  increased  popularity  of  both,  and  other  changes  have 
been  made  to  increase  the  value  of"  the  book. 

NEW  YORK,  January  10,  1899. 


NOTE. — Through  an  oversight  of  the  editors,  credit  was  not  given 
in  the  earlier  editions  to  Mr.  Dan  Beard  for  sundry  devices  and  sug- 
gestions derived  from  the  "American  Boys'  Handy  Book,"  and  to 
Messrs.  Munn  &  Co.,  publishers  of  the  Scientific  American,  for  several 
illustrations. 


THE 


YOUNG    FOLKS'    CYCLOPEDIA 


GAMES    AND    SPORTS. 


ds  printed  in  LETTERS  LIKE  THESE  are  explained  in  their  alphabetical  places. 

references  C.  C.  T.  and  C.  P.  P.,  are  to  the  "  Young  Kolks'  Cyclopaedia  of  Common 
Things,"  and  the  "Young  Folks'  Cyclopaedia  of  Persons  and  Places,"  companion  volumes  to 
this,  which  explain  a  great  deal  not  coming  within  the  plan  of  this  book. 


A— B— C.  A  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons  with  a  pack  of 
CARDS,  on  each  of  which  are  a  letter 
of  the  alphabet  and  a  picture.  The 
pack  is  placed  face  upward  on  the 
table,  and  each  player  in  order  names 
an  object  in  the  picture  on  the  top 
card  which  begins  with  the  letter  on 
that  card.  Any  one  who  cannot  do  so 
in  less  that  one  minute  is  out.  No 


Agon  Board  ready  for  Playing. 

ADJECTIVES.  A  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons.  One  writes 
a  letter,  leaving  blank  spaces  for  the 
adjectives,  and  then  asks  the  other 
players,  in  order,  to  furnish  the  miss- 
ing words  without  knowing  what 
has  been  written.  The  letter  is  then 
read  aloud.  The  game  may  be  varied 
by  leaving  blanks  for  other  words 
than  adjectives,  but  in  that  case  each 


one  must  name  an  object  which  has 
already  been  named.  When  all  the 
players  but  one  are  out,  that  one 
takes  the  card,  and  the  other  cards 
one  by  one  are  treated  in  like  man- 
ner, beginning  in  each  case  with  the 
player  who  took  the  previous  card. 
He  who  takes  most  cards  is  the 
winner. 
ACTING  CRAMBO.  See  CRAMBO. 


*•*•:*• 


Position  of  Men  at  End  of  Game. 

player   must   be  told   what  part  Oi 
speech  he  is  expected  to  supply. 

AGON,  or  the  QUEEN'S  GUARDS. 
A  game  played  by  two  persons  on  a 
six-sided  board  like  that  represented 
in  the  pictures.  Each  player  has 
seven  pieces,  a  Queen,  which  is 
slightly  higher  than  the  others,  and  her 
six  Guards.  Each  places  his  Queen 
on  the  corner  space  in  front  of  him, 


AIR-PUMP 


AIR-PUMP 


and  the  guards  are  then  arranged 
alternately  on  the  outermost  row  as 
shown  in  the  first  illustration.  The 
object  of  the  game  is  to  get  a  Queen 
into  the  ce;  .ter  with  herGuards  ranged 
on  the  six  spaces  around  her.as  shown 
in  the  second  figure,  and  the  player 
whofirst  gets  his  pieces  in  thisposition 
wins.  The  players  move  alternately 
after  the  first  move  has  been  decided. 
Any  piece  may  be  moved  one  space 
forward  or  sideways,  but  never  back- 
ward. If  any  Guard  gets  between 
two  hostile  pieces  so  that  the  three 
form  a  straight  line  on  adjacent 
spaces,  such  Guard  must  be  taken  up 
for  the  next  move,  and  placed  some- 
where on  the  outermost  row.  If  the 
Queen  gets  in  a  similar  situation  she 
must  likewise  be  taken  up,  but  she 
may  be  placed  anywhere  on  the 
board. 

In  playing,  it  is  well  to  try  to  ar- 
range the  pieces  so  that  several  of 
the  enemy's  Guards  can  be  taken  up 
in  succession,  rather  than  to  throw 
back  one  piece  alone,  for  in  the  latter 
case  that  piece  is  often  able  to  secure 
a  good  position.  As  no  piece  can  be 
moved  backward  he  who  has  a  man 
in  the  rear  has  an  advantage.  It  is 
a  good  plan  to  keep  one  man  back 
and  hurry  the  others  forward,  keep- 
ing them  together  as  close  as  pos- 
sible. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  None  but  the  Queens  must  oc- 
cupy the  center  space. 

2.  Of  two  or  more  pieces  liable  to 
be   thrown    back   at   one   time,   the 
Queen,  if  she  be  one,  must  be  taken 
up    first,    and    the   others   may    be 
taken  in  any  order  the  player  chooses, 
the  removal  of  each  piece  counting 
as  a  move. 

3.  If  a  piece  be  touched  prepara- 
tory to  moving,  it  must  be  moved  or 
the  move  be  lost. 

4.  If  the  six  Guards  are  placed  in 
the   circle   surrounding    the    center 
space,  leaving  the  Queen  outside,  the 
player  of  them  forfeits  the  game. 

AIR-PUMP,  Experiments  with  an. 
The  common  air-pump  is  described 


in  C.  C.  T.  A  simpler  one  may  be 
made  with  a  large  glass  jar  or  bottle, 
closed  with  a  rubber  stopper  having 
a  hole  through  it.  Into  the  hole  put 
a  short  piece  of  glass  tubing,  over  the 
end  of  which  fit  a  piece  of  rubber 
tubing,  about  an  inch 
and  a  half  long  (See 
Fig.  I).  Exhaust  the 
lungs,  apply  the  mouth 
to  the  tube  and  suck. 
Pinch  the  rubber  tube 
tightly  to  prevent  air 
entering  the  bottle,  and 
after  exhausting  the 
lungs  again,  repeat  the 
process.  If  the  air  is  to 
Fig.  i.  be  kept  exhausted  for 
some  time,  a  pinch-cock  (see  CHEM- 
ICAL EXPERIMENTS)  should  be  fast- 
ened to  the  rubber  tube.  In  this 
way  about  three-quarters  of  the  air 
can  be  removed  from  the  jar. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1.  Put  into  the  jar  a  small  vaseline 
or  other  wide-mouthed  bottle,  with  a 
piece  of  thin  rubber  cloth 

tied  over  the  top.  On  ex- 
hausting the  air,  the  cloth 
will  bulge  up  like  a  bal- 
loon (See  Fig.  2).  This 
is  caused  by  the  air  trying 
to  get  out  of  the  bottle, 
owing  to  the  lightening  of 
the  pressure  above  it. 

2.  Instead  of  exhausting 
the  air,   condense   it,    by 
forcing  the  breath  into  the 
bottle,  pinching  the  rub- 
ber tube  between  breaths,  as  before. 

The  rubber  cloth  on  the 
small  bottle  will  bulge  in- 
ward (see  Fig.  3),  owing 
to  the  increased  pressure 
above  it. 

3.  Replace  the  short 
glass  tube  with  a  longer 
one,  c,  having  a  jet  b  (see 
CHEMICAL  EXPERI- 
MENTS) on  the  end  inside 
the  jar.  Exhaust  the  air 
as  before,  and  then  keep- 
ing the  rubber  tube  pinched,  hold  the 
jar  upside  down,  and  put  the  end  of 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3. 


AIR-PUMP 


ALCOHOL 


Fig.  4- 


the  rubber  tube  into  a  glass  of  water 
d.     On  releasing  the  tube  the  water 
will  spirt   up  through    the   jet   into 
the  bottle,  making  a  little 
fountain    (See    Fig.    4). 
This  is  because  the  pres- 
»  ri|i  sure   of  the   air  on  the 

All  surface  of  the  water  in 

the  bowl  forces  it  up 
into  the  jar,  where  the 
pressure  is  less. 

4.  Turn  the  glass  tube 
so  that  the  jet  will  be 
outside,  seeing  that  the 
tube  nearly  reaches  the 
bottom  of  the  jar.  Pour 
[fir  in  water  enough  to  cover 
an  inch  or  two  of  the 
end.  Put  the  rubber 
tube  over  the  jet,  and 
condense  the  air  in  the  jar,  as  in  Ex- 
periment 2.  Quickly  pull  off  the 
rubber  tube,  and  a  foun- 
tain like  that  in  Experi- 
ment 3  will  play  from 
the  jet  (See  Fig.  5). 

5.  In     the     vaseline 
bottle   used   in   Experi- 
ments   I    and    2,    or  a 
similar  one,  fit  a  stopper 
and  jet  like  those  used 
on  the  large  jar  in  Ex- 
'periment   4.     Partly  fill 
it   with   water,  place  it 
inside   the  jar,  exhaust 
the  air,  and  a  fountain 
will  play  from  the  jet. 

(See  Fig.  6).  Fie-  5- 

6.  In  the  vaseline  bottle  put  a  bent 
tube  reaching  nearly  to  the  bottom 

on  the  inside  and  about 
as  far  down  on  the  out- 
side. Put  enough  water 
into  both  bottle  and  jar 
to  cover  well  the  ends  of 
the  tube.  Exhaust  the 
air.  All  the  water  will  be 
forced  out  of  the  bottle. 
Let  in  the  air  again. 
More  water  will  run  in 
from  the  jar  than  was  in 
the  bottle  to  begin  with. 

Steam    vacuum.     A     partial   va- 
cuum   may    be    produced   also    by 


Fig.  6. 


means  of  steam.  If  a  little  water  be 
boiled  in  a  flask,  the  steam  will  drive 
out  all  the  air,  and  if  the  flask  be 
then  corked  and  cooled  by  placing 
it  in  water  the  steam  will  condense 
to  water,  leaving  nothing  in  its  place 
but  a  little  cool  water-vapor.  The 
cork  must  be  put  in  carefully,  and 
the  flask  withdrawn  from  the  heat  at 
the  same  time,  otherwise  the  steam 
might  force  the  cork  out  again.  By 
connecting  the  cork  by  means  of 
rubber  tubing  with  another  bottle  or 
jar,  the  air  in  the  latter  may  be 
greatly  rarefied  and  many  of  the 
above  experiments  tried.  If  a  toy 
rubber  balloon,  with  no  air  in  it,  be 
fastened  to  the  under  side  of  a  glass 
tube  passing  through  the  cork,  so 
that  it  will  be  inside  of  the  flask 
when  it  is  corked,  the  balloon  will 
swell  up  and  fill  the  flask  as  soon  as 
the  flask  is  cooled  ;  the  outside  air 
rushing  in  to  fill  the  vacuum  made 
by  condensing  the  steam. 

ALCOHOL,  Experiments  with. 
(Read  CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS). 
Alcohol  is  described  in  C.  C.  T.  To 
make  it,  mix  about  a  quarter  of  a 
glass  of  molasses  with  a  glass  and  a 
half  of  water,  add  a  little  yeast,  and 
set  the  liquid  in  a  warm  place  for 
two  or  three  clays.  During  this  time 
it  will  ferment  and  bubbles  of  gas 
will  rise  from  it,  which  may  be  col- 
lected if  the  liquid  is  in  a  corked 
flask  with  a  delivery  tube  leading  to 
the  bottom  of  a  jar.  The  gas  is 
CARBONIC  ACID,  as  may  be  shown 
by  shaking  it  with  lime-water.  The 
liquid  now  has  alcohol  in  it,  which 
must  be  separated  from  it  by  DIS- 
TILLING. Instead  of  condensing 
the  vapor  at  once,  however,  it  is  first 
led  into  a  bottle  which  is  kept  at  a 
little  below  the  boiling  point  of  water, 
by  being  heated  over  a  water  bath. 
Most  of  the  steam  condenses  in  this 
bottle,  but  the  alcohol,  which  will  not 
condense  at  so  high  a  temperature, 
goes  on  to  the  next  bottle,  which  is 
kept  in  ice-cold  water.  Test  the 
liquid  thus  obtained  by  trying  to  light 
some  of  it  on  a  glass  rod.  If  it  will 


ALICE  IN  WONDERLAND 


ALL  FOOLS'  DAY 


not  burn,  it  is  not  strong  enough, 
and  must  be  distilled  over  again. 
Not  more  than  a  quarter  of  the 
liquid  must  be  boiled  away,  for  by 
that  time  most  of  the  alcohol  is 
gone  from  it. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1.  Try  to  dissolve   different  sub- 
stances in  alcohol.     It  will  be  found 
that  oily  or  gummy  substances,  which 
will  not  dissolve  at  all  in  water,  will 
do  so  in  alcohol. 

2.  Mix  equal  quantities  of  alcohol 
and  water  together,  after  measuring 
each    in    a    graduated   tube.      The 
liquid  will  shrink  in  mixing  so  that 
the    mixture    will    not   measure   as 
much  as  the  sum  of  the  two  quan- 
tities. 

3.  Drop   alcohol  on  the  still  sur- 
face of  a  basin  of  water.     There  will 
be  a  little  dimple,  or  pit,  where  it 
strikes,    because    the    heavier    and 
stronger  fluid  on  the  surface  around 
it  pulls  it  away. 

4.  Put  a  teaspoonful  of  raw  white 
of  egg  in  a  glass,  and  pour  on   it 
about  a  tablespoonful  of  alcohol.     It 
will  be  cooked,  as  if  by  heat. 

5.  Fill  a  glass  with  alcohol  and  into 
it  drop  a  very  little  of  any  aniline  dye 
in  the  form  of  powder.     These  dyes 
may  be  obtained  of  a  druggist.     The 
dye  will  descend  into  the  fluid  in  a 
colored   thread   which    will    branch 
out  into  two  or  more,  and  these  in 
turn  will   divide,   so  as  to  resemble 
the  growth  of  a  plant.     If  the  alco- 
hol be  contained  in  a  tank  with  par- 
allel glass   sides   (see   PRISM),    the 
phenomenon  may  be  thrown  on  to  a 
screen  with  the  HELIOSTAT,  and  as 
the  lens  reverses  the  object  the  col- 
ored threads  will  appear  to  grow  up- 
ward,  thus   increasing    the    resem- 
blance to  a  tree. 

ALICE  IN  WONDERLAND.  A 
game  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons, with  52  cards  bearing  pictures 
of  characters  in  the  story  of  that 
name.  The  cards  are  divided  into 
three  sets  :  16  picture-cards  with  a 
star  in  the  corner,  numbered  from  i 
to  16;  the  same  picture-cards  with- 


out the  star,  numbered  in  like  man- 
ner ;  and  20  cards  without  pictures, 
numbered  from  I  to  20.  In  each  set 
the  cards  rank  according  to  their 
numbers,  but  a  star  card  is  higher 
than  any  other,  and  a  plain  picture- 
card  is  higher  than  a  plain  numbered 
card.  At  the  beginning  of  the  game, 
each  player  is  given  seven  cards. 
The  eldest  hand  leads.  If  he  lead  a 
picture  card,  the  next  must  play  its 
mate  (from  the  other  picture-set),  if 
possible  ;  otherwise  a  card  from  the 
same  set.  If  a  plain  numbered  card 
be  led,  the  next  player  must  play 
another  of  that  set.  If  he  have  no 
card  of  the  set  led,  he  may  play  what 
he  chooses.  Each  in  turn  plays  in 
like  manner,  but  if  a  picture  card  has 
been  played  it  must  be  followed  by 
its  mate  if  possible,  even  if  the  lead 
was  a  plain  card.  If  more  than  one 
picture  card  has  been  played,  the 
first  must  be  mated  first,  if  possible. 
When  each  has  played  one  card,  he 
who  played  the  highest  card  takes 
the  trick  and  leads  for  the  next  one. 
When  the  hands  have  been  played, 
each  scores  10  points  for  each  pair 
among  the  cards  he  has  taken,  20 
for  Alice  and  20  for  the  Pool  of 
Tears,  if  he  have  them ;  and  he  who 
has  taken  most  cards  scores  10.  The " 
player  with  the  greatest  number  of 
points  wins  the  game. 

ALL  FOOLS'  DAY.  April  Fool 
candy  can  be  made  by  dipping  balls 
of  cotton  in  melted  chocolate,  so  that 
they  will  look  like  chocolate-creams, 
or  by  covering  a  lead  pencil,  cut  in 
half,  with  frosting  so  that  it  will  look 
like  white  candy. 

April  Fool  cake  can  be  made  by 
covering  a  tin  pan,  turned  upside 
down,  with  frosting,  and  an  April 
Fool  custard  by  lining  a  glass  closely 
with  white  or  yellow  paper  and  cov- 
ering it  with  tissue  paper  on  which 
there  is  a  little  white  of  egg  beaten 
to  a  froth.  An  April  Fool  pie  is 
made  of  ordinary  pie-crust  either 
with  nothing  but  air  within  it,  or 
stuffed  with  sawdust.  Coarse  yellow 
soap  cut  into  pieces  makes  very  good 


ALL  FOOLS'  DAY 


ALL  FOURS 


April  Fool  cheese.  These  decep- 
tions served  once  or  twice  during  a 
meal  will  be  almost  certain  to  catch 
some  one.  An  April  Fool  whistle 
can  be  made  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion, and  filled  with  flour,  which 
will  fly  into  the  face  of  any  one  who 
tries  to  blow  it.  A  B  (Fig.  i)  is  a 
tin  tube,  stopped  by  two  pieces  of 
cork.  One  at  the  end  has  holes  in 
it  and  a  glass  tube  through  it,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  other  figures 
explain  themselves. 

The  oldest  April  Fool  trick  was  to 
send  some  one  on  a  fruitless  errand, 


generally  for  some  absurd  or  impos- 
sible thing,  such  as  a  "  stick  with 
only  one  end,"  a  "  crooked  straight 
edge,"  etc.  This  trick  was  generally 
practiced  on  some  young  apprentice, 
and  he  was  sent  in  search  of  the  ob- 
ject from  one  place  to  another  till  he 
was  tired.  Sometimes  he  was  sent 
to  a  shoemaker  for  some  "  strap  oil," 
which  was  generally  understood  to 
mean  a  thrashing  with  a  strap. 

History.  The  origin  of  the  cus- 
tom of  deceiving  people  on  the  first 
of  April  is  unknown,  though  many 
have  tried  to  explain  it.  Some  say 


Fig.  i. 


Fig.  2.  Fig.  3. 

April  Fool  Whistle. 


Fig.  4. 


that  the  sending  boys  on  silly  er- 
rands is  to  commemorate  the  send- 
ing out  by  Noah  of  the  dove,  when 
it  found  nothing  to  rest  on.  Others 
connect  it  with  the  Hindoo  feast  on 
March  31,  called  Huli,  which  is  cele- 
brated in  a  similar  way.  The  custom 
seems  to  have  been  taken  to  England 
and  Germany  from  France,  where 
an  April  fool  is  called  Potsson 
d '  Avril  (April  fish).  Some  think 
that  this  refers  to  the  fool's  allow- 
ing himself  to  be  caught  like  a  fish, 
but  others  say  it  is  a  corruption  of 
Passion  d' Avril  (April  passion  or 
suffering),  and  that  the  custom  of 
sending  people  about  on  fruitless 
errands  arose  from  an  old  Morality, 


or  Miracle  Play,  representing  Christ 
sent  backward  and  forward  between 
Herod  and  Pilate.  In  France,  even 
the  highest  dignitaries  condescended 
to  take  part  in  the  sport.  It  is  re- 
lated that  a  high  ecclesiastic  gathered 
a  great  crowd  to  hear  him  preach  on 
the  first  of  April,  and,  when  he  had 
ascended  the  pulpit,  made  the  sign 
of  the  cross, cried  out  "April  Fool!" 
and  went  down  again.  In  Scotland 
the  April  fool  is  called  a  "gowk" 
(cuckoo). 

ALL  FOURS  (Called  also  Old- 
Sledge,  Seven-Up,  and  High-Low- 
Jack).  A  game  played  with  a  full 
pack  of  CARDS,  which  rank  as  in 
Whist.  It  is  usually  played  by  two 


ALL  FOURS 


ALL  FOURS 


persons,  or  by  four  acting  as  part- 
ners, as  in  Whist ;  but  it  may  be 
played  also  by  three  or  four  persons 
without  partnership.  In  the  two- 
handed  game,  the  dealer  gives  each 
player  six  cards,  three  at  a  time,  and 
turns  up  the  next  card  as  trump.  If 
it  be  a  knave  he  scores  one  point  at 
once,  as  further  explained  below. 
The  non-dealer  then  looks  at  his 
hand.  If  he  is  satisfied  with  it,  he 
says  "  I  stand,"  in  which  case  play 
begins  at  once ;  but  if  not,  he  says 
"  I  beg."  The  dealer  may  then 
either  say  "  Take  one,"  allowing  his 
opponent  to  score  one  point  before 
play  begins,  or  he  may  lay  aside  the 
trump  and  deal  three  more  cards  to 
each,  turning  up  the  next  as  a  new 
trump.  If  the  new  trump  is  of  the 
same  suit  as  the  old,  three  more  cards 
must  be  dealt  again  to  each  player, 
and  so  on  till  a  trump  card  of  a 
different  suit  is  turned.  This  is 
called  "  running  the  cards  for  a  new 
trump."  In  playing,  suit  must  be 
followed  if  possible,  except  when  the 
player  chooses  to  trump.  The  points 
that  may  be  made  in  one  hand  are 
four,  as  follows  : 

High.  The  holder  of  the  highest 
trump  out  scores  one  point. 

Low.  The  original  holder  of  the 
lowest  trump  out  scores  one  point, 
whether  he  takes  the  trick  containing 
it  or  not. 

Jack.  The  player  that  wins  the 
trick  containing  the  knave  of  trumps, 
or  who  turns  it  up  as  trump  when 
dealing,  scores  one  point. 

Game.  The  player  whose  tricks 
contain  cards  the  sum  of  whose  values 
is  the  greatest,  scores  one  point, 
counting 


Ace 

King 

Queen 

Knave 

Ten 


as 


4 
3 

2 
I 

IO 


The  other  cards  count  nothing  toward 
Game ;  hence  a  hand  may  be  played 
when  no  Game  is  made,  neither 
player  holding  either  court  cards  or 


tens.  If  there  be  a  tie, — that  is, 
when  each  player  holds  an  equal 
number  for  game,  it  is  scored  by  the 
eldest  hand.  It  may  happen  that  a 
single  card  may  score  more  than  one 
point,  or  all  four  points ;  thus,  if  a 
player  hold  only  one  face  card,  the 
Knave  of  trumps,  and  his  opponent 
have  no  face  card,  trump,  ten,  nor 
Ace,  the  Knave  will  score  High,  Low, 
Jack,  and  Game.  He  who  first  scores 
seven  points,  wins. 

In  the  three  and  four  handed 
games  only  the  player  at  the  dealer's 
left  has  the  option  of  "  standing  "  or 
"  begging,"  as  in  the  two-handed 
game,  and  the  method  of  playing  is 
the  same.  If  new  cards  are  dealt, 
they  must  be  dealt  to  each  of  the 
players.  In  the  four-handed  game, 
each  may  play  for  himself,  or  two,  as 
partners,  against  the  other  two. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  In   cutting  for    deal,   the   Ace 
counts  as  the  highest  card. 

2.  If  the  dealer  expose  any  card 
but  his  own,  or  make  a  misdeal,  he 
must  deal  again. 

3.  The  points  must  be  scored  in 
the  order,  High,  Low,  Jack,  Game ; 
thus,  if  the  players  stand  six  to  six  in 
the  score,  and  one  has  High,  while 
his  opponent  has  the  other  three,  the 
one  that  has  High  goes  out.     But 
when  Jack  is  turned  up  as  trump,  it 
must  be   scored   immediately,   thus 
taking  precedence  of  all  other  points. 

4.  A    turned-up    Jack    is    to    be 
scored,  even   if  the  opponent  begs, 
and  the  trump  is  thus  changed. 

5.  No   one  may   beg   more  than 
once  in  a  hand,  but  if  the  hands  are 
unsatisfactory  after  the  cards  have 
been  run,  a  new  deal  may  had  by 
agreement  of  all  the  players,  or  they 
may  agree  to  run  the  cards  again  ; 
but  no  suit  can  be  trump  that  has 
already  been  turned  as  such  in  the 
same  hand. 

6.  Should  the  same  suit  be  turned, 
in  running  the  cards,  till  the  pack 
has  all  been  used,  there  must  be  a 
new  deal. 

7.  In  the  four-handed  game,  only 


ALL  FOURS 


ALL  FOURS 


the  dealer  and  the  player  on  his  left 
may  look  at  their  cards  before  the 
latter  decides  whether  to  stand  or 
beg,  and,  if  he  begs,  the  others  may 
not  look  at  their  hands  till  the  dealer 
tells  whether  he  will  "  give  one,"  or 
run  the  cards  for  another  trump. 

The  game  is  called  All  Fours  from 
the  points  that  can  be  made  in  one 
deal ;  High,  Low,  Jack,  Game  (or 
more  commonly  High-Low-Jack), 
from  the  names  of  the  points ;  and 
Seven-Up,  from  the  number  of  points 
that  win  the  game. 

Pitch.  A  kind  of  All  Fours,  in 
which  no  trump  is  turned,  the  first 
suit  led  being  considered  the  trump 
suit.  The  eldest  hand  thus  has  the 
privilege  of  leading  or  pitching  the 
trump,  from  which  the  game  gets  its 
name.  The  method  of  playing  is  the 
same  as  in  All  Fours,  except  that 
there  is  no  begging.  In  case  of  a 
tie  for  Game,  too,  neither  player  can 
score  Game.  With  these  changes, 
the  rules  are  the  same  as  in  All 
Fours. 

Auction  Pitch  (called  also  Com- 
mercial Pitch).  A  kind  of  All  Fours, 
in  which  the  trump  card  is  not 
turned,  but  led  or  pitched  by  the 
player  making  the  highest  bid  for  the 
privilege.  The  game  may  be  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  usually 
not  more  than  eight.  After  the  deal 
the  eldest  hand,  who  is  called  the 
seller,  asks  each  in  turn,  going  to- 
ward the  left,  what  he  will  bid  for 
the  privilege  of  pitching  the  trump. 
Each  bids  as  many  points  as  he 
thinks  he  can  make,  and  each  has 
but  one  bid. 

The  seller,  who  has  the  last  say, 
may  either  sell  to  the  highest  bid- 
der— that  is,  permit  him  to  pitch  the 
trump — or  he  may  decline  to  sell 
and  pitch  the  trump  himself  at  the 
same  price  offered  by  the  highest 
bidder;  but  he  is  not  obliged  to  out- 
bid him.  If  he  accept  the  bid,  he 
adds  the  number  of  points  bid  to  his 
own  score  at  once  before  playing 
begins.  The  player  who  has  won 
the  privilege  must  lead  a  card  of  the 


suit  he  has  made  trumps,  and  the 
game  proceeds  as  in  All  Fours.  The 
player  who  pitches  the  trump, 
whether  it  be  the  highest  bidder  or 
the  seller,  scores,  if  successful  in 
playing,  all  the  points  he  may  make ; 
but  if  he  fail  to  make  as  many  points 
as  the  highest  bid,  that  number  of 
points  is  deducted  from  his  score  and 
he  cannot  count  any  of  the  points 
made  in  that  hand.  If  no  bid  is 
made  the  seller  must  pitch  the  trump. 

The  scoring  is  usually  done  by 
giving  each  player  ten  to  begin  with, 
subtracting  what  he  wins,  and  add- 
ing what  he  loses,  so  that  the  winner 
is  he  who  first  gets  rid  of  all  his 
points.  The  score  can  be  very  readily 
kept  by  writing  two  X's,  each  of  which 
stands  for  five.  For  the  first  point 
the  middle  of  one  X  can  have  a  ring 
drawn  around  it,  and  one  of  the  arms 
can  be  crossed  off  for  each  point 
made  afterward. 

Pedro  Sanchp,  or  Sancho  Pedro. 
A  kind  of  Auction  Pitch  in  which 
the  dealer  sells  the  privilege  of  mak- 
ing or  pitching  the  trump,  and  the 
players  may  bid  over  and  over  again 
in  turn,  till  all  are  satisfied.  Any 
number  of  persons  may  play,  but  six 
or  eight  is  the  most  convenient  num- 
ber and  makes  the  best  game.  The 
cards  are  dealt  as  in  All  Fours,  but 
nine  or  twelve  cards  instead  of  six 
may  be  dealt  to  each  player,  by  agree- 
ment, if  the  number  be  small.  High, 
Low,  and  Jack  count  each  one  point, 
as  in  All  Fours,  but  Low  counts  for 
him  who  takes  it,  not  for  the  original 
holder.  Game,  too,  counts  one  point, 
but  is  won  by  the  player  who  takes  the 
ten  of  trumps.  The  five  of  trumps 
(called  Pedro)  counts  five  points,  and 
the  nine  of  trumps  (called  Sancho) 
nine  points,  each  in  favor  of  the  player 
who  wins  the  trick  containing  it. 
The  game  is  usually  for  fifty  points, 
and  is  scored  as  in  Auction  Pitch. 
The  points  must  be  scored  in  the 
order  High,  Low,  Jack,  Game,  Pedro, 
Sancho. 

Dom  Pedro.  When  a  Joker,  or 
blank  card,  is  used  in  this  game,  it  is 


ALLITERATION 


8 


AMALGAMS 


called  Dom,  and  the  game  Dom 
Pedro.  No  matter  what  suit  is 
trumps,  the  Joker  is  always  a  trump, 
though  it  may  be  taken  by  any  other 
trump;  but,  though  the  lowest  trump, 
it  cannot  score  for  Low.  It  is  scored 
last  in  order,  or  below  Sancho,  and 
counts  the  one  who  wins  it  fifteen 
points.  When  the  game  is  played 
with  a  Joker,  it  is  for  100  points. 

Sancho  may  be  omitted  from  the 
game,  which  is  then  called  Pedro. 

California  Jack.  A  kind  of  All 
Fours  played  usually  by  two  or  four 
persons.  After  the  deal,  the  dealer 
turns  the  rest  of  the  pack  (called  the 
stock)  face  upward,  and  the  exposed 
card  is  the  trump.  He  then  either 
slips  the  trump  into  the  middle  of  the 
pack,  or  shuffles  the  cards  after  which 
they  remain  face  upward  on  the  table. 
After  each  trick  is  taken,  the  dealer 
gives  the  top  card  of  the  stock  to 
the  winner,  and  one  card  to  each  of 
the  other  players  in  order,  to  the 
left,  holding  each  card  face  upward. 
Thus  each  continues  to  have  six 
cards  in  his  hand  as  long  as  the 
stock  lasts.  The  points  are  High, 
Low,  Jack,  and  Game,  as  in  All 
Fours.  As  all  the  pack  is  used, 
High  will  always  be  the  Ace,  and 
Low  the  two  of  trumps.  The  latter 
counts  for  the  taker,  not  the  original 
holder  as  in  All  Fours.  He  who 
first  makes  ten  points  wins. 

The  chief  feature  of  this  game  is 
the  fact  that  the  topmost  card  of  the 
stock  is  always  visible,  and  if  it  is  a 
high  one  each  player  wishes  to  take 
the  trick,  so  as  to  get  it.  Hence 
there  is  some  interest  in  playing 
each  trick,  whereas  in  all  other  kinds 
of  All  Fours  a  player  cares  to  take 
only  tricks  containing  cards  that 
count.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to 
expose  any  but  the  top  card  of  the 
stock. 

ALLITERATION.  A  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  each  of 
whom  is  required  to  write  a  story  in 
which  each  word  shall  begin  with  a 
given  letter  of  the  alphabet.  The 
stories  may  be  required  to  be  of  **••» 


same  length,  as  agreed  on  before- 
hand, or  a  given  time  may  be 
allowed  for  writing.  When  all  have 
finished,  the  stories  are  read  aloud, 
and  he  whose  story  is  the  best,  as 
decided  by  a  majority  of  the  players, 
is  declared  the  winner. 

ALPHABETICAL  TRAVELS.  A 
game  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons. Each  of  the  players,  who  sit 
in  a  row,  tells,  in  order,  to  what  place 
he  will  travel  and  what  he  will  do 
there,  always  using  for  principal 
words  (such  as  nouns,  adjectives, 
and  verbs),  those  beginning  with  a 
single  letter  of  the  alphabet.  The 
first  player  takes  A,  the  second  B, 
and  so  on.  Thus  the  players,  in 
order,  may  say: 

"  I  am  going  to  Africa,  to  Ask  an 
Arab  for  Apricots." 

"  I  am  going  to  Boston  to  Buy 
Baked  Beans." 

"  I  am  going  to  California  to  Cut 
Curious  Capers." 

"  I  am  going  to  Damascus  to  Dine 
on  Delicious  Doughnuts." 

"  I  am  going  to  Elizabeth  to  Eat 
Eggs  Egotistically.''  And  so  on 
through  the  alphabet. 

Any  one  unable  to  give  a  sentence 
of  this  kind  may  be  required  to  pay 
a  forfeit,  or  a  score  may  be  kept,  the 
successful  ones  being  given  one 
point.  In  this  case  the  company 
may  be  divided  into  sides.  The 
method  of  playing  must  be  agreed 
upon  beforehand. 

ALUM,  Experiment  with.  Heat  a 
small  quantity  of  crystalline  alum  in 
an  earthenware  crucible.  It  will  turn 
to  a  white  powder,  and  expanding 
will  overflow  the  crucible.  (See  also 
CRYSTALLIZATION.) 

AMALGAMS.  Compound  of  mer- 
cury with  other  metals.  Mercury 
dissolves  most  metals  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  as  may  be  seen  by  ex- 
periment. The  amalgam  is  often 
made  more  quickly  if  the  metal  be  in 
the  form  of  scrapings  or  powder,  and 
if  both  it  and  the  mercury  be  heated. 
Three  curious  kinds  of  amalgam  are 
formed  in  the  following  experiments : 


AMMONIA 


AMMONIA 


1.  Sodium  Amalgam.     Into  mer- 
cury  contained  in   a  glass  dish  put 
some  thin  strips  of  sodium  and  stir 
with  a  glass  tube.     The  metals  will 
unite  with   a  crackling  noise  and  a 
flame.     As  drops  of   metal  are  fre- 
quently thrown  out  it  is  best  to  cover 
the  dish  while  the  action  is  going  on. 
The    appearance   of    the    amalgam 
varies  according  to  the  proportion  of 
sodium  used.     Thirty  parts  of  mer- 
cury to  one  of  sodium  form  a  solid 
mass.     If  three   or    four    times  as 
much  mercury  is  used  the  result  is  a 
thick  liquid,  and  with  quantities  be- 
tween these  two  extremes  the  amal- 
gam is  a  more  or  less  thick  paste. 

2.  Ammonium    Amalgam.     Half 
fill  a  test  tube  with  a  strong  solution 
of  sal-ammoniac  in  water  and  pour 
into   it  a  small  quantity  of   sodium 
amalgam.     The   liquid   will  expand 
and  push  itself  out  of  the  tube  in  a 
pasty,  frothy  mass.     This  has  been 
supposed  by  some  persons  to  be  an 
amalgam  of  mercury  and  the  metal 
ammonium,  which  is  believed  to  be 
present  in   ammonia.     It  breaks  up 
soon  into  mercury  and  ammonia. 

3.  Gold   Amalgam.     Suspend    a 
piece  of  gold  leaf  in  a  bottle  con- 
taining    mercury.       The     mercury 
vapor  will  amalgamate  with  the  gold, 
turning  it  gradually  gray.     (The  use 
of  mercury  for  extracting  gold  from 
its  ore  is  described  in  C.  C.  T.,  arti- 
cle GOLD). 

AMMONIA,  Experiments  with. 
(Read  article  on  CHEMICAL  EXPER- 
IMENTS). Ammonia  is  described  in 
C.  C.  T.  The  common  ammonia 
water  sold  at  drug  stores  is  ammonia 
gas  mixed  with  water.  The  gas  can 
be  obtained  from  this,  by  heating  it 
in  a  flask,  the  delivery  tube  from 
which  passes  to  the  top  of  an  inverted 
jar,  since  the  gas  is  lighter  than  air. 
A  piece  of  red  litmus  paper,  held  at 
the  mouth  of  the  jar  when  it  is  full, 
will  turn  blue  (see  TEST  PAPERS). 
The  gas  cannot  be  collected  over 
water  because  it  dissolve-  in  water  so 
easily. 

Another  way  to  obtain  the  Fas  is 


to  mix  a  teaspoonful  of  pulverized 
sal-ammoniac  \\ith  twice  as  much 
freshly  slaked  LIME,  first  allowing 
the  lime  to  cool.  Add  just  enough 
water  to  make  the  mixture  lumpy 
when  stirred.  Heat  it  gently  in  a 
flask,  collecting  the  gas  as  before. 
The  ammonia  in  this  case  comes 
from  the  sal-ammoniac,  which  is 
composed  of  chlorine  and  ammonia. 
The  chlorine  prefers  the  lime  to  the 
ammonia,  and  so  lets  the  latter 
escape. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

I.  The  Ammonia  Fountain.  Fill 
a  bottle  with  ammonia  gas  as  de- 
scribed above,  and  stop  it  with  a 
cork  through  which  passes  a  small 
glass  tube,  ending  in 
a  jet  inside  the  bottle. 
Dip  the  exposed  end 
of  the  tube  into  a 
glass  of  water,  and 
after  a  time  the  water 
will  spurt  up  into  the 
bottle  of  ammonia, 
forming  a  little  foun- 
tain. The  reason  is 
that  water  and  am- 
monia have  a  great 
liking  for  each  other. 
The  gas  in  the  tube 
dissolves  in  the  water 
into  which  it  projects, 
and  the  pressure  of 
the  air  on  the  surface 
of  the  water  in  the 
glass  forces  it  up  to 
take  the  place  of  the  dissolved 
ammonia.  Thus  more  gas  is  dis- 
solved, and  so  the  fountain  keeps 
on  playing  till  all  the  gas  is  gone. 
It  often  takes  a  long  time  to  start 
the  fountain,  because  the  tube  is 
filled  with  air,  and  the  action  does 
not  begin  till  the  ammonia  reaches 
water.  The  experimenter  will  have 
to  wait  patiently,  or  he  may  hurry 
matters  by  pouring  a  little  water 
into  the  tube.  If  the  water  in  the 
glass  be  colored  with  red  litmus,  it 
will  turn  blue  as  it  enters  the  am- 
monia (see  TEST  PAPERS).  The 
experiment  will  succeed  better  if  the 


AMMONIA 


10 


ANAGRAMS 


a 


ammonia  be  perfectly  dry,  so  it  may 
be  passed  through  a  drying  bottle 
before  collecting.  See  that  the  cork 
and  tube  are  perfectly  tight,  or  the 
fountain  will  not  play. 

2.  To  Burn  Ammonia.    To  burn 
a  jet  of    ammonia  gas  it  must  be 
surrounded    by  OXYGEN.     Connect 
the  delivery  tube  d  from  the  drying 

bottle  to  a  long  glass  jet 
around  which  is  placed 
an  argand  lamp  chim- 
ney, as  shown  in  the 
figure,  the  top  of  the 
chimney  a  being  on  a 
level  with  the  top  of  the 
jet.  It  will  be  found  im- 
possible to  light  the  am- 
monia gas  flowing  from 
the  jet  unless  a  current 
of  oxygen  be  passed 
through  the  lamp  chim- 
ney from  a  tube  b,  when 
it  will  take  fire  with  a 
yellow  flame.  Instead  of  surrounding 
the  ammonia  with  oxygen,  the  two 
gases  may  be  mixed,  by  passing  a 
stream  of  oxygen  through  strong  am- 
monia water  in  a  flask  or  bottle.  Heat 
the  flask,  and  the  mixed  gases  can 
then  be  lighted  at  its  mouth. 

3.  Sal-ammoniac.      Into  the  bot- 
tom of  a  glass  pour  a  few  drops  of 
strong  ammonia  water,  and  shake  it 
about  so  that  it  will  wet  the  sides  of 


Argand 
Burner. 


Sal-ammoniac  Cloud. 

the  glass.  Into  another  glass  pour, 
in  like  manner,  HYDROCHLORIC 
ACID;  place  a  sheet  of  paper  over 
one  glass  and  then  put  the  other 


on  it,  bottom  upward.  After  waiting 
a  moment,  pull  the  paper  away, 
when  the  glass  will  fill  with  a  dense, 
white  cloud.  This  cloud  is  formed 
of  particles  of  sal-ammoniac,  which 
is  made  of  chlorine  and  ammonia. 

4.  Ammonia  from  Cheese.  Am- 
monia may  be  obtained  from  cheese 
in  the  following  manner.  Place  in  a 
test  tube  a  bit  of  cheese  and  some 
caustic  potash,  and  heat  over  an 
alcohol  lamp.  The  odor  of  ammo- 
nia will  soon  be  perceived,  and  if  a 
piece  of  turmeric  paper  be  held  over 
the  tube  it  will  be  turned  brown, 
showing  that  an  alkali  is  present. 
The  ammonia  is  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  nitrogen  and  hydrogen  which 
are  present  in  cheese. 

ANAGRAMS.  A  game  played 
with  printed  letters  of  the  alphabet, 
like  those  used  in  playing  LOGO- 
MACHY. Each  player  forms  a  word 
and  then,  mixing  the  letters  compos- 
ing it,  gives  it  to  his  right-hand 
neighbor,  who  is  required  to  arrange 
the  letters  again  in  their  proper 
order.  This  is  the  usual  method, 
but  as  thus  played  Anagrams  is 
rather  an  amusement  than  a  game. 
It  may  be  played  as  a  game  by  re- 
quiring each  player  to  give  his  word, 
at  the  same  time,  to  each  of  the 
others.  Whoever  guesses  all  his 
words  soonest,  or  guesses  most  of 
them  in  a  given  time,  is  declared 
winner.  In  this  method  no  two  per- 
sons have  exactly  the  same  list  of 
words  to  solve.  That  all  may  be 
equal  in  this  respect,  some  one  not  in 
the  game  may  give  the  words  to  all. 

Forming  Anagrams  has  long  been 
a  favorite  amusement,  and  much  in- 
genuity has  been  shown  in  trans- 
forming a  word,  by  changing  its  let- 
ters into  another  defining  it  or  related 
to  it  in  some  way.  Some  of  the 
anagrams  made  in  this  way  are  as 
follows : 

Telegraph. — Great  help. 

Reformations. — To  sin  far  more. 

Old  England. — Golden  land. 

The  following  was  made  by  Dean 
Swift 


ANAMORPHOSES 


II 


ANAMORPHOSES 


Transubstantiation, — Sin  sat  on  a 
tin  tar  tub. 

The  game  of  Anagrams  is  called 
in  France  Le  jeu  de  mots  (the  Game 
of  Words),  and  is  played  with  bits 
of  wood  or  bone  resembling  DOMI- 
NOES, having  a  capital  letter  on  one 
end  and  a  small  one  on  the  other. 

Alphabet  Game.  A  kind  of  Ana- 
grams, where,  instead  of  the  actual 
letters  of  the  word  to  be  guessed,  the 
guesser  is  given  an  arrangement  of 
dots,  single  ones  representing  conso- 
nants, and  double  ones  vowels.  Thus, 
the  word  "Philadelphia"  would  be 
denoted  thus : 


The  guesser  is  allowed  to  ask  "  Is 
it  a  city  ?  "  "  Is  it  a  person  ?  "  or 
any  similar  question  which  can  be 
answered  by  "  Yes  "  or  "  No."  The 
number  of  these  questions  can  be 
limited  by  agreement.  This  game  is 
called  in  Germany  Das  Buchstabir- 
spiel  (the  Letter  Game). 

ANAMORPHOSES.  Drawings  in 
which  the  objects  represented  are 
twisted  out  of  shape,  but  can  be  seen, 
in  their  proper  proportions  by  using 
some  special  device.  The  simplest 
kind  can  be  made  as  follows.  Sup- 
pose Fig.  I  is  the  picture  to  be  trans- 
formed. Divide  it  into  squares,  as 
shown.  Then  draw  a  straight  line 
a<$(Fig.  2)  equal  to  the  side^4  /?of  the 
square,  divide  it  into  the  same  num- 


Fig.  i. 


ber  of  parts,  and  draw  lines  from  each 
point  of  division  to  some  point  below 


as  V.     Draw  VS  parallel  with  the 
base  line,  and  from  any  point  S  on 


Fig.  2. 

it  draw  a  line  to  the  point  a.  At  the 
places  where  this  crosses  the  other 
lines  draw  parallels  to  the  base  line. 
The  figure  a  c  db  will  now  be  divided 
into  the  same  number  of  parts  as  the 
original  square,  but  of  a  different 
shape.  The  picture  is  now  re-drawn 
in  this  new  figure,  placing  in  each 
part  what  was  in  the  corresponding 
square.  The  greater  the  number  of 
squares  into  which  the  original  pic- 
ture was  divided,  the  more  accurately 
this  can  be  done.  By  looking  at  the 
distorted  picture  from  a  point  near 
the  paper  just  above  V,  it  will  appear 
in  its  right  shape.  This  point  varies 
according  to  the  positions  of  the 
points  V  and  S,  but  is  easily  found 
by  trial. 

Another  way  of  drawing  the  same 


12 


ANGLING 


kind  of  anamorphosis  is  to  prick  pin- 
holes  in  the  original  picture  so  as  to 
trace  the  outlines,  and  then  hold  it 
upright  just  in  front  of  a  candle  so 


that  the  light  shining  through  the 
pin-holes  forms  the  picture  on  a  sheet 
of  paper  laid  before  it  on  the  table. 
The  outlines  are  then  traced  on  this 


sheet  by  following  the  illuminated 
lines  with  a  pencil,  and  the  picture 
is  afterward  rilled  in  in  detail.  If 
the  original  picture  be  removed  and 
the  distorted  one  looked  at  with  the 
eye  placed  exactly  where  the  candle 
was,  it  will  be  seen  in  its  proper 
shape.  (See  Fig.  3.) 

Anamorphoses  are  sometimes 
made,  which  appear  of  their  proper 
shape  when  viewed  in  a  cylindrical 
or  conical  mirror.  Such  distorted 
pictures  can  often  be  bought  at  toy 
stores,  but  they  are  very  difficult  to 
draw  properly. 

ANGLING,  or  FISH  POND.  A 
game  played  by  an  even  number  of 
persons,  who  angle  for  toy  tish  with 
a  miniature  pole  and  hook  and  line. 
The  fish,  which  maybe  made  to  look 
like  real  fish,  or  may  be  simply  little 
pieces  of  wood,  are  fitted  with  rings 


Angling. 


about  1-16  of  an  inch  in  diameter, 
and  have  on  them  numbers  in  regu- 
lar order.  For  four  players,  about 


"  Fish." 

forty  fish,  are  generally  provided. 
The  players  sit  opposite  each  other, 
and  each  is  given  five  fish  for  his 


"  private  pond,"  which  are  placed  in 
front  of  him,  while  the  rest  are  put 
in  the  middle  of  the  table  to  form  the 
"  large  pond." 

The  game  begins  by  two  of  the 
players  fishing  in  each  other's  ponds, 
each  holding  his  pole,  and  trying  to 
lift  one  of  the  fish  by  passing  the 
hook  through  the  ring.  The  first 
one  to  do  so  cries,  "  Caught ! "  and 
his  opponent  takes  the  fish  in  his 
hand,  while  the  successful  angler 


ANORTHOSCOPE 


ANORTHOSCOPE 


guesses  whether  its  number  is  odd 
or  even.  If  the  guess  be  correct  he 
takes  the  fish  into  his  own  pond,  and 
the  same  pair  fish  again  as  before, 
but  in  the  large  pond.  As  long  as 
one  of  them  is  successful,  the  same 
pair  continue  to  fish,  alternately  in 
each  other's  ponds  and  the  large 
pond.  When  there  is  a  wrong  guess, 
the  fish  is  put  into  the  large  pond,  if  it 
has  been  taken  from  a  private  pond, 
and  into  the  opponent's  pond  if  from 
the  large  pond,  and  the  next  two 
players  begin  to  fish.  If  the  players 
catch  fish  at  the  same  time,  the  one 
who  first  calls  out  "Caught,"  is 
given  the  preference.  If  both  call  at 
once,  he  who  guesses  correctly  is 
preferred,  and  if  both  guess  correctly, 
the  fish  are  returned  to  their  respec- 
tive ponds  for  another  trial.  The 
game  is  ended  when  any  pond,  large 
or  private,  is  empty,  and  he  wins  who 
has  most  fish.  If  two  have  the  same 
number,  the  sum  of  the  numbers 
marked  on  the  fish  decides  the  game. 
When  only  two  play,  each  private 
pond  should  contain  ten  fish. 

Angling  is  much  played  as  a  PRO- 
GRESSIVE GAME.  When  it  is  thus 
played,  an  increased  number  of  fish 
is  needed ;  each  player  may  be  pro- 
vided with  a  rod  and  line,  or  there 
may  be  two  for  each  table. 

ANIMAL,  VEGETABLE,  AND 
MINERAL.  See  TWENTY  QUES- 
TIONS. 

ANORTHOSCOPE.  An  optical 
toy  which  distorts  figures  viewed 
through  it.  It  consists  of  two  discs, 
on  one  of  which  the  figure  to  be 
viewed  is  painted,  while  in  the  other 
there  are  slits  through  which  the 
observer  looks,  as  in  the  ZOETROPE. 
The  discs  are  so  arranged  as  to 
revolve  in  opposite  directions,  and 
the  disc  bearing  the  figures  is  made 
transparent,  so  that  it  may  be  seen 
by  holding  it  up  toward  the  light. 
The  figures  are  usually  so  drawn 
that  when  viewed  by  the  unaided  eye 
they  are  unrecognizable,  but  when 
placed  in  the  anorthoscope  they  are 
restored  to  their  proper  shape.  The 


arrangement  and  results  of  the  toy 
depend  somewhat  on  the  relative 
velocity  of  the  disks.  We  will  sup- 
pose that  the  disk  bearing  the  slit  is 
made  to  revolve  once,  while  that 
with  the  figure  does  so  four  times. 
Then  there  must  be  four  slits  in  the 
front  disk,  arranged  thus  -J-,  and, 
whatever  figure  may  be  drawn  on 
the  other  disk,  five  distorted  figures, 
all  alike,  will  be  seen  by  looking 
through  the  slits. '  The  illustrations 
on  page  14  show  the  appearance  of 
two  designs,  first  as  seen  with  the 
naked  eye,  and  then  through  the  slits. 

The  reason  why  the  toy  produces 
this  effect  will  now  be  given.  First 
suppose  there  is  only  one  slit  in  the 
front  disk,  and  only  a  dot,  instead  of 
a  picture,  on  the  other.  Suppose  the 
disk  to  start  with  the  dot  just  behind 
the  slit.  As  the  back  disk  turns  four 
times  as  fast  as  the  front  one,  the  dot 
will  pass  behind  the  slit  four  times 
before  they  get  around  into  the  same 
position  again.  Thus  the  eye  will 
see  five  dots  on  the  rear  disk  instead 
of  one.  If  there  are  four  slits  at 
right  angles  the  result  will  be  the 
same,  for  each  will  pass  the  dot  in 
the  same  place  as  the  others.  But 
there  cannot  be  more  than  four.  The 
same  will  be  true  of  a  large  figure  as 
of  a  dot,  but  each  of  the  multiplied 
figures  will  be  shut  together,  like  a 
fan,  so  as  to  extend  only  one-fifth  as 
far  around  the  circle  as  before.  That 
is,  supposing  the  circle  to  be  divided 
into  360  degrees,  if  the  picture  extend- 
ed around  sixty  degrees,  it  will  appear 
in  the  anorthoscope  to  extend  over 
only  twelve  degrees.  This  shutting 
together  is  a  consequence  of  the  rapid 
movement  of  the  rear  disk  past  the 
front  one.  If  this  reduction  in  size 
took  place  in  all  directions,  the  figure 
would  be  the  same  shape,  only 
smaller,  but  it  takes  place  in  only  one 
direction,  that  is,  around  the  circle, 
hence  the  figure  is  twisted  out  of 
shape. 

A/iy  figure  may  be  drawn  on  the 
disk  so  that  it  will  appear  in  its  proper 
shape  when  viewed  through  the  an- 


ANORTHOSCOPE 


ANORTHOSCOPE 


orthoscope.  Suppose  the  figure  to 
be  that  of  a  card  as  shown  in  the 
illustration.  Draw  lines  from  the 
center  of  the  disk  through  the  angles 
of  the  card,  and  others  to  the  points 
I,  2,  3,  etc.,  at  intervals  of  any  de- 
sired number  of  degrees,  say  five,  as 


in  the  plan  on  page  15.  The  position 
of  the  card  should  be  so  arranged 
that  the  lines  passing  through  the 
corners  will  be  multiples  of  five  de- 
grees apart.  (The  degrees  may  be 
laid  off  with  a  curved  scale,  called 
a  protractor,  sold  by  any  dealer 


Anorthoscope  Designs. 


in  drawing  materials.)  Then  draw 
an  equal  number  of  lines  from  the 
center,  twenty -five  degrees  apart 
to  the  points  i',  2',  3',  4',  etc.,  repre- 
senting the  first  lines  opened  out  like 
a  fan.  Take  any  line  of  the  figure, 
and  measure  the  distance,  from  the 
center,  of  the  point  where  it  crossed 
each  of  the  radii  first  drawn,  and 


make  a  dot  on  the  corresponding 
new  radius  at  just  that  distance. 
For  instance,  measure  the  distance 
from  the  center  to  the  left-hand  cor- 
ner on  the  radius  drawn  to  i,  and  then 
lay  it  off  on  the  radius  drawn  to  i'. 
Join  all  the  dots  so  made  by  a  curved 
line,  and  do  the  same  with  all  the 
other  lines  of  the  figure.  Care  must 


ANORTIIOSCOPE 


ARCHERY 


be  taken  that  the  original  figure  does 
not  take  up  more  than  one-fifth  of 
the  disk ;  otherwise  the  adjoining 
figures,  as  seen  in  the  anorthoscope, 
will  overlap. 

Anorthoscopes  can  be  made  which 
will  multiply  the  figure  seen  as  many 
times  as  desired,  shutting  it  together 
to  a  corresponding  degree.  The 
number  of  figures  seen  is  always  one 
greater  than  the  number  of  revolu- 
tions the  back  disk  makes  while  the 
front  one  is  going  around  once,  and 
the  number  of  slits,  always  one  less 
than  the  number  of  figures,  must  be 
disposed  at  equal  distances  around 
the  disk.  Thus,  if  it  makes  eight  to 
the  front  disk's  one,  nine  figures  will 
be  seen,  each  of  which  reaches  only 
one-ninth  as  far  around  the  circle  as 
the  original.  In  this  case  there  must 
be  eight  slits. 

The  anorthoscope  may  be  made  to 
work  in  many  other  ways  besides  the 
one  described  here.  If  the  disks  re- 
volve in  the  same  direction  the  num- 
ber of  revolutions  can  be  so  adjusted 
as  to  combine  several  figures  into 


Plan  for  Drawing. 

one,  instead  of  expanding  one  into 
several.  By  slightly  varying  these 
figures  an  effect  is  obtained  like  that 
of  the  ZOETROPE. 

The  anorthoscope  is  not  commonly 
sold  at  toy  stores.  The  disks  can 
easily  be  made  as  above  described, 


but  it  is  more  difficult  to  make  the 
disks  revolve  at  exactly  the  proper 
rate.  This  can  be  effected  by  means 
of  cog-wheels  arranged  as  shown  in 
the  illustration.  If  the  number  of 
cogs  on  the  larger  of  the  two  parallel 
wheels  be  four  times  that  on  the 
smaller,  the  latter  will  revolve  four 


Wheels  for  Anorthoscope. 

times  as  fast.  The  number  on  tin 
crank-wheel  is  immaterial.  The  ai- 
rangement  can  be  made  at  any 
machine  shop. 

The  anorthoscope  is  the  invention 
of  Prof.  Plateau,  a  Belgian  scientist. 
The  name  is  from  the  Greek  anor- 
thos,  crooked,  and  xkopein,  to  see. 

ARCHERY.  The  best  bows  are 
made  of  a  single  piece  of  Italian  or 
Spanish  yew,  or  of  two  pieces  joined 
at  the  handle,  but  good  bows  are 
made  also  of  lancewood  or  ash.  A 
good  bow  is  largest  in  the  middle 
and  tapers  toward  the  ends,  which 
are  usually  tipped  with  horn  with 
notches  to  hoid  the  cord.  The  force 
required  to  draw  a  28-inch  arrow  to 
its  head  in  any  bow  measures  that 
bow's  strength,  which  is  expressed  in 
pounds.  Ttie  distance  to  the  head 
of  such  an  arrow  is  27  inches,  so  if  a 
4O-pound  weight,  tied  to  the  middle 
of  a  bow  string,  will  pull  it  just  27 
inches  below  the  bow  (held  horizon- 
tally), the  latter  is  a  4o-pound  bow. 
The  best  arrows  are  made  of  red 
deal  wood  with  a  piece  of  harder 
wood  fastened  to  them  at  the  point 
or  "  pile."  At  the  opposite  end  three 
strips  of  feather  are  glued,  to  make 


ARCHERY 


16 


ARCHERY 


the  arrow  fly  accurately.  Sometimes 
the  feathers  are  cut  in  triangular 
shape  and  sometimes  they  are 
curved.  The  latter  method,  called 
balloon  feathering,  is  generally  con- 


sidered the  best,  though  perhaps  not 
the  easiest.  The  best  arrows  are 
made  in  England,  and  their  weight 
is  expressed  in  English  shillings  and 
pence.  The  regulation  length  is  28 


Bracer  and  Glove. 


inches  for  six-foot  bows,  and  25  for 
women's  bows,  which  are  from  four 
and  a  half  to  five  feet  long. 

Thimbles  of  leather  (called  "  finger 
stalls  "),  open  at  the  end,  are  usually 
worn  on  the  forefinger,  middle-finger, 


Target. 

and  third  finger  of  the  right  hand,  so 
that  the  finger  tips  may  not  be  blis- 
tered by  the  bow-string.  They 
should  fit  closely  and  should  be  of 
as  thin  material  as  will  properly 


guard  the  fingers.  Other  forms  of 
protection  for  the  fingers  may  be 
substituted.  Many  archers  wear  also 
a  "  bracer,"  or  arm  guard  of  hard 
leather,  fastened  by  straps  to  the  left 
arm  near  the  wrist,  to  protect  it  from 
the  bow-string.  A  leather  or  tin 
case  called  a  quiver  may  be  fastened 
to  the  archer's  belt  to  hold  his  arrows, 
and  a  tassel  of  worsted  is  appended 
to  wipe  the  dirt  from  them.  The 
targets  used  in  archery  matches  are 
made  of  a  pad  of  straw  covered  on 
one  side  with  cloth,  and  hung  on  a 
tripod  so  that  its  middle  is  about 
four  feet  from  the  ground.  In  the 
center  is  a  gilt,  or  yellow  spot,  called 
the  gold  (or  sometimes  the  "  bull's 
eye"),  and  around  this  in  order  are 
bands  of  red,  blue,  black,  and  white. 
The  archer  scores  a  larger  or  smaller 
number  as  he  strikes  one  or  another 
of  the  colors.  Thus : 

An  arrow  in  the  rjold  generally  counts  9 
"        "      "    "    red  "  *'      7 

"        "      "    "    blue          "  "      5 

"    black  3 

"        "      "    "    white       "  i 

The  score  is  sometimes  kept  by 
pricking  the  shots  on  a  card  shaped 
like  a  target,  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration on  page  17. 


ARCHERY 


ARCHERY 


The  targets  most  used  in  England 
were  formerly  supported  on  Butts, — 
walls  of  sodded  earth  serving  as 
backing  for  discs  of  paper.  Butts 
should  be  6  feet  high  and  8  feet  long. 
Instead  of  the  backing  of  straw  sold 
at  toy  stores,  a  box  filled  with  earth 
may  be  used.  Another  simple  kind 
of  target  is  a  "  clout,"  or  disc  of 
pasteboard,  stuck  in  the  cleft  end  of 
a  stick,  the  other  end  of  which  is 
pushed  into  the  ground. 

An  archer's  equipments  are  often 
kept  in  a  cupboard  called  an  Ascham, 
after  Roger  Ascham,  a  writer  on 
archery.  It  is  shaped  like  a  small 
wardrobe,  about  six  feet  high  and 
three  wide.  About  three  feet  from 


the  bottom  is  a  shelf  with  holes  in  it, 
in  which  are  supported  the  bows 
and  arrows,  while  hooks  on  the  sides 
bear  the  bracer,  gloves,  and  other 
necessary  articles. 

Roving. — Instead  of  firing  from 
the  same  point,  archers  sometimes 
move  about  and  shoot  at  improvised 
targets,  which  is  called  "  roving." 
One  of  the  party  of  archers  selects  a 
tree,  or  other  object,  to  be  shot  at, 
and  he  who  hits  it  is  allowed  to 
choose  the  next  one.  If  no  one  hits 
it,  he  whose  arrow  falls  nearest  is 
allowed  the  choice. 

Hunting. — Expert  archers  say 
that  hunting  with  a  bow  and  arrow 
is  a  more  fascinating  sport  than 


Score  Card. 


hunting  with  a  gun.  The  shooting 
makes  no  noise,  and  so  does  not 
frighten  the  game.  Shooting  at 
wild  game  requires  more  skill  than 
shooting  at  an  ordinary  target.  Good 
practice  for  shooting  at  birds  may  be 
obtained  by  using  a  black  rubber 
ball,  about  four  inches  in  diameter, 
suspended  by  a  string  from  the  limb 
of  a  tree. 

The  rules  governing  archery 
matches  or  "  meetings "  are  given 
below. 

The  first  thing  for  the  beginner  in 
archery  is  to  learn  to  "  string"  his  bow 
properly ;  that  is,  to  fit  the  bow  string 
to  it  so  that  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 


When  unstrung  the  bow  is  nearly 
straight.  The  bow-string  has  a  loop 
at  each  end  like  that  in  the  illustra- 
tion. Slipping  the  larger  loop  over 
one  end  of  the  bow  held  upper- 
most, and  sliding  it  down  below  the 
"  nock  "  or  groove  for  the  string,  the 
archer  fits  the  smaller  one  into  the 
lower  nock,  and  then  taking  the 
middle  of  the  bow  in  his  right  hand 
presses  the  lower  end  of  the  bow  on 
the  ground  in  the  hollow  of  his  right 
foot,  the  back  of  the  bow  next  to  the 
foot,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  By 
then  pulling  with  the  right  hand  and 
pushing  with  the  left,  near  the  upper 
end  of  the  bow,  it  will  be  bent,  and 


ARCHERY 


18 


ARCHERY 


at  the  same  time  the  left  hand  can 
push  the  upper  loop  into   its  nock. 


Bow-string  Loop. 

The  bow-string  should  be  two  or 
three  inches  shorter  than  the  bow. 
In  a  strung  bow  the  string  should 
be  about  six  inches  from  the  wood  at 
the  middle  in  a  six-foot  bow,  and 
correspondingly  nearer  in  a  smaller 
one.  When  the  bow  has  been 
strung  the  archer  holds  it  upright  by 
its  middle  in  his  left  hand,  and 
taking  an  arrow  in  his  right,  fits  its 
notch  to  the  middle  of  the  bow- 
string, the  shaft  being  on  the  left 
side  of  the  bow  and  resting  on  the 
left  hand.  He  then  hooks  the  first 
three  fingers  of  his  right  hand  around 
the  string,  so  that  it  rests  on  the 
finger-balls,  the  end  of  the  arrow 
being  between  the  first  and  second  ; 
and  extending  the  left  arm,  pulls  the 
string  with  the  right,  at  the  same 
time  drawing  the  arrow  with  it  till 
its  head  nearly  touches  the  bow. 
Then  both  string  and  arrow  are  re- 
leased, by  unhooking  the  fingers 
gently,  and  the  shot  is  made.  The 
best  posture  for  the  archer,  while 
shooting,  is  with  the  left  side  toward 


the  target,  the  body  nearly  erect, 
and  the  feet  about  six  inches  apart. 
The  best  archers  hold  the  bow  up- 
right while  shooting,  but  lean  the 
top  a  little  to  the  right,  which  keeps 
the  arrow  in  place  and  enables 
the  string  to  be  drawn  more 
easily. 

Accuracy  in  shooting  depends 
chiefly  on  three  things  :  the  draw, 
the  aim,  and  the  release.  It  requires 
long  practice  to  draw  the  arrow  and 
string  back  steadily,  and  if  this  is  not 
done,  a  good  shot  cannot  be  made. 
The  arrow  should  be  drawn  back  to 
a  point  just  under  the  chin,  and  not 
to  the  eye,  which  the  beginner  may 
think  is  necessary  for  a  correct  aim. 
It  is  of  no  use  to  "  sight  "  along  the 
arrow,  for  it  does  not  fly  straight  to 
the  mark,  but  describes  a  curve  in 
the  air.  If  the  arrow  is  pointed 
directly  at  the  target,  except  at  very 
short  distances,  it  will  strike  the 
ground  in  front  of  the  mark.  This 
is  equally  true  of  a  firearm  ;  the  bul- 
let moves  in  a  curve,  not  a  straight 
line,  but  it  moves  very  fast,  and  so, 
except  for  very  long  distances,  the 


I1  ,--** 

,  15  / 

'Ij,  // 

» 


Stringing. 

curve   is   very  flat,  and  the  gun  or 
pistol   can    be   aimed  at  the  mark. 


ARCHERY 


ARCHERY 


But  the  arrow  moves  much  more 
slowly,  and  sixty  yards  away  from 
the  target  it  must  be  pointed  above 
the  target.  The  point  which  the 
arrow-head  must  seem  to  cover  at 
any  particular  distance  is  called  the 
"  point  of  aim  "  for  that  distance, 
and  is  best  learned  by  trial.  The 
string  should  always  be  drawn  back 
to  the  same  spot  before  taking  aim, 
otherwise  the  arrow-head  would  seem 
to  the  eye  to  cover  different  points. 
The  best  plan  is  to  draw  the  arrow 
back  three-fourths  of  its  length,  then 
pause  an  instant  to  take  aim,  and  then 
draw  it  the  rest  of  the  way  and  loose 


Shooting. 

it.  The  release,  or  loosing  the  ar- 
row, requires  great  care,  as  it  is  easy, 
in  letting  go,  to  move  the  arrow  to 
one  side,  thereby  destroying  the  aim. 
The  fingers  should  slip  easily  from 
the  string,  and  should  not  follow  it. 
One  who  hopes  to  become  a  good 
archer  should  practice  the  draw,  the 
aim,  and  the  release,  till  he  has  per- 
fect command  of  them,  and  should 
always  perform  them  in  the  same 
way,  never  changing  to  try  experi- 
ments. 

At  archery  club  meetings,  the  con- 


testants generally  take  turns,  each 
shooting  three  arrows  at  a  turn,  un- 
til each  has  shot  a  number  previously 
agreed  upon.  This  entire  number  is 
called  a  "  round."  The  rounds  gen- 
erally shot  are : 

The  "  York  Round,"  consisting  of — 
72  arrows  at  100  yards. 
48  '     80     ' 

24       "      "     60     ' 

144  arrows. 

The  "  American  Round,"  consisting  of— 
30  arrows  at  60  yards. 
30  "  50      ' 

30  '  40 

90  arrows. 

The  "  Columbia  Round"  (for  women),  consist- 
ing of — 

24  arrows  at  50  yards. 
24  "  40 

24  "  3° 

72  arrows. 

Where  a  large  number  are  to 
shoot,  several  targets  are  used,  and 
the  contestants  are  divided  into  par- 
ties, each  of  which  uses  the  same 
target  throughout  the  match. 

RULES    FOR    ARCHERY    MEETINGS. 

1.  A    Field  Captain  shall  be  ap- 
pointed who  shall  have  entire  control 
of  the  ranges,  targets  and  order  of 
shooting,   and    he   shall    appoint    a 
Target  Captain  for  each  target,  who 
shall  direct  the  order  of  shouting  at 
his  target. 

2.  Each  Target  Captain  shall  ap- 
point a  Scorer  and  a  Herald  to  act 
at  his  target.     The  Scorer  shall  keep 
a  record  of  each  arrow  shot,  upon 
blanks  provided  for  the  purpose  by 
the   association.     The   Herald  shall 
announce  the  result  of  each  shot. 

3.  An  arrow  must  remain  in  the 
target  until  the  value  of  the  "  hit  "  is 
recorded,  otherwise  the  "  hit  "  shall 
not  be  counted. 

4.  The  targets  shall  be  four  feet 
in   diameter,  and  placed   on  easels, 
the  center  of  the  "gold  "  being  four 
feet  from  the  ground. 

5.  The   "  gold "   shall   be   9T'5    in 
diameter,  and  each  ring  shall  be  4T8ff 
inches  in  width. 

6.  The  value  of  colors  shall  be : 


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20 


ARCHERY 


Gold,  9  ;   red,  7  ;    blue,  5  ;    black, .3  ; 
white,  I. 

7.  In    case    an    arrow    cuts    two 
colors,  it  shall  count  as  having  hit 
the  inner  one. 

8.  All   disputes   shall  be  referred 
for  decision   to  the  Captain  of  the 
target  where  they  arise. 

9.  Every  archer  shall   shoot  with 
arrows  bearing  his  mark,  and  every 
arrow    leaving    the    bow    shall    be 
deemed  as  having  been  shot,  unless 
the  archer  can  reach  it  with  his  bow 
while  standing  inside  the  line  from 
which  he  is  shooting. 

10.  No  person,  unless  competing 
for  prizes,  shall   be  allowed   within 
the  bounds  of  the  Archers'  grounds 
during  the  progress  of  the  shooting. 

Cross-Bow. — The  ancient  cross- 
bow is  described  below,  under  His- 
tory. The  modern  toy  is  a  bow 
fixed  on  a  gun-stock,  and  fired  by 
a  trigger  like  that  in  the  illustration. 
The  bow-string,  when  drawn,  is 
hooked  over  the  trigger  and  the 
arrow  is  placed  in  a  groove.  The 
trigger,  which  turns  on  a  pivot,  is 
held  at  the  bottom  by  an  elastic 
band,  which  keeps  it  in  position. 


Cross-bow. 

The  arrows  shot  by  a  cross-bow 
are  properly  called  bolts,  and  are 
shorter  than  those  shot  from  a  long- 
bow. Pieces  of  wood  three  or  four 
inches  long,  loaded  at  the  head  by 
driving  in  a  nail,  make  good  bolts. 

A  small  cross-bow,  often  called  a 
watch-spring  gun,  can  be  made  by 
using  a  piece  of  watch-spring  for  a 
bow.  The  spring  should  be  about  six 
inches  long.  Little  arrows,  or  shot, 
may  be  used  in  such  a  gun,  which 


will  carry  about  50  feet.  In  firing 
shot,  fit  the  gun  with  a  tin  barrel 
made  of  a  blow-gun  tube.  A  stick 
fitting  loosely  in  it  has  the  bow- 
string passed  through  a  hole  in  its 
rear  end.  The  spring  may  also  be 
arranged  as  shown  in  the  illustration 
on  page  21.  The  stick  must  be  so 
long  that  when  the  bow  is  bent  the 
end  does  not  pull  out  of  the  tube. 

Elastic  Cross-bow. — This  bow  is 
made  of  a  stiff  piece  of  wood,  as  it  is 
not  intended  to  bend.  Its  convex 
side  is  toward  the  shooter.  The 
string  is  made  of  strong  india-rubber 
cord  whose  elasticity  sends  the  arrow 
or  bolt. 

History. — The  bow  and  arrow 
were  in  use  ail  over  the  world  in 
times  so  ancient  that  we  have  no 
record  of  them.  This  is  proved  from 
arrow-heads  dug  up  in  many  places  ; 
and  from  other  things  found  with 
them  we  know  that  they  were  made 
long  before  men  were  acquainted 
with  the  use  of  metals,  in  the  Stone 
Age,  so  called  because  all  weapons 
and  tools  were  then  made  of  stone. 
These  ancient  arrow-heads,  some- 
times six  inches  in  length  by  two  in 
breadth,  were  used  both  in  war  and 
in  hunting  enormous  wild  animals 
now  extinct.  The  earliest  records 
we  have  tell  of  skilled  archers  among 
the  Asiatic  nations  and  the  Egyp- 
tians ;  and  the  first  explorers  of  the 
American  continent  found  the  natives 
expert  in  the  use  of  the  bow.  Among 
the  best  archers  of  antiquity  were  the 
Persians,  Parthians,  Numidians,  and 
Cretans.  The  archers  in  the  Persian 
army  were  so  numerous  and  let  fly 
such  clouds  of  arrows  that  a  Persian 
once  boasted  to  a  Greek  that  they 
would  darken  the  sun  at  mid-day. 
The  Greeks  and  Romans  employed 
foreign  archers.  The  poet  Virgil 
describes  an  archery  match  where  a 
bird  tied  to  a  mast  was  the  target. 
One  marksman  cut  the  string  with 
his  arrow,  and  as  the  bird  flew  away 
another  killed  it. 

Archery  was  practiced  in  England 
from  the  earliest  times,  but  the  Sax- 


ARCHERY 


21 


ARCHERY 


ons  and  Danes  used  the  bow  prob- 
ably only  for  hunting.  The  illustra- 
tion from  an  old  manuscript  shows  an 
ancient  Saxon  bow  and  arrow.  The 
Normans,  however,  made  it  a  military 
weapon,  and  their  archers  won  the 
battle  of  Hastings,  which  brought 
England  under  Norman  rule.  From 
this  time  the  English  long-bowmen 


became  the  most  famous  in  the  world, 
and  did  much  toward  making  their 
country  great  and  powerful.  The 
kings  of  England  were  so  anxious 
that  skill  in  archery  should  not  de- 
cline, that  they  frequently  discour- 
aged and  even  forbade  other  amuse- 
ments and  exercises.  The  price  of 
bows  was  regulated  by  law.  In  the 


Watch-spring  Gun. 


reign  of  Edward  IV.  dealers  were 
compelled  to  sell  them  at  three  shil- 
lings and  fourpence  each  (about  83 
cents),  but  in  Queen  Mary's  time  the 
price  was  fixed  at  six  shillings  and 
eightpence  ($1.56)  for  the  best  bows, 
and  two  shillings  (50  cents)  for  an 
inferior  kind. 


Roger  Ascham,  an  Englishman, 
who  wrote,  in  1544,  a  book  on  arch- 
ery called  "  Toxophilus  "  (the  bow- 
lover),  gives  directions  for  shooting 
which  are  much  the  same  as  those 
approved  by  good  archers  to-day. 
He  says  that  the  ancient  style  of 
drawing  the  bow  was  to  the  right 


Egyptian  Archer. 


breast,  but  he  prefers  that  it  be 
drawn  to  the  ear,  the  method  of  the 
English  archers.  He  advises  young 
archers  to  shoot  at  lights  in  the 
night,  that  they  may  learn  to  look  at 
the  mark  in  aiming,  and  not  at  the 
arrow. 

Ancient   archers  were   skilled    in 
shooting  long  distances.     By  an  act 


of  Parliament  passed  in  the  reign 
of  Henry  VIII.,  persons  who  had 
reached  the  age  of  twenty-four  years 
were  forbidden  to  shoot  at  any  mark 
less  than  220  yards'  distance.  But 
the  statement,  often  made,  that  a 
good  archer  could  hit  a  peeled  willow 
wand  at  300  yards,  is  believed  by 
expert  modern  archers  to  be  an 


ARCHERY 


22 


ARCHERY 


absurdity.  Prince  Arthur,  son  of 
Henry  VII.,  was  a  fine  shot  with  the 
bow,  and  from  him  good  marksmen 
were  frequently  called  Arthur.  Henry 
VIII.,  while  attending  an  archery 


meeting,  was  so  pleased  with  the 
shooting  of  a  Londoner  named  Bar- 
low, who  lived  at  Shoreditch,  that  he 
gave  him  in  jest  the  title  of  "  Duke 
of  Shoreditch,"  and  the  captain  of 


Saxon  Bow  and  Arrow. 


the  London  archers  was  long  known 
by  this  name.  In  1583,3!  a  grand 
shooting  match,  the  "  Duke,"  with  a 
retinue  of  mock  marquises  and  earls, 
and  a  throng  of  about  7000  follow- 
ers, all  quaintly  dressed,  paraded  in 
London. 

The  cross-bow  or  arbalast,  which 
came  into  use  about  the  nth  century, 
was  more  in  vogue  on  the  continent 
of  Europe  than  the  long-bow;  but 
in  England  the  archers  disliked  the 
new  weapon,  because  it  took  less 
skill,  and  laws  were  passed  against 
it.  It  consisted  of  a  short  bow  fixed 
at  the  end  of  a  stock  somewhat  like 
a  gun-stock,  on  the  top  of  which  was 
a  barrel  slit  so  as  to  let  the  string  be 
pulled  back  until  caught  by  the  trig- 
ger. When  the  trigger  was  pulled, 
the  string  was  released  and  springing 
through  the  slit  drove  the  arrow  out 
of  the  barrel. 

The  best  arbalasts  had  steel  bows, 
and  required  the  aid  of  a  crank  to 
draw  them.  They  shot  short  arrows, 
called  bolts  or  quarrels,  so  swiftly 
and  with  such  force  that  they  often 
pierced  heavy  armor.  The  cross- 
bow was  the  most  deadly  weapon  in 
the  world  before  the  invention  of 
fire-arms.  The  use  of  the  bow  sur- 
vived long  after  that  event,  but  when 
the  improvement  of  musketry  caused 
the  bow  to  be  given  up  as  a  weapon, 
archery  became  merely  an  amuse- 
,nent  and  remains  so  at  the  present 


day.  In  1844  there  was  a  great  re- 
vival of  the  sport  in  England,  and 
there  are  now  in  that  country  more 
than  eighty  large  clubs,  some  of 


Arbalast. 

which  are  centuries  old.  In  the 
United  States  scientific  archery  has 
only  recently  come  into  favor,  though 
the  bow  has  always  been  used  as  a 


ARMY   SOLITAIRE 


ARMY   SOLITAIRE 


toy.  In  1879  was  formed  a  National 
Archery  Association,  which  holds 
meetings  every  year  and  awards  gold 
medals  as  prizes. 

ARMY  SOLITAIRE.  A  SOLI- 
TAIRE game  of  CARDS,  played  with 
one  full  pack.  The  first  card  taken 
from  the  pack,  whatever  it  may  be, 
and  the  similar  cards  of  the  other 
suits  are  called  foundation  cards. 
These  cards  whenever  they  ap- 
pear are  placed  to  form  the 
corners  of  a  square  of  nine  cards, 


places  being  reserved  for  them  till 
they  appear.  From  these  founda- 
tions, "  towers,"  one  of  each  suit, 
must  be  built  up  by  placing  on  each- 
in  order  the  other  cards  of  the  same 
suit  up  to  the  King.  If  the  founda- 
tion card  is  an  Ace,  the  tower  will 
thus  include  all  the  cards,  but  other- 
wise not.  Other  cards  than  the  foun- 
dations are  placed  to  form  the  five 
remaining  cards  of  the  square,  till  all 
the  places  are  occupied.  After  that, 
a  card  may  be  placed  on  any  of  them 


Shooting  at  the  Butts  with  the  Cross-Bow. 


which  ranks  just  above  or  just  below 
it,  without  regarding  suit.  If  a  card, 
which  will  go  on  neither  the  towers 
nor  in  the  "  reserve  corps,"  as  the 
other  piles  are  called,  is  turned,  it 
must  be  laid  aside  to  form  "  stock." 
The  top  card  of  any  pile  of  the  re- 
serve corps  may  be  placed  on  any 
other  pile,  either  a  tower  or  another 
reserve  pile,  if  it  belongs  there. 
Thus,  a  Ten  on  a  reserve  pile  may 
be  put  on  a  Nine  of  the  same  suit  on 
a  tower;  or  on  a  Nine  or  Knave  of 
any  suit  on  another  reserve  pile,  and 


when  any  pile  of  the  latter  is  entirely 
used,  the  top  card  of  the  stock  is 
taken  to  fill  the  vacant  space.  When 
all  the  cards  are  used,  the  stock  is 
shuffled  and  played.  This  is  usually 
done  only  once,  but  sometimes  the 
player  continues  to  do  so  till  he  com- 
pletes his  towers,  measuring  his  skill 
by  the  number  of  shufflings  of  the 
stock.  Skill  is  required  in  arranging 
the  reserve  corps  so  that  it  will  best 
aid  the  building  of  the  towers.  The 
game  is  often  more  difficult  with  a 
small  tower  to  build  (as  when  a  Nine 


ARTIFICIAL   WOOD 


24 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


or  Ten  is  the  foundation)  than  with  a 
higher  one,  for  the  useless  cards  clog 
the  reserve  corps.  Sometimes,  in- 
stead of  stopping  at  the  King,  the 
towers  are  built  higher,  going  on 
with  the  Ace,  Two,  Three,  etc.,  till 
the  whole  suit  is  used,  ending  with 
the  card  just  below  the  foundation 
card.  Sometimes  the  reserve  piles 
are  built  only  downward  instead  of 
in  either  direction.  This  game  of 
Solitaire  is  said  to  have  been  much 
played  by  the  soldiers  during  our 
Civil  War. 

ARTIFICIAL  WOOD.  A  solution 
of  copper  in  strong  ammonia  has  the 
property  of  dissolving  woody  fibre. 
To  make  it,  half  fill  a  quart  bottle 
with  ammonia  and  put  into  it  a 
bunch  of  straight  copper  wires,  of 
such  a  length  that  about  half  will  be 
above  the  water.  They  should  be 
allowed  to  stand  thus  several  months, 
the  bottle  being  shaken  occasionally 
and  the  cork  removed  for  a  few 
minutes  once  in  a  while  to  admit 
more  air,  which  is  necessary  to  the 
formation  of  the  solution. 

Cut  old  newspapers  into  disks 
about  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  clip 
the  disks  on  the  edges  so  that  they 
can  be  readily  molded  to  a  curved 
surface.  They  may  now  be  partially 
dissolved  in  the  solution,  and  will 
then  adhere  closely  to  form  a  solid 
mass,  like  wood. 

The  disks  are  best  put  in  shape 
over  a  mold.  For  instance,  if  a  thin 
glass  flask  be  used,  they  can  be 
molded  over  its  surface,  and  then 
the  flask  can  be  broken  by  a  sudden 
blow,  leaving  a  wooden  bottle  when 
the  fragments  are  removed.  The 
solution  should  be  poured,  a  little  at 
a  time,  into  a  flat  dish,  and  frequently 
renewed.  The  disks  are  soaked  in 
it  for  a  few  minutes,  till  they  feel 
slippery,  and  then  molded  over  the 
bottle.  Rubber  finger-tips  may  be 
used  to  prevent  injury  to  the  fingers 
from  the  strong  ammonia.  After 
one  layer  has  been  applied,  another 
is  put  on,  till  the  desired  thickness  is 
obtained.  In  the  same  way,  after  a 


little  practice,  other  articles  may  be 
made.  The  paper  disks  are  not 
simply  stuck  together,  like  paste- 
board, but  form  a  solid  wooden  mass, 
and  may  be  soaked  in  boiling  water 
without  coming  apart. 

ATHLETIC  GAMES,  properly 
speaking,  include  all  manly  sports 
requiring  physical  strength,  such  as 
BASE  BALL,  FOOT  BALL,  FENCING, 
and  the  like,  but  in  the  ordinary  use 
of  the  term  it  means  only  those  in 
which  each  man  contends  for  him- 
self alone.  The  sports  in  which 
several  work  together  as  a  "  team  " 
are  treated  under  their  own  titles. 
In  this  article  are  described  only 
those  feats  included  in  the  champion- 
ship contests  of  athletic  societies,  to- 
gether with  a  few  additional  ones 
sometimes  seen  at  collegiate  and 
other  contests.  The  games  usually 
found  on  the  programmes  of  the 
Amateur  Athletic  Union,  the  chief 
athletic  association  in  the  United 
States  (see  p. 38),  are  as  follows: 

ico  yards  dash,  220  yards  dash, 
One-quarter  mile  run,  One-half  mile 
run,  and  the  One  mile  run ;  also, 
Running  five  miles. 

Hurdle  racing,  120  yards  with  hur- 
dles 3  ft.  6  in.,  220  yards  with  hurdles 
2  ft.  6  in. 

Walking  one  mile,  Walking  three 
miles,  Walking  seven  miles. 

Running  high  jump,  and  the 
Broad  jump. 

Pole  leaping,  Putting  the  shot, 
Throwing  the  hammer,  Throwing 
56  Ib.  weight,  Bicycle  racing,  Indi- 
vidual Tug  of  War,  and  Tug  of  War 
with  teams  of  five  men. 

Each  of  these  games  is  called  an 
"event." 

Rule  I.— Officials.— Section  I.  All 
amateur  meetings  shall  be  under  the 
direction  of :  A  Games  Committee, 
One  Referee,  Two  or  more  Inspect- 
ors, Three  Judges  at  Finish,  Three 
or  more  Field  Judges,  Three  Time- 
keepers, One  Judge  of  Walking,  One 
Starter,  One  Clerk  of  the  Course, 
One  Scorer,  One  Marshal. 

Sec.  2.  If  deemed  necessary,  as- 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


sistants  may  be  provided  for  the 
Judge  of  Walking,  the  Clerk  of  the 
Course,  the  Scorer,  and  the  Marshal, 
and  an  Official  Announcer  may  be 
appointed. 

Rule  II. —  The  Games  Committee. 
The  Games  Committee  at  any  club 
meeting  shall  be  composed  of  mem- 
bers of  the  Club  holding  the  meet- 
ing. 

This  Committee  shall  have  juris- 
diction of  all  matter  not  assigned  by 
these  rules  to  the  Referee  or  other 
games  officials.  (See  also  Rule  XV). 

Rule  III.—  The  Referee  shall  de- 
cide all  questions  relating  to  the 
actual  conduct  of  the  meeting,  whose 
final  settlement  is  not  otherwise 
covered  by  these  rules. 

He  alone  shall  have  the  power  to 
change  the  order  of  events  as  laid 
down  in  the  official  programme,  to 
add  to,  or  to  alter  the  announced 
arrangement  of  heats  in  any  event. 

Rule  IV.— The  Inspectors.  It 
shall  be  the  duty  of  an  Inspector  to 
stand  at  such  point  as  the  Referee 
may  designate ;  to  watch  the  com- 
petition closely,  and  in  case  of  a 
claim  of  foul  to  report  to  the  Referee 
what  he  saw  of  the  incident. 

Such  Inspectors  are  merely  as- 
sistants to  the  Referee,  to  whom  they 
shall  report,  and  have  no  power  to 
make  any  decisions. 

Rule  V. —  The  Judges  at  Finish 
shall  determine  the  order  of  finish- 
ing of  contestants,  and  shall  arrange 
among  themselves  as  to  noting  the 
winner,  2d,  3d,  4th,  etc.,  as  the  case 
may  require. 

Their  decision  in  this  respect  shall 
be  without  appeal,  and  in  case  of 
disagreement  a  majority  shall  govern. 

Rule  VI.— The  Field  Judges 
shall  make  an  accurate  measurement, 
and  keep  a  tally  of  all  trials  of  com- 
petitors in  the  high  and  broad  jumps, 
the  pole  vault,  the  weight  compe- 
titions, and  the  tug  of  war. 

They  shall  act  as  judges  of  these 
events,  and  their  decisions  shall  like- 
wise be  without  appeal.  In  case  of 
disagreement  a  majority  shall  govern. 


In  all  weight  competitions  and  jumps 
for  distance,  a  small  flag,  placed  in 
the  ground,  shall  denote  the  best 
throw  or  jump  as  the  contest  pro- 
gresses. 

Rule  VII.  —  The  Timekeepers 
shall  individually  time  all  events 
where  time  record  is  called  for. 
Should  two  of  the  three  watches 
mark  the  same  time  and  the  third 
disagree,  the  time  marked  by  the  two 
watches  shall  be  accepted.  Should 
all  three  disagree,  the  time  marked 
by  the  intermediate  watch  shall  be 
accepted. 

Theflas/t  of  the  pistol  shall  denote 
the  actual  time  of  starting. 

In  case  only  two  watches  are  held 
on  an  event,  and  they  fail  to  agree, 
the  longest  time  of  the  two  shall  be 
accepted. 

Rule  VIII.— The  Starter  shall 
have  sole  jurisdiction  over  the  com- 
petitors after  the  Clerk  of  the  Course 
has  properly  placed  them  in  their 
positions  for  the  start. 

The  method  of  starting  shall  be  by 
pistol  report,  except  that  in  time 
handicap  races  the  word  "go  "  shall 
be  used. 

An  actual  start  shall  not  be  ef- 
fected until  the  pistol  has  been  pur- 
posely discharged  after  the  competi- 
tors have  been  warned  to  get 
ready. 

When  any  part  of  a  competitor 
shall  touch  the  ground  in  front  of  his 
mark  before  the  starting  signal  is 
given,  it  shall  be  considered  a  false 
start. 

Penalties  for  false  starting  shall  be 
inflicted  by  the  Starter,  as  follows: 

In  races  up  to  and  including  300 
yards,  the  competitor  shall  be  put 
back  one  yard  for  the  first  and  an- 
other yard  for  the  second  attempt ; 
in  races  over  300  yards  and  including 
600  yards,~two  yards  for  the  first  and 
two  more  for  the  second  attempt ; 
in  races  over  600  yards  and  including 
1000  yards,  three  yards  for  the  first 
and  three  more  for  the  second  at- 
tempt; in  races  over  1000  yards  and 
including  one  mile,  five  yards  for  the 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


26 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


first  and  five  more  for  the  second  at- 
tempt ;  in  all  races  over  one  mile,  ten 
yards  for  the  first  and  ten  more  for  the 
second  attempt.  In  all  cases  the 
third  false  start  shall  prevent  his  com- 
peting in  that  event. 

The  Starter  shall  also  rule  out  of 
that  event  any  competitor  who  at- 
tempts to  advance  himself  from  his 
mark,  as  prescribed  in  the  official 
programme,  after  he  has  given  the 
warning  to  "  get  ready." 

Rule  IX.  — The  Clerk  of  the 
Course  shall  be  provided  with  the 
names  and  the  numbers  of  all  entered 
competitors,  and  he  shall  notify  them 
to  appear  at  the  starting  line  before 
the  start  in  each  event  in  which  they 
are  entered. 

Rule  X. —  The  Judge  of  Walking 
shall  have  sole  power  to  determine 
the  fairness  or  unfairness  of  walking, 
and  his  rulings  thereon  shall  be  final 
and  without  appeal. 

He  shall  caution  any  competitor 
whenever  walking  unfairly  ;  the  third 
caution  to  disqualify,  except  that  he 
shall  immediately  disqualify  any  com- 
petitor when  walking  unfairly  during 
the  last  220  yards  of  a  race. 

He  shall  control  his  assistants,  and 
assign  to  them  such  of  his  duties  as 
he  may  deem  proper. 

Rule  XL —  The  Scorer  shall  re- 
cord the  order  in  which  each  com- 
petitor finishes  his  event,  together 
with  the  time  furnished  him  by  the 
Timekeeper. 

He  shall  keep  a  tally  of  the  laps 
made  by  each  competitor  in  races 
covering  more  than  one  lap,  and  shall 
announce  by  means  of  a  bell,  or 
otherwise,  when  the  leading  man  en- 
ters the  last  lap. 

He  shall  control  his  assistants,  and 
assign  to  them  such  of  his  duties  as 
he  may  deem  best. 

Rule  XII.  — The  Marshal  shall 
have  full  police  charge  of  the  enclo- 
sure, and  shall  prevent  any  but  offi- 
cials and  actual  competitors  from 
entering  or  remaining  therein. 

He  shall  control  his  assistants,  and 
assign  them  their  duties. 


Rule  XIII.— The  Official  An- 
nouncer  shall  receive  from  the  Scorer 
and  Field  Judges  the  result  of  each 
event,  and  announce  the  same  by  voice 
or  by  means  of  a  bulletin  board. 

Rule  XI V. — Competitors  shall  re- 
port to  the  Clerk  of  the  Course  im- 
mediately upon  their  arrival  at  the 
place  of  meeting,  and  shall  be  pro- 
vided by  that  official  with  their  proper 
numbers,  which  must  be  worn  con- 
spicuously by  the  competitors  when 
competing,  and  without  which  they 
shall  not  be  allowed  to  start. 

Each  competitor  shall  inform  him- 
self of  the  time  of  starting,  and  shall 
be  promptly  at  the  starting-point  of 
each  competition  in  which  he  is  en- 
tered, and  there  report  to  the  Clerk 
of  the  Course. 

Under  no  condition  shall  the  at- 
tendants be  allowed  to  accompany 
competitors  at  the  start  or  during  any 
competition  except  in  match  races, 
where  special  agreements  may  be 
made. 

Rule  XV. — Protests  against  any 
entered  competitor  may  be  made  ver- 
bally or  in  writing  to  the  referee,  or 
a  member  of  the  Games  Committee, 
before  or  during  the  meeting.  If 
possible  the  Committee  shall  decide 
such  protest  at  once.  If  the  nature 
of  the  protest  or  the  necessity  of  ob- 
taining testimony  prevents  an  imme- 
diate decision,  the  competitor  shall 
be  allowed  to  compete  under  protest, 
and  the  protest  shall  be  decided  by 
the  Games  Committee  within  one 
week,  unless  its  subject  be  the  ama- 
teur standing  of  the  competitor,  in 
which  case  the  Games  Committee 
must  report  such  protest  within  forty- 
eight  hours  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
A.  A.  U. 

Rule  X  VI.  —  Track  Measure- 
ment. All  distances  run  or  walked 
shall  be  measured  upon  a  line  eighteen 
inches  outward  from  the  inner  edge 
of  the  track,  except  that  in  races  on 
straightaway  tracks  the  distance  shall 
be  measured  in  a  direct  line  from  the 
starting  mark  to  the  finishing  line. 

Rule  X  VII.  —  The  Course.     Each 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


competitor  shall  keep  in  his  respec- 
tive position  from  start  to  finish  in 
all  races  on  straightaway  tracks,  and 
in  all  races  on  tracks  with  one  or 
more  turns  he  shall  not  cross  to  the 
inner  edge  of  the  track,  except  when 
he  is  at  least  six  feet  in  advance  of 
his  nearest  competitor. 

The  Referee  shall  disqualify  from 
that  event  any  competitor  who  will- 
fully pushes  against,  impedes,  crosses 
the  course  of,  or  in  any  way  interferes 
with  another  competitor. 

The  Referee  shall  disqualify  from 
further  participation  in  the  games, 
any  contestant  competing  to  lose,  to 
coach,  or  in  any  way  impede  the 
chances  of  another  competitor  either 
in  a  trial  or  final  contest. 

Rule  XVIII.—  The  Finish  of  the 
course  shall  be  represented  by  a  line 
between  two  finishing  posts,  drawn 
across  and  at  right  angles  to  the  sides 
of  the  track,  and  three  feet  above 
which  line  shall  be  placed  a  tape 
attached  at  either  end  to  the  finishing 
posts.  A  finish  shall  be  counted 
when  any  part  of  the  winner's  body, 
except  his  hands  or  arms,  shall  touch 
the  tape  at  the  finish  line.  The  tape 
is  to  be  considered  the  finishing  line 
for  the  winner,  but  the  order  of  fin- 
ishing across  the  track  line  shall  de- 
termine the  positions  of  the  other 
competitors. 

A  description  of  each  of  the  stand- 
ard events,  except  the  Bicycle  race 
and  the  Tug  of  War,  which  are  de- 
scribed separately,  will  now  be  given. 
A  list  of  the  best  records  in  each  is 
given  in  the  Appendix. 

Men  who  engage  in  athletic  sports 
for  a  money  prize  or  for  a  portion  of 
the  gate  receipts  are  termed  profes- 
sional athletes,  and  are  not  allowed 
to  compete  in  amateur  contests.  The 
National  Amateur  Athletic  Union 
has  adopted  the  following  definition 
of  an  Amateur : 

"  One  who  has  not  entered  in  an 
open  competition  ;  or  for  either  a 
stake,  public  or  admission  money  or 
entrance  fee ;  or  under  a  fictitious 
name  ;  or  has  not  competed  with  or 


against  a  professional  for  any  prize 
or  where  admission  fee  is  charged  ; 
or  who  has  not  instructed,  pursued 
or  assisted  in  the  pursuit  of  athletic 
exercises  as  a  means  of  livelihood,  or 
for  gain  or  any  emolument ;  or  whose 
membership  of  any  Athletic  Club  of 
any  kind  was  not  brought  about  or 
does  not  continue,  because  of  any 
mutual  understanding,  express  or 
implied,  whereby  his  becoming  or 
continuing  a  member  of  such  Club 
would  be  of  any  pecuniary  benefit  to 
him  whatever,  direct  or  indirect,  and 
who  shall  in  other  and  all  respects 
conform  to  the  rules  and  regulations 
of  this  organization,  will^  be  con- 
sidered an  Amateur." 

An  open  competition  is  one  in 
which  any  one  who  wishes  may  enter. 

Walking.— It  is  very  difficult  to  dis- 
tinguish between  walking  and  run- 
ning, and  on  this  account  many  so- 
called  "  walking  matches  "  are  made 


Slow  Stride. 

what  is  called  "  go  as  you  please" 
matches;  that  is,  the  contestant  is 
allowed  to  walk,  run,  jump,  or  move 
in  any  way  he  chooses,  so  long  as  he 
receives  no  aid.  To  be  what  is 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


28 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


called  a  "  fair  "  walker,  the  athlete 
must  touch  both  heel  and  toe  to  the 
ground,  first  the  former  and  then  the 


Free  Stride. 


latter,  he  must  not  bend  the  knee 
while  his  foot  is  on  the  ground,  and 
he  must  never  have  both  feet  in  the 
air  at  once.  The  difficulty  experi- 
enced in  justly  deciding  whether  a 


walker  is  fair  or  not  has  led  to  many 
disputes.  A  fast  walk,  following  the 
rules,  is  not  a  graceful  gait  nor  a 
natural  one,  and  can  be  learned  only 
by  practice.  The  illustrations  show 
two  different  kinds  of  strides. 

Running.  Running  any  distance 
from  100  to  400  yards  is  called 
"  sprinting,"  while  covering  all  dis- 
tances of  a  mile  or  over  is  termed 
long-distance  running.  To  make 
quick  time,  especially  in  sprinting,  a 
good  start  is  essential,  and  many 
methods  of  starting  have  been 
adopted  by  skilled  runners.  Some 
crouch  down,  placing  the  left  foot 
forward,  holding  the  right  arm  out, 
and  the  left  parallel  with  the  right 
leg;  some  stand  with  both  heels 
together,  jumping  forward  at  the 
flash  of  the  pistol,  and  others  stand 
with  one  side  in  advance  of  the  other. 
(Not  allowable  by  U.  A.  A.  rules.) 

It  has  been  found  almost  impossi- 
ble to  time  a  short  run  with  perfect 
accuracy.  The  timing  is  done  with 
a  "  stop  watch  "  which  is  arranged 
with  a  long,  fine  pointer-hand,  which 
moves  completely  around  its  dial  once 
every  minute,  and  with  a  small  spring 


Start  of  Foot  Race. 


at  the  side  by  pressure  on  which  the 
watch  can  be  started  or  stopped  at 
any  instant  desired. 

The  timer  starts  his  watch  on  see- 
ing the  flash  of  the  pistol,  and  stops 
it  when  the  man  he  is  timing  crosses 


the  mark.  The  time  can  then  be 
read  off.  A  pointer,  however,  can- 
not be  made  to  travel  uniformly.  It 
goes  by  little  jumps,  and  until  re- 
cently the  jumps  were  made  every 
fifth  of  a  second.  The  time,  there- 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


29 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


fore,  was  doubtful  by  this  amount, 
for  when  the  watch  was  stopped  it 
could  not  be  told  whether  the  hand 
had  just  finished  a  jump  or  was 
about  to  start  on  a  new  one.  In  a 
fifth  of  a  second  a  good  sprinter  moves 
about  two  yards,  and  races  are  often 
won  by  a  few  feet. 

Jumping.  There  are  four  kinds  of 
jumps,  the  running  high,  the  running 
broad  (or  long),  the  standing  high, 
and  the  standing  broad  (or  long). 

The  high  jumps  are  made  over  a 
light  bar  supported  on  pegs  inserted 
one  inch  apart  in  two  upright  posts. 
The  pegs  project  on  the  side  of  the 
posts  away  from  the  jumpers,  so 
that  if  the  jumper  strike  the  bar  with 
his  foot  he  will  simply  lift  it  from 
the  pegs  and  not  be  thrown  down. 
Sometimes  in  practice  a  cord, 
weighted  at  each  end,  is  used  in- 
stead of  a  bar,  but  this  is  not 
allowed  in  match  contests. 

At  each  succeeding  round  the  bar 
is  raised  usually  an  inch,  but  some- 
times more.  In  the  standing  broad 
jump  the  contestants  are  sometimes 
permitted  to  hold  dumb-bells  or 
weights  in  their  hands,  but  in  the 
ordinary  broad  jump  this  is  not 
allowed.  Where,  however,  this  is 
done,  the  jumper  casts  the  weights  be- 
hind him  while  in  mid-air  and  is  thus 
carried  forward  a  greater  distance. 

The  rules  of  the  National  Amateur 
Athletic  Union  governing  jumping 
are  as  follows : 

Section  i.  A  fair  jump  shall  be 
one  that  is  made  without  the  assis- 
tance of  weights,  diving,  somersets, 
or  hand  springs  of  any  kind. 

In  all  handicap  jumps  the  scratch 
man  shall  be  entitled  to  try  last. 

Sec.  2.  The  Running  High  Jump. 
The  Field  Judges  shall  decide  the 
height  at  which  the  jump  shall  com- 
mence, and  shall  regulate  the  suc- 
ceeding elevations. 

Each  competitor  shall  be  allowed 
three  trial  jumps  at  each  height,  and 
if  on  the  third  trial  he  shall  fail,  he 
shall  be  declared  out  of  the  com- 
petition. 


Competitors  shall  jump  in  order  as 
placed  in  the  programme  ;  then  those 
failing,  if  any,  shall  have  their  second 
trial  jump  in  a  like  order,  after  which 
those  having  failed  twice  shall  make 
their  third  trial  jump. 

The  jump  shall  be  made  over  a 
bar  resting  on  pins  projecting  not 
more  than  three  inches  from  the  up- 
rights, and  when  this  bar  is  removed 


High  Jump. 


from  its  place  it  shall  be  counted  as 
a  trial  jump. 

Running  under  the  bar  in  making 
an  attempt  to  jump  shall  be  counted 
as  a  "balk,"  and  three  successive 
"  balks"  shall  be  counted  as  a  trial 
jump. 

The  distance  of  the  run  before  the 
jump  shall  be  unlimited. 

A  competitor  may  decline  to  jump 
at  any  height  in  his  turn,  and  by  so 
doing  forfeits  his  right  to  again  jump 
at  the  height  declined. 

Sec.  3.  The  Standing  High  Jump. 
The  feet  of  the  competitor  may  be 
placed  in  any  position,  but  shall 
leave  the  ground  only  once  in  making 
an  attempt  to  jump.  When  the  feet 
are  lifted  from  the  ground  twice,  or 
two  springs  are  made  in  making  the 
attempt,  it  shall  count  as  a  trial 
jump  without  result. 

With  this  exception  the  rules  gov- 
erning the  Running  High  Jump  shall 
govern  the  Standing  High  Jump. 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


Sec.  4.  The  Running  Broad 
Jump.  When  jumped  on  earth,  a 
joist  five  inches  wide  shall  be  sunk 
flush  with  it.  The  outer  edge  of  this 
joist  shall  be  called  the  scratch  line, 
and  the  measurement  of  all  jumps 
shall  be  made  from  it  at  right  angles 
to  the  nearest  break  in  the  ground 
made  by  any  part  of  the  person  of  the 
competitor. 

In  front  of  the  scratch  line  the 
ground  shall  be  removed  to  the  depth 
of  three  and  the  width  of  twelve 
inches  outward. 

A  foul  jump  shall  be  one  where 
the  competitor  in  jumping  off  the 


Long  Jump. 

scratch  line  makes  a  mark  on  the 
ground  immediately  in  front  of  it, 
and  shall  count  as  a  trial  jump  with- 
out result. 

Each  competitor  shall  have  three 
trial  jumps,  and  the  best  three  shall 
each  have  three  more  trial  jumps. 

The  competition  shall  be  decided 
by  the  best  of  all  the  trial  jumps  of 
the  competitors. 

The  distance  of  the  run  before  the 
scratch  line  shall  be  unlimited. 

Sec.  6.       The    Standing    Broad 


Jump.  The  feet  of  the  competitor 
may  be  placed  in  any  position,  but 
shall  leave  the  ground  only  once  in 
making  an  attempt  to  jump.  When 
the  feet  are  lifted  from  the  ground 
twice,  or  two  springs  are  made  in 
making  the  attempt,  it  shall  count  as 
a  trial  jump  without  result. 

In  all  other  respects  the  rule  gov- 
erning the  Running  Broad  Jump 
shall  also  govern  the  Standing  Broad 
Jump. 

Sec.  7.  The  Three  Standing 
Broad  Jtimps.  The  feet  of  the  com- 
petitor shall  leave  the  ground  only 
once  in  making  an  attempt  for  each 
of  the  three  jumps,  and  no  stoppage 
between  jumps  shall  be  allowed.  In 
all  other  respects  the  rules  governing 
the  Standing  Broad  Jump  shall  also 
govern  the  three  Standing  Broad 
Jumps. 

Sec.  8.  Running  Hop,  Step  and 
Jump.  The  competitor  shall  first 
land  upon  the  same  foot  with  which 
he  shall  have  taken  off.  The  reverse 
foot  shall  be  used  for  the  second 
landing,  and  both  feet  shall  be  used 
for  the  third  landing. 

In  all  other  respects  the  rules  gov- 
erning the  Running  Broad  Jump 
shall  also  govern  the  Running  Hop, 
Step  and  Jump. 

(In  the  Running  High  Jump  a 
line  called  a  balk  line  is  sometimes 
drawn  three  feet  in  front  of  the  bar, 
and  if  the  competitor  passes  this  he 
is  credited  with  a  trial,  whether  he 
actually  attempts  to  jump  or  not.) 

In  the  running  broad  jumps,  the 
space  cleared  depends  partly  on  the 
way  in  which  the  spring  is  made,  and 
partly  on  the  impetus  gained  by  the 
run.  Before  1 870  almost  every  cham- 
pionship contest  was  won  with  a 
jump  of  less  than  20  feet,  but  now 
many  a  one  who  is  a  good  sprinter 
can  clear  that  distance.  Some  au- 
thorities think  the  reason  for  this  is 
that  jumpers  now  take  longer  and 
swifter  runs  than  formerly,  and  that 
the  impetus  thus  gained  carries  them 
a  greater  distance. 

In    both    the  high  jumps,  some 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


jumpers  draw  their  legs  up  under 
them,  straightening  them  forward  as 
they  pass  the  bar,  and  others  swing 
them  to  one  side  as  they  clear  it. 

In  running  for  a  jump,  the  last  few 
steps  should  be  slightly  shorter  than 
the  usual  stride. 

Hurdle  Racing  consists  in  a  com- 
bination of  running  and  jumping. 
These  races  are  usually  either  120 
yards  or  220  yards  in  length,  the  num- 
ber of  hurdles  to  be  leaped  being  ten. 
The  height  varies  from  2  feet  6  inches 
to  3  feet  6  inches,  and  the  hurdles 
are  placed  at  equal  distances  along 
the  course.  The  contestants  start 
together  as  for  a  running  race,  leap- 
ing each  hurdle  as  it  is  reached. 
Skilled  runners  take  exactly  three 
steps  between  every  two  hurdles  in 
the  1 20  yard  course  and  always 
springing  from  the  same  foot. 

Each  hurdle,  as  it  is  reached,  is 
cleared  at  a  single  stride,  the  jumper 
usually  jumping  from  his  right  foot 
and  landing  on  his  left.  He  thus 
continues  down  through  the  hurdles, 
keeping  his  stride  as  in  ordinary 
running,  the  only  difference  being 
that  in  every  third  stride  he  leaps 
into  the  air  a  sufficient  height  to 
clear  the  hurdles. 

The  rule  of  the  National  Amateur 
Athletic  Union  for  hurdle  races  is  as 
follows: 

Different  heights,  distances,  and 
number  of  hurdles  may  be  selected 
for  hurdle  races. 

In  the  1 20  yards  hurdle  race,  ten 
hurdles  shall  be  used  ;  each  hurdle 
to  be  three  feet  six  inches  high. 
They  shall  be  placed  ten  yards  apart, 
with  the  first  hurdle  fifteen  yards 
distance  from  the  starting  point,  and 
the  last  hurdle  fifteen  yards  before 
the  finishing  line.  In  the  220  yards 
hurdle  race  ten  hurdles  shall  be  used, 
each  hurdle  to  be  two  feet  six  inches 
high.  They  shall  be  placed  twenty 
yards  apart,  with  the  first  hurdle 
twenty  yards  distant  from  the  start- 
ing mark,  and  the  last  hurdle  twenty 
yards  before  the  finishing  line. 

In  hurdle  races  of  other  distances 


and  with  different  numbers  of  hur- 
dles, the  hurdles  shall  be  placed  at 
equal  intervals,  with  the  same  space 
between  the  first  hurdle  and  the 
starting  point  and  the  last  hurdle 
and  the  finishing  line,  as  between 
each  of  the  hurdles. 

In  making  a  record  it  shall  be 
necessary  for  the  competitor  to  jump 
over  every  hurdle  in  its  proper  posi- 
tion. 

Pole  Leaping  consists  in  leaping 
with  the  aid  of  a  stout  wooden  pole. 
The  pole  is  generally  made  of  ash, 
about  1 1  inches  in  diameter,  and 


Pole  Leaping — First  Position. 


fifteen  feet  long.  It  should  be  quite 
smooth,  and  shod  with  an  iron 
point  at  one  end.  To  leap  with 
the  pole,  the  athlete  stands  holding 


Pole  Leaping — Second  Position. 

it  as  in  the  first  illustration,  the  arms 
being  bent  and  the  hands  the  dis- 
tance of  the  shoulders  apart,  the  right 
hand  toward  the  iron-shod  end  of 
the  pole.  Both  palms  may  be  up- 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


ATHLETIC  GAMES 


ward,  or  that  of  the  right  hand 
downward.  The  jumper  then  ad- 
vances the  right  foot,  and  places  the 
shod  end  of  the  pole  on  the  ground 
at  as  great  a  distance  as  he  deems 
expedient  without  moving  his  feet  or 
hands,  as  in  the  second  position; 


Pole  Leaping — Third  Position. 

then,  looking  toward  the  end  of  the 
pole,  he  springs  forward  and  passes 
on  the  left  side  of  the  pole,  as  figured 
in  the  third  and  fourth  positions, 
his  whole  body  being  held  as  nearly 
as  possible  in  a  straight  line.  As 
his  feet  touch  the  ground  he  brings 


Pole  Leaping — Fourth  Position. 

the  pole  to  the  first  position  again. 
The  leap  may  be  made  with  the  left 
foot  and  hand  advanced,  in  which 
case  the  leaper  passes  the  pole  on 
the  right. 

The  high  jump  with  the  pole  is 
made  in  like  manner,  save  that  when 


the  athlete  is  directly  above  the  barrier, 
he  loosens  his  grasp  on  the  pole,  and 
pushing  it  back,  allows  it  to  fall  on 
one  side  while  he  himself  descends 
upon  the  other. 

To  leap  a  distance  or  clear  an  ob- 
stacle, the  jumper  takes  his  position 
about  50  feet  from  the  spot  where 
he  is  to  make  his  leap  ;  then,  holding 
the  pole  directly  in  front  of  him  with 
the  pointed  end  raised  a  foot  or  more 
from  the  ground,  advancing  slowly 
at  first,  and  then  more  quickly,  he 
approaches  the  spot  at  a  run,  and 
keeping  his  eye  fixed  on  the  place 
where  he  has  determined  to  plant  his 
pole,  sets  it  into  the  ground  and 
makes  his  leap  into  the  air  at  the 
same  instant.  The  rules  of  the  Na- 
tional Amateur  Athletic  Union  for 
pole  vaulting  are  similar  to  those  for 
jumping. 

Putting  the  Shot.  This  contest 
consists  in  balancing  the  "shot," — 
usually  an  iron  ball  weighing  sixteen 
pounds, — on  the  hand,  held  just  over 
the  shoulder,  and  then  by  throwing 
the  weight  of  the  body  forward  and 
straightening  the  arm,  hurling  the 
weight  forward  as  far  as  possible. 

The  rule  of  the  National  Amateur 
Athletic  Union  regarding  this  feat  is 
as  follows : 

The  shot  shall  be  a  solid  sphere, 
made  of  metal  and  weighing  at  least 
16  or  24  pounds,  as  the  event  may 
call  for. 

It  shall  be  put  with  one  hand,  and 
in  making  the  attempt  it  shall  be 
above  and  not  behind  the  shoulder. 

The  competitor  shall  stand  in  a 
circle  seven  feet  in  diameter,  on  four 
feet  of  the  circumference  of  which 
shall  be  placed  a  board  four  inches 
high,  at  which  the  competitor  must 
stand  when  the  shot  leaves  his 
hand. 

A  fair  put  shall  be  one  where  no 
part  of  the  person  of  the  competitor 
shall  touch  in  front  of  the  circle  or 
on  the  board  in  making  the  attempt. 

A  put  shall  be  counted  as  foul  if 
the  competitor  steps  over  the  front 
half  of  the  circle  or  on  the  board, 


ATHLETIC  GAMES 


33 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


before  the  measurement  of  his  put  is 
made. 

The  measurement  of  all  puts  shall 
be  made  from  the  nearest  mark  made 
by  the  shot  to  a  point  on  the  circum- 
ference of  the  circle,  on  a  line  with 
the  object  mark  and  the  center  of 
the  circle. 

Foul  puts  and  letting  go  the  shot 
in  making  an  attempt  shall  be  counted 
as  trial  puts  without  result. 

A  board  similar  to  the  one  in  front 
may  be  used  at  the  back  of  the  circle. 

The  order  of  competing  and  num- 
ber of  trials  shall  be  the  same  as  for 
the  running  broad  jump.  Shots  shall 
be  furnished  by  the  Games  Commit- 
tee. Any  contestant  may  use  his 
private  shot,  if  correct  in  weight  and 
shape ;  in  which  case  the  other  con- 
testants must  also  be  allowed  to  use 
it,  if  they  wish. 

Putting  the  shot  is  interesting  as  a 
display  of  strength,  but  no  one  should 
try  it  who  has  not  developed  his  mus- 


Putting  Shot— First  Position. 

cles  by  other  means,  as  the  exertion 
required  is  very  violent. 

Throwing  the  Hammer.  This  is 
an  old  Scotch  game,  and,  like  putting 
the  shot,  requires  a  large  amount  of 


strength  and  skill.  The  term  "  ham- 
mer" is  rather  misleading.  It  is 
simply  a  metal  ball  into  which  is 
fastened  a  supple  hickory  handle. 


Putting  Shot— Second  Position. 

The  thrower  grasps  the  handle  near 
the  end  with  both  hands  and  whirling 
the  ball  around  his  head  once  or 
twice  at  arm's  length,  suddenly  loos- 
ens his  hold  and  allows  it  to  fly 
through  the  air. 

The  rules  of  the  Amateur  Union 
governing  this  event  are  as  follows  : 

The  hammer-head  shall  be  a  metal 
sphere.  The  handle  shall  be  of 
wood,  the  length  of  handle  and  head 
combined  shall  be  four  feet,  and  the 
combined  weight  shall  be  at  least 
sixteen  pounds. 

All  throws  shall  be  made  from  a 
circle,  seven  feet  in  diameter. 

The  competitor  may  assume  any 
position  he  chooses  in  making  an  at- 
tempt. 

A  fair  throw  shall  be  one  when  no 
part  of  the  person  of  the  competitor 
shall  touch  outside  of  the  circle  in 
making  the  attempt. 

A  throw  shall  be  counted  foul  if 
the  competitor  steps  over  the  front 
half  of  the  circle  before  his  throw  is 
measured. 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


34 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


Foul  throws  and  letting  go  of  the 
hammer  in  an  attempt,  shall  count  as 
trial  throws. 

The  measurement  of  all  throws 
shall  be  made  from  the  nearest  mark 
made  by  the  head  of  the  hammer,  to 
a  point  on  the  circumference  of  the 
circle,  on  a  line  with  the  object  mark 
and  the  center  of  the  circle. 

The  order  of  competing  and  num- 
ber of  trials  shall  be  the  same  as 
prescribed  for  the  Running  Broad 
Jump. 

Hammers  shall  be  furnished  by 
the  Games  Committee.  Any  con- 
testant may  use  his  private  hammer, 


Throwing  Hammer. 

if  correct  in  weight  and  shape;  in 
which  case  the  other  contestants 
must  also  be  allowed  to  use  it,  if  they 
wish. 

The  thrower,  in  some  contests,  is 
allowed  to  run  as  far  as  he  pleases 
before  throwing  the  hammer,  so  long 
as  he  does  not  cross  the  "  scratch 
line  "  from  which  the  measurement 
is  made.  Sometimes  he  is  allowed 
to  run  a  fixed  distance,  as  seven  feet, 
and  sometimes  he  is  permitted  to 
turn  around  once  before  throwing. 
Some  throwers  hold  the  hammer  in 
one  hand,  and  some  in  both. 


Throwing  the  56-lbs.  Weight. 
Like  the  hammer,  this  weight  i? 
thrown  with  a  handle,  but  instead  of 
a  straight  stick,  an  iron  ring  or  tri- 
angle, about  six  inches  in  diameter, 
is  fastened  to  the  weight  by  means  of 
an  iron  staple.  In  this  way  the 
weight  can  be  lifted  and  swung  like 
a  pail  or  a  basket.  In  some  contests 
the  thrower  is  allowed  to  follow  the 
weight  on  throwing  it,  and  some- 
times a  run  is  allowed.  The  weight 
is  sometimes  thrown  from  between 
the  legs,  and  sometimes  from  the 
side.  Sometimes  the  contest  is  to  see 
how  high,  and  not  how  far,  the  weight 
can  be  thrown,  and  it  is  then  said  to 
be  "  thrown  for  height." 

The  Amateur  Athletic  Union  rules 
for  this  event  are  as  follows  : 

Section  i.  The  weight  shall  be  a 
sphere  made  of  metal,  with  a  metal 
handle  attached.  Their  combined 
weight  shall  be  at  least  fifty-six 
pounds,  and  the  combined  height 
shall  be  sixteen  inches,  but  no  flexi- 
ble attachment  will  be  allowed. 

All  throws  shall  be  made  from  a 
circle  seven  feet  in  diameter. 

The  competitor  may  assume  any 
position  he  chooses  in  making  an 
attempt. 

Foul  throws  and  letting  go  the 
weight  in  an  attempt  shall  count  as 
a  trial  throw  without  result. 

The  order  of  competing  and  num- 
ber of  trials  shall  be  the  same  as 
laid  down  for  the  jumping  contests. 

Sec.  2.  In  Throwing  for  Dis- 
tance. A  fair  throw  shall  be  one 
where  no  part  of  the  person  of  the 
competitor  shall  touch  in  front  of 
the  circle  in  making  an  attempt. 

A  throw  shall  be  counted  foul  if 
the  competitor  steps  over  the  front 
half  of  the  circle  before  his  throw  is 
measured. 

The  measurement  of  all  throws 
shall  be  made  from  the  nearest  mark 
made  by  the  sphere  of  the  weight,  to 
a  point  on  the  circumference  of  the 
circle,  on  a  line  with  the  object  mark 
and  the  center  of  the  circle. 

Sec.  3.  In  Throwing  for  Height, 


ATHLETIC  GAMES 


35 


ATHLETIC  'GAMES 


a  barrel-head  three  feet  in  diameter 
shall  be  suspended  in  the  air. 

A  fair  throw  shall  be  one  where 
no  part  of  the  person  of  the  competi- 
tor shall  touch  in  front  of  the  circle 
in  making  an  attempt,  and  where 
any  part  of  the  weight  or  handle 
touches  any  part  of  the  barrel-head. 

A  foul  throw  shall  be  one  where 
the  competitor  touches  outside  the 
circle  before  letting  go  the  weight. 

The  measurement  of  all  throws 
shall  be  from  a  point  on  the  ground 
drawn  directly  under  and  parallel  to 
the  lowest  point  of  the  barrel-head. 

The  order  of  competing  and  num- 
ber of  trials  shall  be  the  same  as  for 
the  running  broad  jump.  Weights 
shall  be  furnished  by  the  Games 
Committee.  Any  contestant  may 
use  his  private  weight,  if  correct  in 
weight  or  shape ;  in  which  case  the 
other  contestants  must  also  be 
allowed  to  use  it,  if  they  wish. 

Besides  these  standard  games,  the 
following  are  sometimes  included  : 

Throwing  the  Base  Ball.  The 
thrower  is  generally  allowed  to  run 
a  certain  distance  before  he  throws, 
and  the  distance  is  measured  from 
the  line  where  he  delivers  the  ball  to 
the  place  where  it  strikes.  This 
contest  is  seldom  found  on  the  pro- 
grammes at  athletic  games  of  the 
present  day. 

Kicking  the  Football  also  finds  a 
place  in  many  college  athletic  exhibi- 
tions. The  competition  is  sometimes 
for  accuracy  and  sometimes  for  dis- 
tance, and  the  ball  is  kicked  either 
from  the  hand  or  from  the  ground 
according  to  agreement.  When  the 
contest  is  for  accuracy,  two  tall  posts 
are  set  in  the  ground  twenty  feet 
apart,  and  between  these  a  cross- 
bar is  fastened  at  a  height  of  ten 
feet  from  the  ground.  The  contest- 
ants then  take  their  stand  behind  a 
line  twenty-five  or  thirty  yards  from 
the  poles,  and  the  contest  lies  in  see- 
ing who  can  cause  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  balls  to  pass  between  the  posts 
and  over  the  bar,  in  a  given  number 
of  kicks. 


Tossing  the  Caber.  This  is  a 
Scotch  feat,  and  is  a  feature  of 
Caledonian  games.  It  is,  however, 
seldom  an  event  in  the  meetings  of 
American  athletic  associations. 
The  caber  is  the  trunk  of  a  young 
tree  and  is  heavier  at  one  end 
than  at  the  other.  The  athlete 
holds  it  perpendicularly,  large  end 
upward,  balanced  against  the  chest, 
and  running,  endeavors  to  toss  it 
so  that  it  falls  on  the  large  end 
and  turns  over.  It  is  usually  made 
so  large  that  at  first  none  of  the  con- 
testants can  perform  the  feat,  and 
then  a  piece  is  sawn  off  each  time, 
after  all  have  tried,  until  some  one 
succeeds.  If  more  than  one  is  suc- 
cessful, the  one  who  tosses  the  caber 
farthest  is  the  winner. 

The  Sack  Race  is  a  race  between 
contestants  enveloped  up  to  the  neck 
in  cloth  bags  or  sacks.  Such  a  race 
is  usually  held  to  furnish  amusement 
for  the  spectators,  but  sometimes  as 
a  genuine  athletic  sport. 

High  Kicking.  A  tin  plate  is  sus- 
pended horizontally  by  three  strings, 
like  the  pan  of  a  balance,  from  an  arm 
arranged  to  slide  up  and  down  an 
upright  post.  The  pan  is  raised 
gradually  higher  and  higher  until 
only  one  of  the  contestants  is  able  to 
touch  it  with  his  foot.  A  high  kick 
may  be  made  either  running  or  stand- 
ing, and  jumping  may  or  may  not  be 
allowed.  The  conditions  are  fixed 
by  the  club  holding  the  contest. 

AThreo-Legged  Race.  This  race, 
like  the  sack  race,  is  run  chiefly  for  the 
amusement  of  the  spectators.  The 
athletes  run  in  pairs,  the  left  leg  of 
one  being  fastened  to  the  right  leg  of 
the  other,  both  at  the  knee  and  ankle. 
The  men  are  obliged  to  keep  perfect 
step,  and  with  practice  are  able  to 
attain  considerable  speed. 

Wheelbarrow  Race.  Sometimes 
in  games  held  for  amusement  merely, 
the  contestants  are  required  to  wheel 
wheelbarrows.  The  sport  is  increased 
when  the  racers  are  blindfolded. 

Records.  When  a  person  has  per- 
formed one  of  the  standard  athletic 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


feats  and  has  been  properly  timed  or 
his  distance  properly  measured,  such 
time  or  measurement  is  said  to  be  his 
record.  The  athlete  who  has  made 
the  best  record  for  a  given  feat  is 
said  to  "  hold  the  record."  There  is 
much  difference  of  opinion  as  to 
what  a  "  record  "  is,  some  thinking 
that  the  measurement  of  any  feat  at 
any  time  is  enough  to  make  it  good, 
while  others  insist  that  the  feat  must 
be  performed  at  a  public  meeting 
and  under  the  superintendence  of 
proper  officers.  Many  so-called  re- 
markable records  are  accounted  for 
by  the  fact  they  were  improperly 
timed -or  made  on  badly  measured 


tracks.  It  is  generally  agreed, 
also,  that  a  running  record  must 
be  made  at  one  of  the  standard 
distances  (see  above),  and  that  it  is 
absurd,  for  instance,  to  talk  of  the 
best  record  at  155  yards.  Any  one, 
if  this  were  allowed,  might  make  him- 
self a  champion  by  running  some 
particular  distance  which  no  one  had 
been  timed  on  before.  A  list  of  the 
usual  championship  games  has  al- 
ready been  given.  The  record 
rules  of  the  National  Amateur  Union 
are  as  follows : 

A  new  record  at  any  distance  in 
walking,  running  or  hurdling,  in  or- 
der to  stand,  shall  be  timed  by  at 


;;mt»;    ;;  -: 


Greek  Foot  Race. 


least  three  time-keepers,  and  a  new 
record  at  jumping,  pole  vaulting,  or 
in  the  weight  competitions,  shall 
be  measured  by  at  least  three  meas- 
urers. 

The  Amateur  Athletic  Union  will 
not  recognize  any  new  record,  unless 
a  report  of  it  is  made  to  the  Secre- 
5ary  of  the  Union,  properly  supported 
by  the  affidavits  of  the  time-keepers 
or  the  measurers,  as  the  case  may 
be. 

History.  Among  the  ancients 
athletics  were  held  in  high  esteem. 
The  grand  athletic  contests  of  the 
Greeks  are  described  in  C.  P.  P.,  in 


the  article  OLYMPIA.  (See  also  the 
history  of  GYMNASTICS.) 

Athletic  games  have  always  been 
in  favor  in  England.  In  the  reign 
of  Henry  II.,  the  youth  of  London 
had  assigned  them,  near  the  city, 
fields  where  they  practiced  "  leaping, 
wrestling,  casting  of  the  stone,  and 
playing  with  the  ball." 

Henry  V.  was  fond  of  athletics, 
especially  of  running,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  "  so  swift  a  runner  that 
he  and  two  of  his  lords,  without 
bow  or  other  engine,  could  take 
a  wild  buck  in  a  large  park." 
Henry  VIII.  excelled  in  throwing 


ATHLETIC  GAMES 


37 


ATHLETIC   GAMES 


the  hammer,  and  his  secretary, 
Richard  Pace,  advised  noblemen's 
sons  to  devote  themselves  to  athletic 
sports,  "  and  leave  study  and  learn- 
the  children  of  meaner 

But  with  the  rise  of  what 
"the  new  learning,"  some 

began  to  speak  slightly 
of  athletics,  and  even  Roger  Ascham 
in  his  book  on  Archery  says  that 
"  running,  leaping,  and  quoiting  be 
too  vile  for  scholars."  The  upper 


ing  to 
people." 
is  called 
scholars 


classes  became  divided  in  opinion  on 
the  subject,  but  athletic  sports  con- 
tinued in  favor  with  the  common 
people.  In  a  poem,  published  in 
1608,  a  shepherd  is  made  to  say : 

"  I  can  both  hurle  and  sling, 
I  run,  I  wrestle,  I  can  well  throw  the  bar." 

The  illustrations,  taken  from  an 
old  manuscript,  show  favorite  trials 
of  strength  in  the  time  of  Queen 
Elizabeth. 

Athletic  sports  were  usually  prac- 


Sports  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  Time. 


ticed  also  on  church  festivals,  but  the 
Puritans  objected  to  them  and  from 
that  time  became  opposed  to  all 
such  sports.  James  I.  issued  in  1617 
a  "  Book  of  Sports,"  in  which  he 
named  those  that  were  lawful  on  Sun- 
day. When  this  was  re-published  by 
Charles  I.  it  was  severely  condemned 
by  the  Puritans.  When  the  Stuarts 
were  restored,  however,  foot  racing, 
wrestling,  and  other  such  contests 
were  revived. 

Great     annual    athletic    meetings 
were  held   before  the  Norman  con- 


quest in  different  parts  of  England, 
in  very  ancient  times.  One  of 
these,  at  Bath,  is  described  by  Addi- 
son  in  the  Spectator  (Vol.  II.,  161). 
These  meetings.which  were  generally 
in  connection  with  fairs,  lasted  almost 
until  the  present  time,  and  gave  rise 
to  modern  athletic  associations.  In 
the  i8th  century,  besides  these  rustic 
meetings,  people  began  to  walk  and 
run  on  wagers  or  for  prizes,  and  per- 
sons of  high  rank,  who  for  many  cen- 
turies had  looked  down  on  such  exer- 
cises, sometimes  took  part  in  them. 


AUCTION 


THE   AUCTIONEER 


Many  of  the  contests  were  ridiculous, 
as  for  instance  when  there  was  a  race 
between  cripples,  or  a  man  on  stilts 
raced  with  a  runner,  or  when  a  jockey 
bearing  a  man  on  his  shoulders  con- 
tended against  a  fat  man.  Some 
accounts  of  records  made  in  those 
days  are  absurd.  For  instance,  a 
man  is  said  to  have  walked  102  miles 
in  twelve  hours.  But  athletic  sports 
did  not  become  popular  with  all 
classes  till  the  present  century,  dur- 
ing which  they  have  been  reduced  to 
a  system,  especially  in  England  and 
the  United  States. 

There  are  now  in  the  United  States 
several  thousand  athletic  societies, 
many  of  which  have  gymnasiums, 
some  of  them  elegantly  equipped. 
There  are  more  than  twenty  such 
clubs  in  New  York  City  alone.  The 
New  York  Athletic  Club,  formed  in 
1868,  has  a  large  club-house  contain- 
ing bowling  alleys,  swimming  tanks, 
and  one  of  the  largest  and  best  gym- 
nasiums in  the  country.  Nearly  every 
college  in  the  United  States  has  its 
athletic  association  and  gymnasium. 
The  college  clubs  are  united  in  the 
Intercollegiate  Athletic  Associa- 
tion, and  this,  with  most  other  ath- 
letic associations  in  the  country,  is 
governed  by  the  rules  of  the  Ama- 
teur Athletic  Union,  which  regulates 
nearly  all  the  athletic  contests  held  in 
the  United  States. 

The  first  association  of  the  kind 
was  the  National  Association  of 
Amateur  Athletes  of  America.  A 
few  years  ago  dissensions  arose 
in  this  association,  and  in  October, 
1887,  a  large  number  of  the  clubs 
withdrew  and  united  under  a  new 
organization  known  as  the  Amateur 
Athletic  Union.  The  two  associa- 
tions continued  thus  for  two  years, 
but  in  the  summer  of  1889  they 
united,  retaining  the  new  name  of 
the  Amateur  Athletic  Union. 

AUCTION,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  people  with  counters,  rep- 
resenting money,  and  cards,  on  each 
of  which  is  a  picture  of  some  article 
to  be  sold  by  auction,  with  its  de- 


scription and  supposed  money  value. 
One  of  the  players  is  chosen  for 
auctioneer,  and  the  counters  are  dis- 
tributed equally  among  the  others. 
The  auctioneer  then  takes  the  cards 
and  reads  the  description  of  the  first 
article  to  be  sold.  The  players  bid 
for  it,  as  in  a  real  auction,  and  it  is 
sold  to  the  highest  bidder,  who  puts 
the  counters  representing  the  price 
by  themselves  in  front  of  him.  The 
auctioneer  then  sells  the  next  card 
and  so  on  till  all  are  sold.  The 
player  who  has  made  the  best  bar- 
gains wins,  and  this  is  found  out  by 
counting  the  value  of  the  articles  he 
has  bought,  and  that  of  the  counters 
he  has  paid,  which  are  in  a  pile  in 
front  of  him.  He  wins,  whose  pur- 
chases exceed  in  value  the  price  paid 
for  them  by  the  greatest  amount. 
If  a  player  bid  more  money  than  he 
has,  it  is  a  Bluff  Bid.  Unless  he 
succeeds  in  getting  the  article,  no 
notice  is  taken  of  it ;  but  if,  when  he 
is  called  upon  to  pay,  he  is  unable  to 
do  so,  he  must  return  one  of  his 
cards  to  the  auctioneer.  If  he  have 
none,  he  must  return  the  first  one  he 
purchases. 

AUCTIONEER,  THE,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons,  one 
of  whom  acts  as  auctioneer.  Each  of 
the  other  players  writes  on  a  slip  of 
paper  the  name  of  some  article,  and 
folds  it  once.  The  auctioneer  then 
marks  one  of  the  slips,  adds  a  blank 
one,  and  mixes  them  all  in  a  hat. 
Each  of  the  company  draws  a  slip, 
and  he  who  gets  the  blank  slip  is  put 
up  at  auction  by  the  auctioneer, 
each  player  bidding  the  article  on  his 
slip.  The  holder  of  the  marked  slip 
bids  last,  and  the  person  bid  for  is 
sold  to  him.  He  may  then  require 
his  purchase  to  perform  some  feat, 
and  then  the  game  is  repeated.  The 
auctioneer,  instead  of  marking  a  slip, 
may  simply  open  one  and  look  at 
it,  afterwards  accepting  the  bid  of 
the  person  who  draws  it  when- 
ever it  may  be  offered.  One  slip 
always  remains  in  the  hat.  The 
auctioneer  should  look  at  it,  and  if 


AUNT   SALLY 


39 


AUTHORS 


it  be  the  blank  or  the  marked  slip, 
the  players  must  draw  again.  The 
auctioneer  should  give  a  comical  de- 
scription of  the  person  to  be  sold, 
praising  his  appearance  and  good 
qualities. 

AUCTION  PITCH.  See  ALL 
FOURS. 

AUNT  SALLY,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons,  who  throw 
sticks  at  the  head  of  "  Aunt  Sally," 
a  block  of  wood  shaped  and  painted 
to  resemble  the  face  of  an  old  col- 
ored woman.  This  is  placed  upon  a 


MISS  ALCOTT 

LITTLE  WOMEN 

LITTLB  WOMEN 
LITTLE    MEN 
OLD-FASHIONED  GIRL 
EIGHT  COUSINS 

LITTLE    MEN 
OLD-FASHIONED  GIRL 
EIGHT  COUSINS 
MISS  ALCOTT 

Aunt  Sally. 

pole  set  into  the  ground,  and  decor- 
ated with  an  old  woman's  cap.  A 
dress  is  then  put  upon  the  figure  and 
a  tobacco  pipe  is  stuck  into  the 
mouth.  Sometimes  pipes  are  stuck 
into  the  ears  also. 

The  players  stand  about  twenty- 
five  feet  from  the  figure,  and,  in 
turn,  throw  sticks,  twenty  inches  to 
two  feet  in  length,  at  Aunt  Sally's 
head,  trying  to  break  the  tobacco 
pipes.  The  side  pipes  count,  each, 
one  point,  and  the  front  one,  two 
points.  He  who  scores  most  points 


in  a  given  number  of  throws  is  the 
winner. 

AUTHORS,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons  with  cards,  on 
which  are  printed  or  written  the 
name  of  an  author  and  the  titles  of 
several  of  his  works.  The  printed 
cards  may  be  bought  at  toy  stores, 
but  much  amusement  may  be  had 
by  writing  them  out,  introducing  re- 
cent books  and  new  authors  The 
same  titles,  including  that  of  the  au- 
thor, are  on  as  many  cards  as  there 
are  titles,  but  arranged  in  different 
order,  and  the  name  at  the  top, 
which  is  in  larger  letters  than  the 
others,  is  called  the  name  of  the 
card.  All  the  cards  with  the  same 
words  on  them,  taken  together,  form 
a  book.  Thus  two  of  the  cards  in 
one  book  may  appear  as  follows  : 


In  this  book  there  would  evidently 
be  five  cards.  Sometimes  there  are  six 
or  more  cards  in  a  book,  but  all  the 
books  in  the  pack  are  of  the  same  size, 
and  there  are  usually  twenty  books 
in  a  pack.  Sometimes  the  cards  have 
numbers  at  the  top,  which  are  the 
same  for  all  of  the  same  book.  The 
cards  are  distributed  evenly  by  any 
one  of  the  players,  and  then  the  one 
on  the  dealer's  left  calls  by  name  for 
any  card  he  wants  from  some  one  of 
the  other  players.  If  the  player  asked 
has  the  card  he  must  give  it  to  him: 
and  the  first  player  then  calls  for 
another  card,  and  continues  thus  to 
call  for  cards  till  he  asks  for  one 
which  the  other  player  does  not  have ; 
then  the  privilege  of  asking  passes  to 
the  next  player  at  his  left,  and  so  on. 
As  soon  as  any  one  succeeds  in  get- 


BACHELOR'S   KITCHEN 


40 


BACKGAMMON 


ting  into  his  hand  all  the  cards  in  a 
book  (which  is  the  object  of  the 
calling),  he  lays  them  down  together, 
near  his  place,  and  none  of  them  can 
be  called  for  any  more.  The  calling 
goes  on  till  all  the  pack  is  then  dis- 
tributed into  books,  and  then  he  who 
has  most  books  wins.  When  the 
cards  are  numbered,  the  winner  is 
determined  sometimes  by  adding 
the  numbers  on  the  books  taken, 
the  one  who  has  the  highest  sum 
winning. 

By  listening  attentively  to  the  calls 
of  the  other  players,  one  can  generally 
get  a  very  good  idea  of  how  the  cards 
lie,  and  ask  accordingly.  If  a  player 
has  called  successfully  for  a  card  and 
has  not  laid  aside  the  book  containing 
it,  the  others  know  he  still  has  it,  and 
the  next  player,  if  he  has  been  watch- 
ful, will  call  for  the  card.  Again, 
if  a  player  asks  another  for  a  card 
and  is  refused,  all  the  others  know 
that  neither  of  them  has  it.  In  gen- 
eral, after  calling  for  cards  he  is  sure 
he  can  get,  a  player  should  try  to 
complete  the  books  in  his  hand  that 
are  most  nearly  full. 

History.  Authors  is  possibly  de- 
rived from  an  old  English  game 
called  "  Spade,  the  Gardener,"  played 
with  a  pack  of  ordinary  cards,  from 
which  all  cards  below  the  tens  have 
been  thrown  out. 

Each  of  the  four  kings  is  given  a 
name,  and  the  other  cards  of  the 


suit  are  regarded  as  his  family.  Thus, 
the  King  of  Spades  is  called  Spade, 
the  Gardener ;  the  Queen,  Spade, 
the  Gardener's  Wife  ;  the  Knave,  his 
son;  the  Ace,  his  servant,  and  the  Ten, 
his  dog.  In  like  manner,  the  King 
of  Clubs  is  called  Club,  the  Constable; 
the  King  of  Hearts,  the  Good  Natured 
Man,  and  the  King  of  Diamonds, 
Vicar  Denn.  Each  of  these  has  also 
his  wife,  son,  servant,  and  dog.  The 
object  is  to  get  all  the  cards  into 
one  hand,  and  when  all  a  player's 
cards  are  gone  he  retires  from  the 
game. 

The  earliest  similar  game  played 
with  special  cards  seems  to  have 
been  "  Doctor  Busby,"  where  the 
cards  had  pictures  representing  num- 
bers of  various  "  families,"each  family 
constituting  a  book.  The  game  of 
Doctor  Busby  is  still  sold  at  toy 
stores,  but  Authors,  and  similar 
forms  of  the  game,  are  more  popular. 
Among  the  similar  games,  all  played 
in  the  same  way,  are  "  Famous  Men" 
(where  one  book  consists  of  Inven- 
tors, one  of  Soldiers,  one  of  Artists, 
and  so  on),  "  Queens  of  Literature" 
(where  all  the  authors  named  are 
women),"  Poets,"  and  "Gems  of  Art  " 
(where  each  book  contains  the  names 
of  pictures  in  some  famous  art  gal- 
lery). There  are  similar  games  in 
French  and  German,  devoted  not  only 
to  Authors  but  to  familiar  things  to 
aid  in  learning  the  languages. 


B 


BACHELOR'S     KITCHEN,     a 

game  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons, who  sit  in  a  row,  all  except  one, 
who  goes  from  player  to  player,  ask- 
ing each  what  he  will  give  to  the 
bachelor's  kitchen.  When  all  have 
answered,  the  leader  asks  each  all 
sorts  of  questions.  The  one  ques- 
tioned must  give  as  his  answer  the 
name  of  the  article  he  agreed  to  con- 
tribute. If  he  gives  any  other  an- 
swer, or  laugh,  he  must  pay  a  forfeit. 


When  the  questioner  has  succeeded 
in  making  any  one  laugh,  or  is  satis- 
fied that  he  cannot  do  so,  he  goes  on 
to  the  next. 

BACKGAMMON,  a  game  played 
by  two  persons,  each  with  1 5  pieces, 
or  men,  and  2  dice,  on  a  board  like 
the  one  shown  below.  The  men,  of 
two  colors,  are  usually  the  same  as 
those  used  in  checkers,  and  a  back- 
gammon board  is  generally  made, 
for  convenience  sake,  on  the  inside 


BACKGAMMON 


of  a  checker  board.  The  board  is 
divided  into  two  pairs  of  tables  by  a 
line  through  the  middle  called  the 
bar  (which  is  a  raised  partition  when 
the  game  is  played  inside  a  checker- 
board), and  each  player  has  a  home, 
or  inner  table,  and  an  outer  table. 
In  the  cut,  A  is  Black's  home  or  in- 
ner table,  and  B  his  outer  table ;  and 
C  is  White's  home,  or  inner  table, 
and  D  his  outer  table.  Each  table 
has  six  points  in  it,  of  two  colors 
placed  alternately,  generally  black 
and  white  or  black  and  red.  The 
points  in  the  inner  table,  beginning 
at  the  edge  of  the  board,  are  some- 
times given  French  names,  as  the 
ace,  deuce,  trois,  quatre,  cinq,  and 


Backgammon  Board. 

six  points,  but  in  the  United  States 
they  are  more  commonly  called  by 
the  numbers  from  one  to  six.  For 
convenience  sake,  the  numbers  in 
the  illustration  are  continued  across 
the  board  to  12.  The  point  num- 
bered 7  is  sometimes  called  the  bar 
point.  The  men  are  set  as  in  the 
illustration,  part  of  them  being,  it 
will  be  noticed,  in  the  enemy's  tables. 
The  object  of  each  player  is  to  get 
his  own  men  around  into  his  own  in- 
ner table,  where  he  can  play  them 
off,  as  will  be  shown  hereafter.  In 
doing  this,  the  two  move  in  opposite 
directions,  Black  from  White's  inner 
table  into  White's  outer  table,  then 
across  into  his  own  outer  table,  ami 


finally  into  his  own  inner  table,  or 
following  the  course  C  D  B  A  in  the 
cut,  while  White  moves  in  the  direc- 
tion A  B  D  C  into  his  home  or  inner 
table.  The  moves  are  decided  by 
throwing  DICE,  of  which  each  player 
has  two.  When  a  player  makes  his 
throw,  he  calls  out  the  number  of 
points  on  the  top  of  the  dice  (as  4- 
2,  6-3,  or  double  4)  and  then  plays 
any  of  his  men  a  number  of  points  on 
the  board  equal  to  the  number 
thrown.  He  may  play  one  man  as 
many  points  as  are  on  the  two  dice, 
or  he  may  play  each  number  with  a 
different  man.  If  he  throws  two 
like  numbers  (called  doublets)  he 
plays  double  what  he  throws.  For 
instance,  if  he  throws  two  4's  he  has 
the  right  to  play  four  4*5  instead  of 
two,  and  these  moves  may  be  made 
all  together  or  separately.  If  the 
point  at  which  any  move  ends  is  oc- 
cupied by  two  or  more  hostile  men, 
that  move  cannot  be  made,  and  if  the 
player  cannot  move  at  all,  he  must 
wait  till  his  next  turn.  If  the  point 
has  only  one  hostile  man  on  it,  it  is 
called  a  blot,  and  the  move  can  then 
be  made  (which  is  sometimes  called 
hitting  the  blot).  The  man  so  hit, 
or  captured,  is  taken  from  the  board, 
or  placed  on  the  bar.  Its  owner  can 
make  no  move  till  he  has  entered  his 
piece  again  in  his  opponent's  inner 
table,  by  playing  it  as  if  it  were  on  a 
point  just  before  the  ace  point.  If 
each  point  on  this  table  has  two  or 
more  hostile  men  on  it  the  player 
whose  man  is  up  cannot  play  at  all 
till  his  opponent  has  moved  some  of 
them.  Generally,  leaving  a  man  un- 
covered, that  is,  leaving  only  one 
man  on  a  point,  should  be  avoided, 
and  when  doublets  are  thrown,  the 
men  are  usually  moved  in  pairs  for 
this  reason  ;  but  skillful  players  often 
make  blots  on  purpose,  either  because 
they  are  willing  to  take  the  risk  in 
order  to  move  their  men  quicker,  or 
in  order  that  the  men,  when  taken 
up,  may  enter  anew,  and  gain  the 
enemy's  rear  so  as  to  be  able  to  cap- 
ture his  men.  When  all  a  player's 


BACKGAMMON 


BACKGAMMON 


men  have  reached  his  inner  table,  he 
begins  to  play  them  off  the  board, 
which  is  called  casting  off,  throwing 
off,  or  bearing  off.  In  casting  off, 
the  pieces  count  according  to  the 
point  they  are  on.  For  instance, 
throwing  5  and  2  entitles  a  player  to 
cast  off  one  man  from  his  five  point 
and  one  from  his  two  point,  or  one  or 
both  the  numbers  may  b'e  played  as 
moves.  It  is  an  advantage  to  keep 
the  points  in  the  table  covered  as 
evenly  as  possible,  so  that  every 
throw  of  the  dice  may  be  of  use.  If 
there  are  no  men  on  the  proper  point, 
and  no  move  can  be  made,  men  from 
a  lower  point  may  be  thrown  off. 
The  player  who  first  throws  off  his 
men  wins  the  game.  If  his  oppo- 
nent has  thrown  off  any  of  his  men, 
a  victory  counts  as  a  single  game,  or 
hit ;  if  he  has  not  thrown  off  any,  it 
counts  as  a  double  game,  or  gam- 
mon ;  and  if  he  has  a  man  up,  or  one 
in  either  of  the  winner's  tables  it 
counts  as  a  triple  or  quadruple  game 
(as  agreed  on),  or  backgammon. 
Skillful  players  will  often  make  dif- 
ferent moves  according  as  they  wish 
to  make  a  gammon  or  a  hit. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  The   first   move  is  decided  by 
lot ;  each  player  throws  a  single  die, 
and  the  one  that  gets  the    highest 
number  plays  first,  having  the  privi- 
lege of  moving  from  these   throws, 
taken    together,    or  of  throwing  as 
usual,  as  he  pleases. 

2.  If    a    man  is   taken  from  any 
point,  it  must  be  played,  and  when  it 
has  been  placed   on  a  point  and  left, 
the  move  cannot  be  made  over  again. 

3.  If  the  owner  of  a  man  that  has 
been  taken  up  cast  off  another  man 
before    entering  the  one  taken   up, 
all   the   men   so  cast    off   must   be 
treated  as  if  they  had  been  taken  up. 

4.  If  a  player  throw  and  play  out 
of  turn,  and  his  opponent  has  thrown, 
the  move  can    be  changed  only  by 
consent  of  both  players. 

First  Plays. 
The  following,  which  are  usually 


considered  the  best  first  moves  in 
playing  for  a  hit,  will  be  understood 
by  reference  to  the  illustration  at  the 
beginning  of  the  article.  In  all  these, 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  object  is,  first 
to  cover  important  points  in  the  play- 
er's own  tables,  and  then  to  get  his 
men  out  of  the  enemy's  tables. 

1.  If  double  aces  are  thrown  (the 
best   of  all   first   throws),  two  men 
should  be  moved  from  the  player's  6 
to  his  5  point,  and  two  from  his  8  to 
his  7  point,  as  it  is   desirable  to  pre- 
vent  the  enemy  from  gaining  these 
points. 

2.  Double  6's ;  two  men  from  I  to 
7  in  the  opposite  tables  and  two  from 
the  opposite  12  to  the  player's  7. 

3.  Double  ,3's;  two  from    8  to  5, 
and  two  from  6  to  3,  in  the  player's 
tables,  thus  protecting  the   5   and  3 
points. 

4.  Double  2*s ;  two  from  6  to  4  in 
the  player's  tables,  protecting  the  4 
point,  and  two  from   I  to  2   in    the 
opposite  tables,  thus  advancing  one 
step  toward  getting  out  of  the  ene- 
my's tables. 

5.  Double  4*5 ;    two  from  I   to    5 
in  the  opposite  tables,  and  two  from 
the  opposite  12  to  the  player's  9. 

6.  Double  5's ;  two  from   the  op- 
posite 12  to  the  player's  8  and  then 
to  his  3. 

7.  6  and  ace  ;  one   from   opposite 
12  to  the  player's  7,  and  one  from  8 
to  7,  thus  securing  the  bar  point. 

8.  6-2;  one  from  the  opposite  12 
to  the  player's  5.     (In  this  and  simi- 
lar plays,  where  two  moves  are  made 
at  once,  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  two  are  distinct,  and  that  if  one 
is  blocked  it  cannot  be  made.     But 
either  number  may  be  played  first, 
and   thus   a   block    may    often     be 
avoided  or  a  hostile  man  taken.) 

9.  6-3,  6-4,  6-5,  and  5-4 ;  in  each 
case  play  one  from  the  opposite  ace 
point  as  far  as  it  can  go. 

10.  5-3;  one  from  6  to  3,  and  one 
from  8  to  3  in  the  player's  tables. 

11.  5-2;  two   from    the   opposite 
12  ;  one  to  the  player's  8,  and  one  to 
his  ii. 


BACKGAMMON 


43 


BACKGAMMON 


12.  5-1  ;  one  from  the  opposite  12 
to  the  player's  8,  and  one  from  the 
opposite  ace  point  to  2. 

13.  4-3  ;  two  from  the  opposite  12  ; 
one  to  the  player's  9,  and    the  other 
to  his  10. 

14.  4-2 ;   one  from   8   to  4,   and 
one    from   6   to  4   in   the    player's 
tables. 

15.  4-1  ;  one  from  the  opposite  12 
to  the  player's  9,  and  one  from  the 
opposite  ace  point  to  2. 

16.  3-2 ;    two   from    the  opposite 
12  ;  one  to  the  player's  10,  the  other 
to  his  ii. 

17.  3-1;  one  from  8  to  5,  one  from 
6  to  5  in  the  player's  tables. 

1 8.  2-1  ;  one  from  the  opposite  12 
to  the  player's  n,  and  one  from  the 
opposite  ace  point  to  2. 

Russian  Backgammon,  or  Trie- 
Trac,  a  kind  of  backgammon  in 
which  the  men  are  not  set  on  the 
board  in  the  beginning,  but  are  en- 
tered, as  if  they  had  been  taken  up. 
Both  players  enter  in  the  same  table 
and  move  in  the  same  direction. 
The  player  may  move  before  enter- 
ing all  his  men,  but  if  a  man  be  taken 
up,  it  must  be  entered  before  any- 
other  play  can  be  made,  and  if  this 
is  impossible  its  owner  loses  his  turn. 
If  doublets  are  thrown,  after  playing 
them  the  numbers  on  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  dice  are  also  played,  and 
then  the  player  is  allowed  another 
throw  ;  thus  he  can  keep  on  playing 
so  long  as  he  throws  doublets  and 
can  make  his  moves.  But  if  he  can- 
not make  any  move  his  play  must 
stop.  The  privilege  of  playing  the 
numbers  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
dice  is  sometimes  not  given  to  the 
first  throw  of  doublets.  It  is  some- 
times extended  by  letting  any  one 
who  throws  an  ace  and  a  two  play 
doublets  of  them  and  both  of  the 
opposite  numbers  (six  and  five),  and 
then,  after  playing  them,  throw 
again.  The  rules  are  the  same  as 
for  ordinary  backgammon. 

Spanish  Backgammon,  or  Jac- 
quet.  In  this  form  of  the  game  there  is 
no  taking  up,  and  a  single  man  there- 


fore can  hold  a  point.  Each  player 
places  his  men  in  five  rows  of  three 
each  in  his  opponent's  inner  table. 
The  first  man  moved  must  be  carried 
into  the  player's  own  inner  table  be- 
fore another  is  moved,  but  after  that 


Abacus. 

the  men  can  be  moved  in  any  order 
the  player  chooses. 

History.  The  origin  of  backgam- 
mon is  unknown.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  invented  about  the  loth  century, 
though  a  similar  game  was  played 
by  the  ancients  on  a  board  called  an 
Abacus.  It  was  first  called  Tables, 


Backgammon  in  the  ijth  Century. 

and  is  mentioned  under  this  name 
by  Chaucer,  Shakespeare,  and  Bacon. 
In  monkish  Latin  it  was  called  Tab- 
ularum  Ludus  (Game  of  Tables). 
The  tables  were  not  always  as  they 
are  now.  In  the  illustration,  show- 
ing two  players  of  the  I3th  century, 


BAGATELLE 


44 


BAGATELLE 


the  form  at  that  time  is  plainly  shown . 
There  is  no  bar  on  the  board  and 
there  seem  to  be  but  eight  points. 
In  the  I4th  century  the  board  was 
divided  like  ours,  but  the  points  were 
of  only  one  color.  There  were  many 
ways  of  playing,  in  some  of  which 
three  dice  were  used  and  the  men  all 
set  in  the  opponent's  inner  table. 
Tables  was  one  of  the  indoor  games 
that  James  I.  recommended  to  his 
son  Prince  Henry  in  his  book  of 
advice  called  "  Basilikon  Doron  " 
(The  Royal  Gift).  The  word  back- 
gammon is  thought  by  some  to  be 
from  the  Welsh  and  to  mean  little 
battle.  Others  think  it  is  Saxon  and 
means  back-game,  from  the  setting 
back  of  the  men  when  taken  up  ;  and 
others  still  that  it  is  Danish  and 
means  the  tray  game,  from  the  shape 
of  the  board.  In  Germany  it  is 
called  Puff  (Clatter),  probably  from 
the  rattling  of  the  dice  or  the  pieces 
on  the  board.  The  French  Tric- 
Trac,  which  is  the  same  in  German, 
and  was  anciently  called  tick-tack  in 
English,  is  named  in  the  same  way. 
In  Germany,  backgammon  is  also 
called  Brettspiel  (board-game),  and 
so  is  draughts. 

BACK-HANDED  EUCHRE.  See 
EUCHRE 

BADMINTON.  See  LAWN  TEN- 
NIS. 

BAGATELLE,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons  with  cues  and 
balls  like  those  used  in  BILLIARDS, 
but  smaller,  on  a  table  something 
like  a  small  Billiard  table,  cushioned 
only  at  the  sides,  or  on  a  cloth  cov- 
ered board,  which  can  be  laid  on  an 
ordinary  table.  Nine  balls,  two  of 
which  are  colored,  are  used.  At  the 
lower  end  of  the  table  are  nine  holes, 
numbered  in  order,  and  in  front  of 
the  holes  is  a  spot  a  on  which  one  of 
the  colored  balls,  often  called  the 
King  Ball,  is  placed.  At  the  upper 
end  of  the  table  is  another  spot,  b,  and 
between  it  and  the  holes  a  line  called 
the  string  line,  as  in  Billiards.  Each 
player  in  turn  plays  his  eight  balls 
one  by  one,  the  colored  one  first,  by 


placing  each  on  the  spot  behind  the 
string  line  and  striking  it  with  his 
cue,  as  in  Billiards, 
toward  the  holes. 
The  object  is  to 
place  the  balls,  in- 
cluding the  King 
Ball,  in  the  holes, 
and  the  player  scores 
the  numbers  of  such 
holes  as  he  can  fill, 
the  colored  balls 
counting  double. 
Thus  the  highest 
score  would  be  62, 
made  by  filling  all 
the  holes,  the  colored 
balls  being  in  the 
Nine  and  Eight 
holes.  Such  a  score 
is  very  unusual.  He 
wins  who  scores  most 
points  in  a  number 
of  rounds  agreed  up- 
on before  the  game. 
If  any  ball  rebounds 


J  0      o 

• 

1  °  • 

e  1 

1           <* 

1 

Bagatelle 
Board. 


beyond  the  string  line,  it  must  be 
removed  from  the  board  till  the  next 
player's  turn.  At 
the  end  of  each  turn 
the  board  is  cleared, 
and  the  King  Ball 
placed  on  its  spot, 
as  in  the  beginning. 
The  three-ball  game 
of  BILLIARDS  may 
be  played  on  a  Baga- 
telle board,  caroms 
counting  one  each, 
and  each  hole  its 
proper  number  as  in 
ordinary  Bagatelle. 

Mississippi,  a  kind 
of  Bagatelle  played 
with  a  bridge  or  row 
of  stalls  which  is 
placed  on  the  board 
just  in  front  of  the 
holes.  The  stalls 
are  numbered  from 
one  to  nine,  but  no 
ball  is  allowed  to 
hits  the  side  of  the 


/f  «0          ©\ 

n 

T 

^nnnnnnnnn 

Mississippi 
Board. 


score  unless  it 

board  before  entering  them. 


BAGATELLE 


45 


BALANCING 


Tivoli,  a  simpler  form  of  Bagatelle, 
played  on  a  board  about  four  feet 
long  and  eighteen  inches  wide,  hav- 
ing a  channel  at  one  side  up  which  a 
marble  is  shoved  with  a  stick.  The 
upper  end  of  the  board  is  curved, 
and  this  end  is  raised  slightly  during 
the  game,  so  that  the  marble  rolls 
down  the  board,  and  after  bounding 
from  the  iron  pins  with  which  it  is 


Tivoli. 

studded,  stops  either  in  a  hole  in  the 
board  or  in  one  of  several  compart- 
ments at  the  bottom.  The  holes  and 
compartments  are  all  numbered,  so 
that  the  player  must  score  some- 
thing. But  in  some  forms  of  the  game 
there  is  a  channel  on  the  other  side 
of  the  board  also,  so  that  if  the  mar- 
ble is  played  with  too  much  force  it 


rolls  around  the  rim  and  goes  into 
the  opposite  channel,  scoring  noth- 
ing. There  is  often  a  King  Ball  also, 
which,  if  knocked  down,  increases 
the  score. 

Railroad  Bagatelle,  a  kind  of  Tivoli 
in  which  the  balls  are  rolled  down 
an  inclined  trough  running  from  side 
to  side  of  an  upright  frame  by  the 
side  of  the  board,  which  is  usually 
square,  and  contains  numerous  pins 
and  several  numbered  holes  or  stalls, 
as  in  the  common  game.  At  the 
foot  of  the  "  railroad  "  a  movable 
switch  is  sometimes  placed,  which 
delivers  the  ball  in  any  desired  direc- 
tion. A  spiral  tube  of  wire  some- 
times takes  the  place  of  the  trough  or 
railroad. 

Tivoli  is  called  in  France  Billard 
Anglais  (English  Billiards),  and 
forms  of  it  are  also  known  as 
"  Cockamaroo  "  and  "  German  Bil- 
liards." The  word  Bagatelle  is 
French,  and  means  a  trifle.  Tivoli  is 
the  name  of  a  place  near  Rome,  where 
a  stream  rushes  through  a  cave  or  two 
and  is  divided  up  so  as  to  make  many 
waterfalls.  Possibly  the  eccentric 
course  of  the  ball  suggested  the  name. 

BALANCES.    See  SCALES. 

BALANCING.  In  beginning  to 
practice,  balance  at  first  a  pole  five 
to  ten  feet  long  on  the  end  of  the 
forefinger  held  horizontally,  or  on  the 
outstretched  palm  of  the  hand.  As 
the  pole  tips  to  one  side,  move  the 
hand  slightly  to  that  side,  so  as  to 
keep  it  always  beneath  the  whole 
pole.  The  eye  should  be  fixed  on 
the  top  of  the  pole,  where  its  motion 
is  most  easily  seen.  When  the 
learner  can  balance  one  pole,  he 
should  try  another  of  a  different  size. 
It  will  be  found  that  the  taller  the 
pole,  the  more  easily  it  is  balanced. 
It  is  almost  impossible,  for  instance, 
to  balance  a  lead  pencil  for  the  reason 
that  when  the  tall  pole  leans  an  inch 
to  one  side  it  is  still  almost  verti- 
cal, while  the  lead  pencil,  in  leaning 
an  inch,  inclines  very  perceptibly. 
Other  objects  may  now  be  tried.  In 
balancing  an  object  of  irregular 


BALANCING 


46        BALANCING  EXPERIMENTS 


shape,  as  a  chair  on  one  of  its  legs,  it 
should  first  be  supported  with  the  free 
hand  and  moved  about  till  the  bal- 
ancer finds  that  the  center  of  gravity 
is  nearly  over  the  point  of  support. 
Objects  may  be  balanced  also  on  the 
chin,  the  nose,  or  other  parts  of  the 
body,  the  only  difficulty  being  that 
these  cannot  be  moved  so  easily  and 
quickly  as  the  hand.  Balancing  is 
excellent  train- 
ing  for  the  eye 
and  muscles. 

Several  per- 
sons  with  the 
same  number  of 
poles  of  equal 
size  may  play  a 
balancinggame. 
At  a  signal  each 
balances  h  i  s 
pole  on  his  right 
palm,  and  he 
who  keeps  his 
pole  up  longest 
scores  a  point. 
The  players 
then  balance  on 
the  left  palm, 
then  on  the 
right  and  left 
forefingers,  suc- 
cessively ;  the 
other  fingers, 
the  nose,  the 
chin,  and  on  any 
other  parts  of 
the  body  they 
may  agree  upon. 
He  who  scores 
most  points  is 

Ancient  Balancer,  the  winner. 
Skilled  balanc- 
ers, who  make  a  profession  of  ex- 
hibiting their  powers,  perform 
many  wonderful  feats.  The  Jap- 
anese are  especially  skillful.  Good 
balancers  can  poise  many  objects 
one  above  another,  or  several  ob- 
jects at  the  same  time  on  differ- 
ent parts  of  the  body.  The  illus- 
tration from  an  old  manuscript 
shows  a  skilled  balancer  in  the  I4th 
century. 


BALANCING  EXPERIMENTS 
AND  TOYS.  These  all  depend  on 
the  principle  that  if  the  center  of 
gravity  of  a  body  be  below  its  point 
of  support  it  cannot  be  overturned. 

I.  Stick  two  penknives  in  a  lead 


Fig.  i. 

pencil,  one  on  each  side  (Fig.  i).  The 
pencil  may  then  be  balanced  on  the 
finger.  If  disturbed,  it  will  not  fall, 


Fig.  2. 

but  will  rock  backward  and  forward 
till  it  is  at  rest  again. 

2.  To  balance  a  coin  edgewise  on 
the  point  of  a  needle.  The  needle  is 
fastened  in  the  cork  of  a  bottle.  The 
coin  is  firmly  fixed  in  a  slit  cut  in 


BALANCING  EXPERIMENTS        47        BALANCING  EXPERIMENTS 


another  cork,  in  which  two  forks  are 
stuck,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

3.  Fill  a  quart  bottle  with  water  and 


place  on  the  rim  of  the  neck  a  cork 
in  which  two  forks  are  stuck,  as  in 
Fig.  3.  The  water  may  now  be 
§  poured  out  of  the  bottle, 
the  cork  remaining  bal- 
anced. 

4.  The  Tumbler. 
This  is  a  toy,  consisting 
of  the  figure  of  a  man, 
made  of  pith  or  some 
other  light  substance, 
standing  on  the  flat  side 
of  a  half  bullet.  This 
figure  cannot  be  over- 
turned, but  insists  on 
Fi  standing  upright.  Fig- 

ures of  soldiers  called 
"Prussians,"  constructed  in  this 
way,  were  once  sold  in  Paris  (See 


by  passing  a  rod  over  them,  would 
at  once  start  up  again.  The  figure 
of  a  dancing  master  thus  mounted  is 
called  the  "  bowing  beau." 

5.  The  Prancing  Horse,     This  is 
a  figure  of  a  .horse  having  fixed  to  it 
a    weight    by    a    bent    wire,   as    in 
Fig.  5.     If  the   horse's  hind  legs  be 
placed  on    the   edge  of  a  table,  the 
weight  being  beneath  it,  he  will  not 
fall  forward  but  prance  up  and  down, 
if  rocked.     The  toy  can  be  made  by 
cutting  the  figure  from  light  wood. 

6.  The  Dancing  Class.     An  ex- 
periment    in    balancing,   performed 
with  two  bottles,  two  knives,  and  a 


Fig.  5- 

Fig.  4).     They   were    formed    into 
ranks,  and  being  made  to  bow  down 


Fig.  6. 

wine-glass.  The  corks  of  the  bottles 
are  sharpened  at  the  top  to  an  edge, 
and  the  knives  and  wine-glass  of 
water  are  balanced  on  them  as  shown 
in  Fig.  6,  which  can  be  done  after 
a  few  trials.  Any  small,  heavy  ob- 
ject, such  as  a  small  key,  is  now 
tied  to  the  end  of  a  thread  and  low- 
ered into  the  water.  The  added 
weight  will  cause  the  wine-glass  to 
descend,  and,  by  moving  the  key  up 
and  down,  the  glass  may  be  made  to 
dance  as  it  were  on  the  blades  of  the 
knives. 

7.     A   weight   may   be    balanced 


BALL  JUGGLING 


48 


BALL  JUGGLING 


with  the  aid  of  a  nail  and  key,  if  ar- 
ranged as  shown  in  Fig.  7. 


Fig.  7. 

BALL  JUGGLING,  tossing  a  ball 
from  one  hand  to  another  in  various 
ways,  as  an  amusement,  or  a  training 
for  the  eyes  and  muscles.  The  best 
balls  for  the  purpose  are  of  hollow 
brass,  two  inches  in  diameter.  Any 
balls  of  about  this  size  may  be  used, 
such  as  tennis  balls,  but  they  must 
all  be  exactly  equal  in  size  and  weight. 
By  mastering  each  of  the 
following  exercises  before 
the  next,  any  one  who  pos- 
sesses patience,  and  gives 
time  to  practice,  may  be- 
come a  good  ball-juggler. 

I.  Vertical  Fall.  (Fig. 
I.)  This  is  simply  throw- 
ing the  ball  up  so  that  it 
will  fall  directly  into  the 
hand,  which  must  not  be 
moved  sidewise.  The  ball 
must  be  thrown  three  or 
four  feet  into  the  air.  Both 
hands  must  attain  equal 
skill. 

2.  Inside  Fall.  (Fig.  2.)  Throw 
the  ball  with  the  right  hand  so  that  it 
will  curve  as  if  the  left  hand  were  to 
catch  it,  but,  instead,  move  the  right 


Fig.  i. 


hand  to  the  left  to  receive  it.  The  ball 
should  always  fall  in  exactly  the  same 
place,  so  that  it  can  be  caught  with 
the  eyes  shut.  Repeat  with  the  left 
hand,  curving  the  ball  to  the  right. 
3.  Outside  Fall.  Same  as  the  In- 


Fig.  2. 

side  except  that  the  hand  is  held 
across  the  body  and  the  ball  curved 
to  the  outside,  being  caught  with  the 
hand  in  its  natural  position.  The 
inside  and  outside  falls  should  be 
practiced  alternately. 
4.  Parallel  Fall.  (Fig.  3.)  The 
Vertical  Fall  is 
performed  with 
the  hand  in  its 
natural  position, 
then  in  that  of 
the  other,  that  is, 
held  across  the 
body.  The  falls 
in  the  two  posi- 
tions alternate. 

5.  Outside  and 
Inside  Fall. 
(Fig.  4.)  The 
ball  is  thrown 
in  a  curve  from 
the  right  hand 
to  the  left  and  back,  alternately. 
First,  the  curve  is  made  three  feet 
high,  and  then  it  is  lowered  gradu- 
ally till  the  ball  moves  in  a  straight 
line  from  one  hand  to  the  other,  form- 
ing the  Horizontal  Pass  (Fig.  5). 

6.  Double  Vertical  Fall.  (Fig.  6.) 
The  Vertical  Fall  with  both  hands,  a 
ball  in  each.  They  are  first  thrown 


Fig.  3. 


BALL  JUGGLING 


49 


BALL  JUGGLING 


up  alternately  so  as  to  keep  one  or 
the   other   always   in   air,  and  then 


Fig.  4. 

both   at   once,  to   exactly  the  same 
height. 

7.  Double  Inside  FalL     (Fig.  7.) 
The  Inside  Fall  with  two  balls  one  in 


Fig.  £ 

each  hand.  The  tracks  of  the  balls 
would  naturally  cross,  and  that  they 
may  not  interfere  that  of  the  ball 

from  the  right  hand 

is  made  higher  than 

the  other. 

8.  Triple   Pass. 
(Fig.  8.)     The  same 
as  the  last,  with  the 
addition  of    a    third 
ball.which  simply  fol- 
lows  in  the  path  of 
the  others.     The  in- 
troduction of  a  third 
ball   will    complicate 
matters   and   require 
even    more    practice 
than    the    preceding 
exercises. 

9.  Triple     Over 
and  Under  Pass.  Like  the  last  (Fig. 
9),  except  that  one  of  the  balls  from 
the   left  hand  to   the  right   is   sent 
higher  than  either  of  the  others,  so 


Fig.  6. 


that  one  ball  is  always  seen   moving 
from  left  to  right  above  two  others, 


Fig.  7- 

which  are  changing  hands  in  a  lower 
curve. 

10.  Shower.  (Fig.  10).     The  balls 


J* 

/      ^--OK.     \ 

(/        XX 


Fig.  8. 

follow  exactly  the  samp  path,  going 
from  one  hand  to  the  other  by  the 


Fig.  9- 


Inside  Fall  and  back  by  the  Horizon- 
tal Pass.    Showers  can  be  performed 


BALL  JUGGLING 


BALLS  AND  BALL  GAMES 


with  two,  three,  or  four  balls.  A  two- 
ball  shower  may  be  performed  with 
one  hand,  in  which  case  either  the 


Fig.  10. 

Inside  or  Outside  Fall  is  used,  and 
one  of  the  balls,  after  being  caught, 
is  carried  by  the  hand  back  to  the 


Fig.  ii. 


throwing  place,  while  the  other  is  in 
the  air. 


ii.  Fountains,    combinations    of 
the  Inside  and  Outside  Falls.     In  the 


Single  Fountain  (Fig.  ii),  a  ball  is 
used  by  each  hand  and  with  each  the 
outside  fall  is  performed.  In  the 
Double  Fountain  (Fig.  12),  each  hand 
showers  two  balls,  and  the  balls  do 
not  pass  from  one  hand  to  the  other. 

The  natives  of  the  South  Sea 
Islands  are  said  to  be  very  skillful  at 
ball  juggling,  using  small  round 
fruits,  or  balls  made  of  rolled  leaves, 
and  keeping  as  many  as  five  in  the 
air  at  once.  Sometimes,  also,  a  sort 
of  bat,  made  of  a  stick  of  wood  with 
a  short  cross-piece  at  the  end,  is 
used  to  strike  the  ball,  instead  of 
tossing  it  up  with  the  hand. 

BALLS  AND  BALL  GAMES. 
Games  in  which  a  ball  is  used  have 
been  played  since  the  most  ancient 
times.  Greek  and  Roman  writers 
tell  different  stories  about  the  inven- 
tion of  such  games,  but  probably 
none  of  these  are  true.  The  ball,  is 
such  a  simple  toy,  and  so  easily  made, 
that  it  has  doubtless  been  used  by  all 
nations  from  the  earliest  times,  and 
it  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that  it 
was  derived  by  them  all  from  one 
tribe  or  people.  It  was  known  to 
the  Egyptians,  and  the  picture,  from 
an  old  wall-painting,  shows  a  game 
played  by  them,  in  which  two  of  the 
players  sat  on  others'  backs.  Homer 
describes  in  the  "  Odyssey  "  a  game 
of  ball  played  by  a  Greek  princess 
and  her  companions  to  the  sound  of 
music.  The  Greeks  called  the  ball 
Sphatra,  from  which  we  get  the  word 
sphere,  and  the  Roman  name  for  it 
was  Pila.  Both  nations  were  very 
fond  of  playing  with  it,  and  both  had 
many  games,  in  most  of  which  a 
small  ball  was  thrown  from  one 
player  to  another.  The  Greeks  val- 
ued it  so  highly  that  they  had  special 
teachers  of  the  game  in  their  gymna- 
siums ;  and  the  Athenians  erected  a 
statue  to  a  skillful  ball-player  named 
Aristonicus.  The  Emperor  Augus- 
tus was  fond  of  the  sport,  and  after 
his  time  it  was  commonly  played  just 
before  taking  a  bath,  in  a  room  at- 
tached to  the  bathing  house,  The 
Romans  also  played  with  a  large  ball 


BALLS  AND  BALL  GAMES 


BANDILORE 


like  a  foot-ball,  called  Follis,  but 
they  seem  to  have  thrown  instead  of 
kicked  it.  In  one  game,  called  Har- 
pastum  (from  a  Greek  word  meaning 
to  snatch),  each  player  tried  to  get 
possession  of  the  ball,  as  in  modern 
FOOT-BALL.  In  Brittany,  a  game  like 
Harpastum  was  played  till  modern 
times  with  a  sort  of  foot-ball  stuffed 
with  hay,  called  Soitle.  Two  com- 
munes usually  fought  for  it,  each  try- 


ing to  carry  it  home,  and  men  were 
so  often  maimed  and  wounded  in 
the  struggle  that  the  game  was  sup- 
pressed by  law.  The  Australian  na- 
tives have  a  similar  game,  where  a 
ball  of  opossum  skin  is  "  hunted 
out"  as  in  FOOT-BALL  and  then  strug- 
gled for.  They  call  it  Marn  Gook, 
In  another  class  of  games, played  with 
a  large  ball,  the  players  try  to  put  it 
across  the  enemy's  boundary  instead 


Egyptian  BalL 


of  carrying  it  within  their  own.  The 
Greek  eptkoinos  (common  ball)  was 
of  this  class,  as  are  the  modern  Hurl- 
ing and  FOOT-BALL.  The  former, 
which  is  an  Irish  sport,  consists  in 
trying  to  carry  by  hand  a  large  ball 
across  the  opposite  boundary,  which 


Roman  BalL 

may  be  distant  by  several  miles.  The 
struggle  for  possession  of  the  ball  is 
often  severe  and  the  game  is  very 
rough.  No  ball  game  played  with  a 
stick,  like  HOCKEY,  POLO,  or  CRO- 
QUET, was  known  in  Ancient  Greece 


or  Rome,  and  this  kind  of  .game 
seems  to  have  originated  in  the  East. 
The  bat  and  ball  games,  such  as 
CRICKET,  BASE  BALL,  and  CAT, 
seem  to  be  still  later,  like  the  vari- 
ous TENNIS  games,  including  Racket, 
Fives,  and  HAND  BALL,  where  the 
ball  is  sent  against  a  wall.  But  all 
these  forms  of  Ball  have  so  many 
points  in  common  that  it  is  difficult 
to  trace  their  history,  and  authorities 
generally  differ  as  to  the  exact  course 
of  their  development.  What  is 
known  of  each  is  told  in  the  separate 
article  treating  of  it.  The  illustra- 
tion, from  a  painting  in  the  baths  of 
Titus,  shows  four  persons  playing 
some  kind  of  a  ball  game  before  en- 
tering the  bath. 

BANDILORE,  a  toy  consisting  of 
two  discs  joined  at  the  center  and 
having  a  string  wound  between  them. 
The  player  takes  one  end  of  the 
string  and  allows  the  bandilore  to 
fall,  revolving  as  the  string  unwinds. 
Just  before  it  reaches  the  end  of  the 


BARBERRY   BUSH 


BAROMETER 


string  he  gives  it  a  quick  jerk  up- 
wards, and  the  spin  it  has  acquired 
will  then  wind  the  string  in  the  op- 
posite direction,  and  cause  the  toy  to 
ascend.  It  can  thus  be  kept  moving 
up  and  down,  as  long  as  the  player 
pleases. 

History.  The  origin  of  the  Bandi- 
lore  is  not  certain- 
ly known,  though 
some  say  it  was 
invented  to  amuse 
an  East  Indian 
princess.  It  was 
brought  in  1790 
from  Bengal  to 
England,  where  it 
became  fashion- 
able under  the 
name  of  the 
"Quiz."  Thence 
it  was  taken  to 
Normandy,  where 
it  was  called  "Jou- 
jou."  Soon  after- 
ward it  became  the 
fashion  in  Paris. 
The  toys  were  made  of  all  kinds  of 
materials,  from  sugar  to  gold,  and 
some  of  them  were  as  large  as  dinner 
plates.  The  Duke  of  Orleans  gave  to 
a  French  lady  a  Bandilore  set  with 
diamonds,  valued  at  2400  livres.  The 
toy  is  now  known  in  France  as  Z'.Zs#2/- 
grant  (The  Emigrant),  because  it  was 
in  favor  with  the  nobility  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  French  Revolution,  when 
many  of  them  were  forced  to  emigrate 
to  other  countries. 

BANJO,  Experiments  with.  See 
VIOLIN. 

BARBERRY  BUSH,  a  singing 
game  played  by  any  number  of 
children.  All  join  hands  in  a  ring, 
and  circle  around, singing: 


Bandilore. 


They  then  stop,  and  rubbing  their 
hands  together  to  imitate  the  wash- 
ing of  dishes,  sing: 

This  is  the  way  we  wash  our  clothes, 
Wash  our  clothes,  wash  cur  clothes, 
This  is  the  way  we  wash  our  clothes, 
So  early  on  Monday  morning. 

The  players  then  circle  as  before, 
singing  the  chorus  with  "  Tuesday  " 
substituted  for  Monday.  So  the 
game  goes  on,  the  successive  verses 
being  generally  as  follows  : 

This  is  the  way  we  iron  our  clothes, 
So  early  on  Tuesday  morning. 

This  is  the  way  we  scrub  our  floor, 
So  early  on  Wednesday  morning. 

This  is  the  way  we  mend  our  clothes, 
So  early  on  Thursday  morning. 


This  is  the  way  we  sweep  the  house, 
So  early  on  Friday  morning. 

This  is  the  way  we  bake  our  bread, 
So  early  on  Saturday  morning. 

This  is  the  way  we  go  to  church, 
So  early  on  Sunday  morning. 


The  chorus  is  repeated  before  each 
verse,  with  the  insertion  of  the  proper 
day  of  the  week. 

Sometimes  the  Mulberry  bush  is 
mentioned  instead  of  the  Barberry 
bush.  The  last  line  is  also  sung, 

All  of  a  Monday  morning, 

or 

All  on  a  frosty  morning. 

BAROMETER.  The  barometer 
and  its  history  are  told  of  in  C.  C.  T. 
To  make  a  mercury  barometer,  take  a 
glass  tube  four  feet  long,  and  about 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  inside  diame- 
ter, and  bend  it  into  a  U  shape,  at 
about  afoot  from  one  end,  so  that  the 
longer  branch  shall  measure  at  least 
33  inches.  Make  the  bend  gradually, 
allowing  several  inches  at  the  turn 
(see  directions  for  glass  working, 
under  CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS). 


Here  we    go  round  the    bar-ber  -  ry  bush,  the  bar  -  ber  -  ry  bush,    the  bar-ber-ry  bush. 


Here  we    go  round  the    bar-ber  -  ry    bush    so     ear  -  ly     on  Mon  -  day    morn-ing. 


BASE  BALL 


53 


BASE  BALL 


Seal  the  long  end  air-tight  by  melt- 
ing it,  and  then  fill  that  end  with 
mercury  by  pouring  it  little  by  little 
into  the  short  end,  then  turning 
the  tube  so  that  the  mercury  will 
run  around  the  bend.  This  will  re- 
quire much  patience,  as  the  long  end 
of  the  tube  is  full  of  air  which  finds 
difficulty  in  bubbling  past  the  heavy 
mercury  in  a  small  tube.  The  tube 
and  mercury  should  both  be  warmed 
so  as  to  be  dry,  and  the  mercury 
must  be  perfectly  clean.  When  the 
long  end  of  the  tube  and  the  bend  are 
full,  hold  the  tube  upright  and  the 
mercury  in  the  long  end  will  fall  a 
little  way,  leaving  an  empty  space 
at  the  top.  If  it  does  not,  pour  a 
little  mercury  out  of  the  short  end. 
The  distance  between  the  level  of 
the  mercury  in  the  short  end  and  that 
in  the  long  end  will  be  about  30  inches. 
To  measure  the  height  readily,  and 
so  tell  whether  the  barometer  is  ris- 
ing or  falling,  fasten  the  tube  to  a 
smooth  board  by  bands  of  cloth, 
tacked  at  the  ends,  and  nail  to  the 
board,  between  the  branches  of  the 
tube,  a  three-foot  rule.  Then  if  the 
mercury  in  one  branch  stands  at  4 
inches,  and  the  other  at  33^  inches 
the  difference,  in  this  case  29^  inches, 
is  the  height  of  the  barometer. 

BASE  BALL,  a  game  played  by 
eighteen  persons,  nine  on  a  side,  on 
a  field  marked  with  bases  as  in  the 
diagram. 

The  field  and  implements  are  fplly 
described  in  the  appended  rules. 

The  players  on  the  side  in  the 
field  are  named  the  Pitcher  and  the 
Catcher  (who  together  are  often 
called  the  "  battery  ");  the  First,  Sec- 
ond, and  Third  Base-keepers  or  Base- 
men ;  the  Short-Stop  ;  and  the  Right, 
Center,  and  Left  Fielders.  The  three 
last  mentioned  are  called  the  Out- 
field ;  the  others,  the  In-field.  Be- 
fore the  game  the  two  leaders  or  cap- 
tains usually  decide  by  lot  which 
shall  have  the  choice  of  innings,  and 
the  winner  may  choose  to  go  to  the 
bat  or  into  the  field.  In  match 
games  the  captain  of  the  home  club 


has  choice  of  the  innings.  The 
players  on  the  side  that  goes  to  the 
field,  who  are  often  called  the  "outs," 
take  up  the  positions  shown  on  the 
diagram.  Each  baseman  generally 
stands  near  his  base ;  the  other 
players  may  vary  their  positions  con- 
siderably, except  the  Pitcher,  who, 
while  delivering  the  ball,  must  stand 
within  certain  limits,  as  shown  in 
Rules  8  and  29  below. 

The  Pitcher  now  throws  the  ball 
toward  one  of  the  other  side,  called 
the  "  Batsman,"  who  stands  at  home 
base.  If  the  Batsman  strike  at  the 
ball  without  hitting  it,  he  is  said  to 
have  made  a  "  strike. "  If  the  ball  is 
"  good," — that  is,  passes  over  the 
home  base  not  higher  than  the  Bats- 
man's shoulder  and  not  lower  than 
his  knee,— it  is  counted  a  "called 
strike,"  although  he  make  no  attempt 
to  hit  at  it.  A  strike  is  also  called, 
as  a  penalty,  on  the  batsman  in  cer- 
tain other  cases.  (See  Rule  43,  be- 
low.) 

If  the  ball  is  not  good  and  the 
player  does  not  strike  at  it,  it  is  said 
to  be  a  "  ball,  "  or  a  "  called  ball." 
All  "  strikes  "  and  "  balls  "  are  called 
by  an  umpire,  who  stands  near  the 
Batsman  and  decides  each  point  as 
it  comes  up.  (Two  umpires  are 
sometimes  necessary.  See  Rule  56, 
below.)  If  the  player  strike  the 
ball  and  it  fall  within  the  lines  in 
the  diagram  called  the  "  foul  lines," 
it  is  said  to  be  a  "  fair  ball,"  and 
the  player  becomes  a  "  base-runner  " 
and  immediately  starts  toward  the 
"first  base."  If  the  batted  ball  be 
a  "  ground  hit "  to  the  infield,  the 
player  getting  the  ball  should  throw 
it  quickly  to  the  First  Baseman. 
Balls  hit  along  the  ground  to  the 
outfielders  are  seldom  thrown  to 
First  Base,  because  the  runner 
would  reach  the  base  long  before  the 
ball.  It  is  oftentimes  a  better  play 
to  throw  the  ball  to  some  other  base 
when  there  are  other  runners  on 
base.  This  will  be  explained  later. 

If  the  Batsman  can  touch  first 
base  before  the  Baseman  standing 


BASE   BALL 


54 


BASE   BALL 


on  the  base  catches  and  holds  the 
ball,  the  former  is  said  to  have 
"  made  his  base,"  and  remains  there  ; 
otherwise  he  is  said  to  have  been 


"  put  out,"  and  he  does  not  bat 
again  until  the  eight  other  players 
on  his  side  have  had  their  turn  "  at 
the  bat."  If,  however,  the  ball, 


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Diagram  of  Field. 

>w 


when  struck,  instead  of  being  fair, 
falls  outside  the  foul  lines  it  counts 
for  nothing,  unless  it  be  caught  on 
the  "  fly  "  by  one  of  the  other  side, 
which  puts  the  Striker  out.  The 
Striker  cannot  make  his  base  on  it, 


and  it  is  neither  a  strike  nor  a  ball. 
When  a  ball  is  just  touched  by  the 
bat  and  flies  directly  back  of  the 
Batsman,  it  is  called  a  "  foul  tip." 
Sometimes  a  foul  tip  is  hard  to 
tell  from  a  simple  strike.  If  three 


BASE  BALL 


55 


BASE  BALL 


strikes  are  called  by  the  umpire,  the 
Striker  must  run  for  his  base,  and  the 
ball,  after  it  passes  the  home  plate, 
is  treated  just  like  a  fair  ball  struck. 
If  the  Catcher  catches  it  and  holds 
it,  or  if  he  can  get  it  to  first  base  be- 
fore the  Batsman,  the  latter  is  out. 
If  four  balls  are  called,  the  Batsman 
is  allowed  to  "  take  his  base  " — that 
is,  to  run  to  first  base  without  any 
hindrance. 

Sometimes  the  batsman  soh;ts  the 
ball  that,  although  he  is  himself  put 
out, he  enables  a  base-runner  to  reach 
another  base.  He  is  then  said  to 
have  made  a  "  sacrifice  hit." 

When  a  player  either  has  been  put 
out  or  has  made  his  base,  another 


Shoe  Plate. 

one  of  the  same  side  takes  his  place 
as  Batsman.  The  striking  order  is 
decided  before  the  game  and  re- 
mains the  same  throughout.  When 
a  base-runner  has  reached  first  base, 
his  object  is  to  pass  in  succession 
second,  third,  and  home  base,  and  if 
he  succeed  in  reaching  the  last- 
named  without  being  put  out,  he 
scores  one  run  for  his  side.  He  can 
be  put  out,  after  he  has  reached  first 
base  by  being  touched  with  the  ball 
in  the  hands  of  one  of  the  opposite 
side  while  he  is  not  touching  a  base, 
and  in  other  ways  as  told  in  Rule 
50;  but  these  do  not  often  occur. 
He  cannot  be  put  out  while  he 
is  standing  on  a  base  ;  but  as  two 
players  cannot  occupy  the  same  base 


at  the  same  time,  he  must  leave  the 
base  before  the  base-runner  follow- 
ing him  reaches  it.  When  a  player 
is  thus  compelled  to  leave  his  base, 
he  is  said  to  be  "  forced."  A  base- 
runner  usually  keeps  close  to  his  base 
while  the  ball  is  near  him,  but  when 
it  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Pitcher  or 
the  Catcher  he  "  leads  off  "  a  short 
distance  toward  the  next  base,  so  as 
to  be  ready  to  run  to  it  should  the 
Batsman  strike  a  fair  ball.  When  a 
foul  ball  is  struck,  all  base-running 
after  the  ball  leaves  the  bat  is  void, 
and  the  runners  must  return  to  the 
bases  from  which  they  started,  re- 
touching the  bases  they  have  just 
left.  Sometimes  a  base-runner  can 
make  his  next  base  by  leading  off 
and  then  running  while  the  ball  is 
being  thrown  by  the  Pitcher  to  the 
Catcher,  hoping  to  reach  the  base 
before  the  latter  can  throw  the  ball 
to  the  Baseman.  This  is  called 
"  stealing  a  base."  If  the  ball  is 
thrown  to  the  Baseman  before  the 
runner  makes  his  base,  he  may  then 
try  to  return  to  his  former  base,  if  it 
has  not  been  occupied  by  another 
player.  The  basemen  on  each  side 
of  him  then  usually  try  to  put  him 
out  by  throwing  the  ball  from  one  to 
the  other,  while  they  walk  toward 
each  other,  keeping  the  runner  be- 
tween them  till  one  is  near  enough  to 
touch  him.  This  is  called  "  run- 
ning out  between  bases,"  but  it  does 
not  happen  often  with  skillful  play- 
ers. Sometimes,  in  such  a  case, 
the  runner  will  manage  to  slip  past 
one  of  the  basemen  and  make  his 
base.  In  any  case  where  there  is  a 
dispute  as  to  whether  a  man  has  been 
put  out  or  not,  the  umpire  decides, 
as  he  does  in  all  disputed  points 
throughout  the  game.  Sometimes  a 
baseman,  after  putting  out  a  man, 
can  get  the  ball  to  another  base 
in  time  to  put  out  someone  else,  or 
a  fielder,  after  catching  a  fly  and 
thus  putting  the  striker  out,  may 
throw  out  a  base-runner.  These  and 
similar  cases  are  called  "double- 
plays.  "  If  three  men  are  thus  put 


BASE   BALL 


BASE   BALL 


out,  it  is  a  "  triple-play,"  but  this 
occurs  very  seldom.  When  the 
Catcher  lets  a  ball  from  the  Pitcher 
pass  him  (called  a  "  passed  ball  "), 
and  the  back-stop  is  placed  at  ninety 
feet  back  of  the  home  plate,  the 
runner  may  take  as  many  bases 
as  he  is  able.  When  the  back-stop 
is  not  so  placed,  only  one  base  is  al- 
lowed. Sometimes  the  Batsman  will 
strike  the  ball  so  far  that  he  can 
safely  run  to  second  or  third  base,  or 
even  around  to  home  base.  In  the 
last  case  he  makes  a  "  home  run," 
while  at  the  same  time  sending  in 
all  the  base-runners  ahead  of  him,  if 
any  are  on  base  at  the  time.  Thus, 
by  a  skillful  hit  when  the  bases 
are  "  full,"  a  Batsman  may  enable 
four  runners  to  score.  As  soon  as 
three  players  are  out,  the  sides 
change  places,  and,  if  no  one  has 
reached  home  base,  the  score  for 
that  inning  of  the  side  that  has  just 
left  the  bat  is  nothing,  no  matter 
how  many  men  may  be  on  bases. 
The  game  goes  on  as  before  with  the 
sides  reversed,  and  when  three  men 
of  the  second  side  have  been  put  out 
the  first  inning  is  ended.  In  any 
inning  that  man  goes  first  to  the  bat 
whose  name  follows,  in  the  batting 
order,  that  of  the  one  who  last  com- 
pleted his  time  at  the  bat  (not  the 
one  who  was  out  last  or  the  one  who 
went  to  the  bat  last)  in  the  previous 
inning. 

The  game  consists  of  nine  such  in- 
nings, and  the  side  that  scores  the 
most  runs  is  the  winner.  If  the  same 
number  of  runs  has  been  scored 
by  each  side  at  the  end  of  the  ninth 
inning,  a  tenth  must  be  played,  or 
more,  if  necessary,  till  the  game 
is  decided.  Each  inning  is  divided 
into  halves,  during  each  of  which  a 
different  side  is  at  the  bat.  At  the 
end  of  an  entire  inning,  when  the 
sides  have  been  at  the  bat  the  same 
number  of  times,  the  innings  are  said 
to  be  "  even"  ;  but  when  the  side 
that  struck  first  has  been  at  the  bat 
once  more  than  the  other,  the  innings 
are  said  to  be  "  uneven."  If  the 


side  that  would  go  to  the  bat  last  is 
ahead  at  the  middle  of  the  ninth  or 
any  subsequent  inning,  the  last  half 
of  that  inning  is  omitted,  as  it  could 
not  affect  the  result  of  the  game,  but 
only  increase  the  winners'  score. 
Similarly,  if  the  side  last  at  bat  scores 
the  winning  run  before  putting  out 
its  three  men,  the  rest  of  the  inning 
is  omitted. 

If  a  player  reaches  his  base,  he 
does  so  either  because  he  made  so 
good  a  hit  that  the  best  fielding 
could  not  have  put  him  out,  or 
because  one  of  the  fielders  did  not  do 
his  duty.  In  the  former  case,  the 
Batsman  is  said  to  have  made  a  base- 
hit,  or  a  two-,  three-,  or  four-base  hit, 
as  the  case  may  be  ;  in  the  latter  case, 
the  fielder  is  said  to  have  made  an 
"  error."  Likewise,  a  fielder  that 
allows  a  base-runner  to  make  a  new 
base,  when  he  might  have  stopped 
him,  makes  an  error.  A  run  made 
entirely  without  the  aid  of  errors 
on  the  opposite  side  is  called  an 
"  earned  run."  Errors,  base-hits,  and 
earned  runs  are  scored,  not  because 
they  count  in  deciding  the  results, 
but  because  they  serve  to  show 
whether  a  game  is  won  by  the  skill 
of  the  winners  or  the  carelessness 
or  bad  playing  of  the  losers ;  and 
they  also  show  which  are  the  best 
players  on  a  side.  They  are  more 
carefully  considered  under  Scoring. 

The  Catcher.  This  player  usually 
wears  gloves,  made  for  the  purpose, 
to  protect  his  hands,  a  cage,  or 
mask,  of  strong  steel  wire  over  his 
face,  and  sometimes  a  padded 
body  protector,  as  in  Figure  I. 
When  there  are  no  men  on  bases, 
and  the  batsman  has  less  than  two 
strikes,  the  Catcher  usually  stands 
back  and  takes  the  Pitcher's  balls  on 
the  first  bounce,  or  allows  them  to 
strike  the  high  board  fence  at  his 
rear  without  trying  to  catch  them. 
When  the  Batsman  has  two  strikes, 
the  Catcher  stands  close  to  him 
(called  playing  close  to.or  behind,  the 
bat),  so  that  at  the  next  strike  he 
may  catch  the  ball  on  the  fly,  and  so. 


BASE   BALL 


57 


BASE   BALL 


put   the   striker  out.     When  there 
is  a  man    on    third   base,  he  also 


Catcher. — Fig.  i. 

plays  close  to  the  bat,  so  as  to  give 
the  base-runner  no  chance  to  reach 


Catcher. — Fig.  2. 


home.     He  keeps  on  the  lookout  to 
see  that  no  men  "  steal  "  bases,  and 


tries  to  "  throw  them  out  "  if  possi- 
ble. He  tries  to  catch  those  foul 
balls  that  are  struck  to  the  Batsman's 
rear,  and  any  fair  balls  that  fall  but 
a  short  distance  in  front  of  the 
Home-plate.  When  a  fair  ball  falls 
between  Catcher  and  Pitcher,  or  in 
any  other  case  where  it  is  doubtful 
which  player  should  take  a  ball,  the 
captain  of  the  side  calls  out  the 
name  of  the  one  he  wishes  to  catch 
it.  Besides  these  duties,  the  Catcher 
generally  acts  as  Home-Baseman. 


Pitcher. 

The  Pitcher.  His  chief  duty  is  to 
throw  his  ball  so  that  the  Batsman 
will  find  difficulty  in  striking  it.  For 
this  purpose  he  often  throws  the  ball 
in  a  curve,  so  that  the  Batsman  is 
puzzled  to  know  just  where  it  will 
cross  the  home-plate.  This  is  done 
by  giving  the  ball  a  twist  as  it 
is  thrown.  A  swiftly  moving  ball 
pushes  the  air  in  front  of  it  into 
a  sort  of  elastic  cushion,  and  if  the 
ball  is  twisting  at  the  same  time  the 
cushion  will  be  a  little  more  elastic  on 


BASE   BALL 


BASE   BALL 


one  side  than  on  the  other,  pushing 
the  ball  slightly  sideways,  and  thus 
making  its  path  a  curve.  By  mak- 


Straight  Delivery. 

ing  the  ball  twirl  in  one  direction  or 
another,the  skillful  Pitcher  can  curve 
it  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  upward 


In-Curve. 

or  downward,  so  that  only  a  bats- 
man of  equal  skill  can  strike  it  at  all. 
The  illustrations  show  the  positions 
of  the  hand  and  body  for  various 
curves.  It  requires 
much  judgment  to 
make  a  curved  ball 
pass  over  the 
Home-plate,  for 
when  it  leaves  the 
Pitcher's  hand  it 
seems  as  if  it  were 


going  to  pass  to 
one  side.  That  the 
Catcher  may  not 
be  puzzled  as  well 
as  the  Batsman, 
the  Pitcher  makes 
signals,  usually  by 
moving  his  hand  or 

Straight  Delivery.  jlead'    to  Jell    the 

Catcher    how    the 

ball  is  to  be  curved.     When   he  is 

.pitching  the   ball,  he  must  not  step 


In-Curve. 


outside  of  the  lines  that  determine 
his  position,  as  laid  down  in  the 
rules.  While  engaged  in  pitching  the 
ball  the  Pitcher  must  also  keep  close 
watch  of  the  base-runners,  trying  to 
put  them  out  by  throwing  the  ball  to 
the  bases  when 
they  are  off 
their  guard. 
He  should  also 
be  ready  to 
"  back  up"  the 
Catcher,  or 
stand  behind 
him,  when  the 
ball  is  thrown 
in  from  the  field 
to  put  a  runner 
out  at  home. 
Sometimes  he 
backs  up  the 
First  Baseman 
in  like  manner. 
The  Pitcher 
must  not  pre- 
tend to  deliver 

the  ball  without  doing  so.  If  he 
does,  he  is  said  to  have  made  a 
"  balk,"  and  the  Batsman  is  allowed 
to  go  to  first  base.  (See  Rule  32.) 

TJie  Baseman. 
The  principal  duty 
of  the  Baseman  is 
to  guard  his  base 
and  be  ready  to 
put  out  any  base- 
runner  who  is  try- 
ing to  make  it. 
The  First  Base- 
man usually  does 
this  simply  by 
catching  the  ball 
and  touching  his 
base  before  the 
runner  —  the 
others,  in  most 
cases,  put  the  run- 
ner out  by  touch- 
ing him  with  the 
ball  before  he 
reaches  the  base. 
When,  however,  the  runner  is 
"  forced  "  the  basemen  need  only 
touch  the  base  before  the  runner 


Out-Curve. 


BASE   BALL 


59 


BASE  BALL 


while  holding  the  ball.  The  base- 
men also  act  as  fielders,  and  render 
assistance,  when 
they  can,  in  back- 
i  n  g  up  other 
players. 

The  Fieltkrs. 
The  duty  of  the 
fielders  is  to  catch 
all  fair  and  foul 
balls  they  can  "  on 
the  fly,"  and  to 
"  field  "  or  throw 
all  balls  as  quickly 
as  possible  to  the 
proper  place.  This 
place  varies  ac- 
cording to  the 
state  of  the  game 
and  the  position 
of  the  fielder.  If 
there  is  no  man  on  Third  Base, 
and  there  is  one  on  First  and 
on  Second  Base,  the  ball  goes 
either  to  Second  or  Third  Base,  ac- 


Drop. 


a  man's  scoring.  But  if  the  fielder 
sees  he  cannot  possibly  get  the  ball 
to  Home  Base  in  time,  he  throws 


Short  Stop. 

it  to  one  of  the  other  bases.  Or,  if 
there  are  already  two  out,  he  may 
throw  it  to  First  Base,  knowing 
that  no  matter  if  there  is  a  man  on 


Batsman. 


Fielder. 

cording  to  the  chances  for  inter- 
cepting the  runner.  If  there  is  a 
man  on  Third,  the  ball  is  usually  Third  Base  his  run  cannot  count  after 
thrown  to  Home  Base,  for  it  is  j  the  third  out.  It  requires  careful 
of  the  first  importance  to  prevent  i  judgment  in  the  fielder  to  know  ex- 


BASE  BALL 


60 


BASE  BALL 


actly  what  to  do  in  many  cases,  and 
he  must  decide  instantly,  as  a  sec- 
ond's delay  might  lose  the  game.  An 
out-fielder  may  be  idle  during  a  great 
part  of  the  game,  but  he  must  be 
ready  to  act  at  any  moment,  and  on 
no  account  allow  a  ball  to  pass  him. 
The  Short  Stop  is  an  in-fielder, 
placed  where  batsmen  are  very  apt 
to  strike  their  balls,  as  experience 
shows. 


The  Batsman.  The  Batsman 
strives  to  strike  his  ball  in  the  place 
where  it  is  least  expected,  or  where 
it  will  be  hardest  to  reach.  If  he  sees 
that  the  Pitcher  is  giving  him  a  good 
ball,  he  usually  strikes  at  it,  for  it  will 
be  counted  as  a  strike  whether  he 
does  so  or  not ;  but  a  bad  ball  he  lets 
pass  him,  unless  he  sees  that  he  can 
make  a  good  hit  with  it.  As  soon  as 
the  Batsman  strikes  a  ball  he  runs, 


HARVARD. 


10 


If 


B-A 


Z 


el 


F-S 


ss 


Hill 
'"* 


F-S 


c. 


B 


rl 


C-4 


F-R 


B-A 
2. 


F-S 


F-R 


llf 


K-H-A 
Z 


S-H 


in 


Total, 


Grand  Total, 


i 


10 


/o 


5" 


Umpire,* „ Time, . 


without  waiting  to  see  whether  it  be 
foul  or  fair,  returning  to  his  bat  if  the 
umpire  decides  it  to  be  foul.  In 
striking,  some  batsmen  swing  the 
bat  and  others  merely  push  it  against 
the  ball.  Usually  the  striker  steps 
forward  just  as  he  hits,  to  give  more 
force  to  his  stroke. 

The  Base  Runner  is  usually  aided 
by  the  advice  of  a  "  coach,"  one  of 
the  men  on  his  own  side,  who  must 


stand  outside  the  50  foot  line  (see 
diagram.)  When  running  for  a  base  a 
good  player  often  finishes  by  throw- 
ing himself  at  full  length,  and  sliding 
toward  it,  either  feet-foremost  or 
head-foremost,  thus  avoiding  the 
touch  of  the  baseman.  Skillful  base 
runners  have  signals  by  which  they 
inform  the  batsman  when  they  are 
going  to  "  steal"  a  base,  thus  en- 
abling him  to  hit  to  better  advantage. 


BASE  BALL 


6l 


BASE  BALL 


For  instance,  if  a  runner  on  First 
Base  tries  to  steal  Second  Base,  the 
Second  Baseman  will  run  to  protect 
his  base,  leaving  the  field  open,  and 
a  hit  between  the  two  bases  will  be 
a  good  one.  Much  of  the  success  of 
the  game  depends  on  skillful  base- 
running. 

Score.  The  principal  duty  of  the 
Scorers,  of  which  there  are  generally 
two, — one  for  each  side, — is  to  keep 


record  of  all  the  runs  and  outs  as 
they  occur,  so  as  to  be  able  to  tell 
at  any  time  the  state  of  the  game. 
They  usually  do  still  more  than  this, 
keeping  a  complete  record  of  the 
progress  of  the  game,  as  will  be  shown 
below.  The  score  is  kept  in  a  blank 
book  prepared  for  the  purpose,  of 
which  there  are  various  forms.  One 
page  of  one  of  them  is  represented 
below.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  names 


10 


SrA 


ss 


M-8 


P-A 

i 


S-A 


±B 


S-A 
Z 


4 


B-B 


fee 


rf 


-s-A 

3 


z 


+C. 
3 


F-2 
z 


of 


fl-A 


P-A 


If 


F-S 

1 


Total, 


Grand  Total, 


Z 


1 


If- 


Scorers ,__ 


Tale, 


of  the  players,  in  the  order  in  which 
they  come  to  the  bat  are  arranged  in 
the  first  column.  Opposite  them,  in 
the  second,  are  abbreviations  show- 
ing their  positions.  These  differ 
with  different  Scorers,  but  those  given 
below  are  Catcher,  H  ;  Pitcher,  P  ; 
1st  baseman,  A  ;  2<i  baseman,  B  ;  3d 
baseman,  C  ;  Short-stop,  S  ;  Right 
fielder,  R  ;  Left  fielder,  L ;  Center 
fielder,  M.  Each  of  the  next  ten  col- 


umns is  devoted  to  the  runs  and  outs 
of  an  inning.  In  the  other  columns, 
in  order,  are  recorded  the  total  runs 
of  each  player,  his  base  hits,  the  men 
he  has  put  out,  the  men  he  assisted 
to  put  out  (called  "assists  "),and  his 
errors.  As  soon  as  the  first  Batsman 
leaves  the  Home-plate,  the  Scorer's 
work  begins.  If  the  Batsman  is  put 
out  the  Scorer  writes  in  the  first 
inning-column,  opposite  the  player's 


BASE  BALL 


62 


BASE   BALL 


name,  what  looks  like  a  fraction. 
Below  the  line  is  the  number  of  the 
out  (in  this  case,  I).  Above  is  an 
abbreviation  telling  how  he  was  put 
out.  If  he  was  put  out  by  one  of  the 
players  throwing  the  ball  to  a  base- 
man, the  letters  denoting  those  play- 
ers are  used,  separated  by  a  dash  ; 
thus,  P — B  means  that  the  Pitcher 
threw  the  ball  to  the  2d  baseman. 
K  means  "  struck  out " ;  f.,  a  fly 
catch  ;  1,  f.,  a  foul  fly ;  and  b.  b.,  first 
base  taken  on  called  balls.  If,  in- 
stead of  going  out,  the  Striker  makes 
a  base,  he  must  have  made  a  base 
hit,  or  someone,  on  the  opposite 
side,  made  an  error.  If  the  former, 
the  mark  -+-  is  put  down  for  a  single 
base,  ±  for  a  two-base  hit,  or  £  f°'~ 
a  three-base  hit.  If  the  latter,  a  dot 
is  put  opposite  the  erring  player's 
name  in  the  error  column  on  the 
other  page.  When  a  player  scores, 
a  dot  is  put  opposite  his  name  in  the 
inning  column.  At  the  close  of  the 
game  the  total  runs,  base  hits,  put- 
outs,  and  assists  are  summed  up 
from  the  score  and  entered  in  their 
respective  columns.  To  sum  up  the 
put-outs,  the  number  of  times  a 
man's  letter  appears,  after  a  dash,  is 
entered  in  the  put-out  column  on  the 
opposite  page,  for  if  R — B  for  in- 
stance appears  opposite  a  man's 
name,  that  man  was  put  out  of 
course  by  the  Second  Baseman  on 
the  opposite  side.  The  total  num- 
ber of  put-outs  for  each  side  in  an 
even  nine-inning  game  is  27,  and  if 
they  foot  up  more  or  less,  there  has 
been  some  mistake.  The  "  assists  " 
are  summed  up  by  treating,  in  like 
manner,  the  letters  before  the  dashes. 
The  assists  need  not  number  27 
altogether,  for  some  men  are  put  out 
without  assistance,  as  when  a  fly  is 
caught.  When  the  score  is  published 
only  the  columns  that  are  lettered 
at  the  top  are  given.  Often  two 
columns  of  base  hits  are  entered  ; 
one  of  "base  hits"  simply,  the 
other  of  "  totals."  In  the  former 
each  hit  is  counted  as  one,  whether 
for  one  or  more  bases  ;  in  the  latter 


a  two-base  hit  is  counted  as  2,  and  a 
three-base  hit  as  3.  This  is  all  that 
a  young  scorer  will  care  to  do,  but 
the  National  League  rules  require 
still  more.  When  the  score  is  an- 
nounced to  the  public,  as  by  printing 
it  in  a  newspaper,  of  course  only  final 
figures  are  given.  The  standard 
method  is  to  give  the  players'  names 
in  one  column,  and  then  in  succes- 
sive columns  the  number  of  times 
at  bat,  runs,  base  hits,  sacrifice  hits, 
put-outs,  assists,  and  errors.  This 
is  followed  by  a  summary  giving  the 
score  in  each  inning,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  particulars,  such  as  bases 
stolen,  home-runs,  double  and  triple 
plays,  called  balls,  wild  pitches,  etc. 
What  are  called  the  batting  and  field- 
ing percentages  of  the  players  are 
often  calculated  at  the  end  of  a  series 
of  games.  The  former  is  the  percent- 
age of  base  hits  in  the  total  number 
of  times  at  the  bat ;  the  latter  the 
percentage  of  "  chances  accepted  " 
in  the  total  number  of  "  chances 
offered."  The  chances  offered  to  a 
fielder  are  found  by  adding  his  put- 
outs,  assists,  and  errors  ;  the  chances 
accepted,  by  subtracting  the  errors 
from  this  sum.  Thus,  if  a  player 
has  put  out  25  men,  assisted  to  put 
out  1 8,  and  made  9  errors,  he  has 
had  52  chances,  of  which  he  has 
accepted  43,  and  his  fielding  per- 
centage is  f|  X  ico,  or  nearly  83  per 
cent. 

The  proper  scoring  of  errors  is 
very  difficult,  especially  as  there  the 
scorer  has  no  time  to  wait  and  think. 
Good  scorers  often  differ  as  to 
whether  a  base  has  been  gained  by 
a  hit  or  an  error,  and  their  scores 
would  therefore  read  differently  in 
this  respect.  The  rules  given  below 
contain  some  directions  on  this 
point.  To  be  able  to  take  the  score 
of  a  ball  game  properly  adds  much 
to  its  enjoyment,  and  spectators 
often  amuse  themselves  in  this  way. 
The  score  given  above  is  that  of  a 
game  between  the  Yale  and  Harvard 
university  nines,  and  from  it  may  be 
read  a  very  good  account  of  the 


BASE   BALL 


BASE   BALL 


game.  The  reader  will  see  that  the 
first  Harvard  player  made  a  run, 
though"  not  on  a  base  hit.  The 
second  struck  a  ball  to  the  second 
baseman,  who  threw  it  to  first  base, 
putting  him  out ;  the  third  struck  to 
third  base  with  a  like  result,  and  the 
fourth  struck  to  the  first  baseman, 
who  picked  up  the  ball  and  made 
the  third  out,  ending  the  inning. 

Rules  of  the  Game.  The  rules 
given  below  are  substantially  those 
adopted  by  the  National  League  and 
the  American  Association  of  Profes- 
sional Base  Ball  Clubs.  Those  parts 
which  refer  to  matters  of  discipline 
are  omitted.  Many  of  the  rules 
apply  to  match  games  between  or- 
ganized clubs,  and  therefore  do  not 
apply  to  cases  where  sides  are  chosen 
just  before  the  game,  but  it  can  be 
seen  at  a  glance  which  rules  thus 
apply. 

THE  BALL  GROUND. 

RULE  I. — The  Ground  must  be 
an  inclosed  field,  sufficient  in  size  to 
enable  each  player  to  play  in  his  posi- 
tion as  required  by  these  rules. 

RULE  2. — To  lay  off  the  lines 
governing  the  positions  and  the  play 
of  the  game  known  as  Base  Ball, 
proceed  as  follows  : 

From  a  point,  A,  within  the 
grounds,  project  a  right  line  out  into 
the  field,  and  at  a  point  B,  154 
feet  from  point  A,  lay  off  lines  B  C 
and  B  D  at  right  angles  to  the  line 
A  B  ;  then,  with  B  as  center  and 
63-63945  feet  as  radius,  describe 
arcs  cutting  the  lines  B  A  at  F  and 
B  C  at  B  G  D  at  H  and  B  E  at  I. 
Draw  lines  F  G,  G  E,  E  H  and  H  F, 
and  said  lines  will  be  the  containing 
lines  of  the  Diamond  or  infield. 

THE  CA  TOMER'S  LINES. 
RULE  3. — With  F  as  center  and 
90  feet  radius,  describe  an  arc  cut- 
ting line  F  A  at  L,  and  draw  lines 
L  M  and  L  O  at  right  angles  to  F 
A  ;  and  continue  same  out  from  F 
A  not  less  then  90  feet. 

THE  FOUL  LINE. 

RULE  4. — From  the  intersection 
point,  F,  continue  the  straight  lines 


F  G  and  F  H  until  they  intersect 
with  the  lines  L  M  and  L  O,  and 
then  from  the  points  G  and  H  in  the 
opposite  direction  until  they  reach 
the  boundary  lines  of  the  grounds. 

THE  PLA  YERS*  LINES. 

RULE  5.— With  F  as  center  and 
50  feet  radius,  describe  arcs  cutting 
lines  F  O,  F  M  at  P  and  Q; 
then,  with  F  as  center  again  and  75 
feet  radius,  describe  arcs  cutting  F 
G  and  F  H  at  R  and  S ;  then  from 
the  points  P,  Q,  R  and  S  draw  lines 
at  right  angles  to  the  lines  F  O,  F 
M,  F  G  and  F  H,and  continue  same 
until  they  intersect  at  the  points  T 
and  W. 

THE    CAPTAIN  AND   COACHEK'S 
LINE. 

RULE  6. — With  R  and  S  as  cen- 
ters and  15  feet  radius,  describe  arcs 
cutting  lines  R  W  and  S  T  at  X  and 
Y,  and  from  the  points  X  and  Y 
draw  lines  parallel  with  lines  F  H 
and  F  G,  and  continue  same  out  to 
the  boundary  lines  of  the  ground. 

THE  THREE-FOOT  LINE. 

RULE  7.— With  F  as  center  and 
45  feet  radius,  describe  an  arc  cut- 
ting line  F  G  at  I,  and  from  I  out  to 
the  distance  of  3  feet  draw  a  line  at 
right  angles  to  F  G,  and  marked 
point  2  ;  then  from  point  2,  draw  a 
line  parallel  with  the  line  F  G  to 
a  point  3  feet  beyond  the  point  G, 
and  marked  3  ;  then  from  the  point 
3  draw  a  line  at  right  angles  to  line 
2,  3,  back  to  and  intersecting  with 
line  F  G,  and  from  thence  back 
along  line  G  F  to  point  I. 

THE  PITCHER'S  PLA  TE. 

RULE  8.— With  point  F  as  center 
and  60.5  as  feet  radius,  describe  an 
arc  cutting  the  line  F  B  at  a  point  4, 
and  draw  a  line  5,  6,  passing  through 
point  4  and  extending  12  inches  on 
either  side  of  line  F  B ;  then  with 
line  5,  6,  as  a  side,  describe  a  paral- 
lelogram 24  inches  by  6  inches. 

THE  BASES. 

RULE  9.— Within  the  angle  F, 
describe  a  square  the  sides  of  which 
shall  be  12  inches,  two  of  its  sides 
lying  upon  the  lines  F  G  and  F  H, 


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and  within  the  angles  G  and  H 
describe  squares  the  sides  of  which 
shall  be  15  inches,  the  two  outer 
sides  of  said  square  lying  upon  the 
lines  F  G  and  G  I  and  F  H  and  H  I, 
and  at  the  angle  E  describe  a  square 
whose  sides  shall  be  15  inches  and 
so  described  that  its  sides  shall  be 
parallel  with  G  I  and  I  H  and  its 
center  immediately  over  the  angular 
point  E. 

THE  BA  TS MAN'S  LINE. 

RULE  10. — On  either  side  of  the 
line  A  F  B  describe  two  parallelo- 
grams 6  feet  long  and  4  feet  wide 
(marked  8  and  9),  their  length  being 
parallel  with  the  line  A  F  B,  their  dis- 
tance apart  being  6  inches  added  to 
each  end  of  the  length  of  the  diagonal 
of  the  square  within  the  angle  F, 
and  the  center  of  the  length  being 
upon  said  diagonal. 

RULE  II.— The  Home  Base  at  F 
and  the  Pitcher's  Plate  at  4  must  be 
of  whitened  rubber,  and  so  fixed  in 
the  ground  as  to  be  even  with  the 
surface. 

RULE  12.— The  First  Base  at  G, 
the  Second  Base  at  E.and  the  Third 
Base  at  H  must  be  of  white  canvas 
bags,  filled  with  soft  material  and 
securely  fastened  in  their  positions 
described  in  Rule  9. 

RULE  13. — The  lines  described  in 
Rules  3,  4,  5,  6,  7  and  10  must  be 
marked  with  lime,  chalk,  or  other 
suitable  material,  so  as  to  be  dis- 
tinctly seen  by  the  umpire. 

THE  BALL. 

RULE  14.  SECTION  i. — Must 
not  weigh  less  than  five  nor  more 
than  five  and  one-quarter  ounces 
avoirdupois,  and  it  must  measure 
not  less  than  nine  nor  more  than 
nine  and  one-quarter  inches  in  cir- 
cumference. 

SEC.  2.  For  each  championship 
game  two  regulation  balls  shall  be 
furnished  by  the  home  club  to  the 
umpire  for  use.  When  the  ball  in 
play  is  batted  to  foul  ground  and 
out  of  sight  of  the  umpire,  the  other 
ball  shall  be  immediately  brought 
into  play.  As  often  as  one  of  the 


two  in  use  shall  be  lost  a  new  one 
must  be  substituted. 

THE  BA  T. 

RULE  15. — Must  be  entirely  of 
hard  wood,  except  that  the  handle 
may  be  wound  with  twine  or  a 
granulated  substance  supplied,  not 
to  exceed  eighteen  inches  from  the 
end. 

It  must  be  round,  and  it  must  not 
exceed  two  and  three-quarter  inches 
in  diameter  in  the  thickest  part,  nor 
exceed  forty-two  inches  in  length. 

THE  PL  A  YERS  AND  THEIR 
POSl  TJONS. 

RULE  16. — The  players  of  each 
club  in  a  game  shall  be  nine  in  num- 
ber, one  of  whom  shall  act  as  cap- 
tain, and  in  no  case  shall  less  than 
nine  men  be  allowed  to  play  on  each 
side. 

RULE  17. — The  players' positions 
shall  be  such  as  may  be  assigned 
them  by  their  captain,  except  that 
the  pitcher,  while  in  the  act  of  de- 
livering the  ball  to  the  bat,  must 
take  the  position  as  defined  in  Rules 
8  and  29. 

RULE  18. — Players  in  uniform 
shall  not  be  permitted  to  occupy 
seats  on  the  stands,  or  to  stand 
among  the  spectators. 

RULE  19.  SECTION  i. — No  player 
shall  attach  anything  to  the  sole 
or  heel  of  his  shoes  other  than  the 
ordinary  base  ball  shoe  plate. 

SEC.  2.  The  catcher  and  first 
baseman  are  permitted  to  wear  a 
glove  or  mitt  of  any  size,  shape,  or 
weight.  All  other  players  are  re- 
stricted to  the  use  of  a  glove  or  mitt 
weighing  not  over  ten  ounces,  and 
measuring  in  circumference,  around 
the  palm  of  the  hand,  not  over  four- 
teen inches. 

PL  A  YERS1  BENCHES. 

RULE  20. — The  players'  benches 
must  be  furnished  by  the  home  club 
and  placed  upon  a  portion  of  the 
ground  outside  of  and  not  nearer 
than  25  feet  to  the  players'  lines. 
One  such  bench  must  be  for  the  ex- 
clusive use  of  the  visiting  club,  and 
one  for  the  exclusive  use  of  the 
home  club. 


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THE  GAME. 

RULE  21.  SECTION  i. — Every 
championship  game  must  be  com- 
menced not  later  than  two  hours 
before  sunset. 

SEC.  2.  A  game  shall  consist  of 
nine  innings  to  each  contesting  nine, 
except  that 

(a.)  If  the  side  first  at  bat 
scores  less  runs  in  nine  innings  than 
the  other  side  has  scored  in  eight 
innings,  the  game  shall  then  ter- 
minate. 

(if.)  If  the  side  last  at  bat  in 
the  ninth  inning  scores  the  win- 
ning run  before  the  third  man  is  out, 
the  game  shall  terminate. 

A    TIE  GAME. 

RULE  22. — If  the  score  be  a  tie  at 
the  end  of  the  nine  innings,  play  shall 
be  continued  until  one  side  has 
scored  more  runs  than  the  other  in 
an  equal  number  of  innings,  pro- 
vided, that  the  side  last  at  bat  scores 
the  winning  run  before  the  third  man 
is  out,  the  game  shall  terminate. 

A  DRAWN  GAME. 

RULE  23. — A  drawn  game  shall 
be  declared  by  the  umpire  when 
he  terminates  a  game  on  account  of 
darkness  or  rain,  after  five  equal 
innings  have  been  played,  if  the  score 
at  the  time  is  equal  on  the  last  even 
innings  played  ;  except  when  the  side 
that  went  second  to  bat  is  then  at  the 
bat,  and  has  scored  the  same  num- 
ber of  runs  as  the  other  side,  in 
which  case  the  umpire  shall  declare 
the  game  drawn  without  regard  to 
the  score  of  the  last  equal  innings. 

A   CALLED  GAME. 

RULE  24. — If  the  umpire  calls 
"  Game"  on  account  of  darkness  or 
rain  at  any  time  after  five  innings 
have  been  completed,  the  score  shall 
be  that  of  the  last  equal  innings 
played,  except,  that  the  side  second 
at  bat  shall  have  scored  one  or 
more  runs  than  the  side  first  at 
bat,  in  which  case  the  score  of  the 
game  shall  be  the  total  number  of 
runs  made. 

A  FORFEITED  GAME. 

RULE  25. — A  forfeited  game  shall 
be  declared  by  the  umpire  in  favor 


of  the  club  not  in  fault,  at  the  request 
of  such  club,  in  the  following  cases  : 

SECTION  i.  If  the  nine  of  a  club 
fail  to  appear  upon  the  field,  or  being 
upon  the  field,  fail  to  begin  the  game 
within  five  minutes  after  the  umpire 
has  called  "  Play  "  at  the  hour  ap- 
pointed for  the  beginning  of  the 
game,  unless  such  delay  in  appearing, 
or  in  commencing  the  game,  be  un- 
avoidable. 

SEC.  2.  If,  after  the  game  has 
begun,  one  side  refuses  or  fails  to 
continue  playing,  unless  such  game 
has  been  suspended  or  terminated 
by  the  umpire. 

SEC.  3.  If,  after  play  has  been 
suspended  by  the  umpire,  one  side 
fails  to  resume  playing  within  one 
minute  after  the  umpire  has  called 
"  Play." 

SEC.  4.  If  a  team  resorts  to  dila- 
tory movements  to  delay  the  game. 

SEC.  5.  If,  in  the  opinion  of  the 
umpire,  any  one  of  the  rules  of  the 
games  is  willfully  violated. 

SEC.  6.  If,  after  ordering  the  re- 
moval of  a  player,  as  authorized  by 
the  Rules,  said  order  is  not  obeyed 
within  one  minute. 

SEC.  7.  If,  because  of  removal 
of  players  from  the  game  by  the 
itmpire,  there  be  less  than  nine 
players  in  either  team. 

SEC.  8.  If,  when  two  games  are 
scheduled  to  be  played  on  the  same 
afternoon,  the  second  game  be  not 
commenced  within  ten  minutes  of 
the  time  of  completion  of  the  first 
game.  The  umpire  of  the  first 
game  shall  be  the  timekeeper. 
NO  GAME. 

RULE  26. — "  No  game  "  shall  be 
declared  by  the  umpire  if  he  shall 
terminate  play  on  account  of  rain  or 
darkness  before  five  innings  on  each 
side  are  completed.  Except  in  a 
case  when  the  game  is  called,  and 
the  club  second  at  bat  shall  have 
more  runs  at  end  of  its  fourth 
innings  than  the  club  first  at  bat 
has  made  in  its  five  completed 
innings;  in  such  case  the  umpire 
shall  award  the  game  to  the  club 


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having  made  the  greatest  number  of 
runs. 

SUBSTITUTES. 

RULE  27.  SECTION  i. — In  every 
championship  game  each  side  shall 
be  required  to  have  present  on  the 
field,  in  uniform,  a  sufficient  number 
of  substitute  players  to 'carry  out  the 

E  revision    which    requires    that    not 
:ss  than  nine  players  shall  occupy 
the  field  in  any  innings  of  the  game. 
SEC.  2.     Any  such  player  may  be 
substituted   at   any   time   by   either 
club,  but   a   player   thereby   retired 
shall  not  thereafter  participate  in  the 
game. 

SEC.  3.  The  base-runner  shall 
not  have  a  substitute  run  for  him 
except  by  the  consent  of  the  captains 
of  the  contesting  teams. 

CHOICE  OF  INNINGS— CONDITION  OF 
GROUND. 

RULE  28. — The  choice  of  innings 
shall  be  given  to  the  captain  of  the 
home  club,  who  shall  also  be  the 
sole  judge  of  the  fitness  of  the 
ground  for  beginning  a  game  after 
rain,  but,  after  play  has  been  called 
by  the  umpire,  he  alone  shall  be  the 
judge  as  to  the  fitness  of  the  ground 
for  resuming  play  after  the  game  has 
been  suspended  on  account  of  rain. 

THE  PITCHER'S  POSITION. 

RULE  29.— The  pitcher  shall  take 
his  position  facing  the  batsman  with 
both  feet  square  on  the  ground,  and 
in  front  of  the  pitcher's  plate;  but  in 
the  act  of  delivering  the  ball  to  the 
bat,  one  foot  must  be  in  contact 
with  the  pitcher's  plate,  defined  in 
Rule  8.  He  shall  not  raise  either 
foot,  unless  in  the  act  of  delivering 
the  ball  to  the  bat,  nor  make  more 
than  one  step  in  such  delivery. 

A  FAIRLY  DELIVERED  BALL. 

RULE  30. — A  Fairly  Delivered 
Ball  to  the  bat  is  a  ball  pitched 
or  thrown  to  the  bat  by  the  pitcher 
while  standing  in  his  position  and 
facing  the  batsman,  the  ball  so 
delivered  to  pass  over  any  portion  of 
the  home  base  not  lower  than  the 
batsman's  knee  nor  higher  than  his 
shoulder. 


AN  UNFAIRLY  DELIVERED  BALL. 

RULE  31. — An  Unfairly  Delivered 
Ball  is  a  ball  delivered  by  the  pitcher, 
as  in  Rule  30,  except  that  the  ball 
does  not  pass  over  any  portion  of  the 
home  base,  or  does  pass  over  the 
home  base,  above  the  batsman's 
shoulder  or  below  the  line  of  his 
knee. 

BALKING. 

RULE.  32.— A  Balk  shall  be  : 

SECTION  I.  Any  motion  made 
by  the  pitcher  to  deliver  the  ball 
to  the  bat  without  delivering  it. 

SEC.  2.  Any  delivery  of  the  ball 
to  the  bat  while  his  (pivot)  foot 
is  not  in  contact  with  the  pitcher's 
plate,  as  defined  in  Rule  29. 

SEC.  3.  Any  motion  in  deliver- 
ing the  ball  to  the  bat  by  the  pitcher 
while  not  in  the  position  defined 
in  Rule  29. 

SEC.  4.  The  holding  of  the  ball 
by  the  pitcher  so  long  *s,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  umpire,  to  delay  the 
game  unnecessarily. 

SEC.  5.  Standing  in  position  and 
making  any  motion  to  pitch  without 
having  the  ball  in  his  possession,  ex- 
cept in  the  case  of  a  "block-ball," 
as  provided  by  Rule  35,  section  2. 

When  the  pitcher  feigns  to  throw 
the  ball  to  a  base  he  must  resume 
the  above  position  and  pause  mo- 
mentarily before  delivering  the  ball 
to  the  bat. 

If  the  pitcher  fails  to  comply  with 
the  requirements  of  this  rule  the 
umpire  must  call  "  A  balk." 

SEC.  6.  The  making  of  any  mo- 
tion the  pitcher  habitually  makes  in 
his  method  of  delivery,  without  his 
immediately  delivering  the  ball  to 
the  bat. 

SEC.  7.  If  the  pitcher  feigns  to 
throw  the  ball  to  a  base  and  does 
not  resume  his  legal  position  and 
pause  momentarily  before  delivering 
the  ball  to  the  bat. 

DEAD  BALLS. 

RULE  33.— A  Dead  Ball  is  a  ball 
delivered  to*  the  bat  by  the  pitcher 
that  touches  any  part  of  the  bats- 
man's person  or  clothing  while 


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standing  in  his  position  without  be- 
ing struck  at,  or  that  touches  any 
part  of  the  umpire's  person  or  cloth- 
ing while  he  is  standing  on  foul 
ground  without  first  passing  the 
catcher. 

RULE  34. — In  case  of  a  foul  strike, 
foul  hit  ball  not  legally  caught  out, 
dead  ball,  or  base-runner  put  out  for 
being  struck  by  a  fair-hit  ball,  the 
ball  shall  not  be  considered  in  play 
until  it  is  held  by  the  pitcher  stand- 
ing in  his  position  and  the  umpire 
shall  hare  called  play. 

BLOCK  BALLS. 

RULE  35.  SECTION  i. — A  Block 
is  a  batted  or  thrown  ball  that  is 
touched,  stopped,  or  handled  by  any 
person  not  engaged  in  the  game. 

SEC.  2.  Whenever  a  block  occurs 
the  umpire  shall  declare  it  and 
the  base-runners  may  run  the  bases 
without  being  put  out  until  the  ball 
has  been  returned  to  and  held  by  the 
pitcher  standing  in  his  position. 

SEC.  3.  In  the  case  of  a  block,  if 
a  person  not  engaged  in  the  game 
should  retain  possession  of  the  ball, 
or  throw  or  kick  it  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  fielders,  the  umpire  should 
call  "  Time  "  and  require  each  base- 
runner  to  stop  at  the  last  base 
touched  by  him  until  the  ball  be  re- 
turned to  the  pitcher  standing  in  his 
position  and  the  umpire  shall  have 
called  "  Play." 

THE  BA  TSMAWS  POSITION-ORDER 
OF  BA  TTING. 

RULE  36. — The  batsmen  must 
take  their  position  within  the  bats- 
man's lines,  as  defined  in  Rule  10,  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  named 
in  the  batting  order,  which  batting 
order  must  be  submitted  by  the 
captains  of  the  opposing  teams  to 
the  umpire  before  the  game,  and 
this  batting  order  must  be  followed 
except  in  the  case  of  a  substitute 
player,  in  which  case  the  substitute 
must  take  the  place  of  the  oiiginal 
player  in  the  batting  order.  After 
the  first  inning  the  first  striker  in 
each  inning  shall  be  the  batsman 


whose  name  follows  that  of  the  last 
man  who  has  completed  his  turn — 
time  at  bat — in  the  preceding  inning. 

RULE  37.  SECTION  i. — When 
their  side  goes  to  the  bat  the  players 
must  immediately  return  to  the 
players'  bench,  as  defined  in  Rule 
20,  and  remain  there  until  the  side 
is  put  out,  except  when  called  to  the 
bat  or  they  become  coachers  or  sub- 
stitute base-runners ;  provided,  that 
the  captain  or  one  player  only, 
except  that  if  two  or  more  base- 
runners  are  occupying  the  bases 
then  the  captain  and  one  player,  or 
two  players,  may  occupy  the  space 
between  the  player's  lines  and  the 
captain's  lines  to  coach  base-runners. 

SEC.  2.  No  player  of  the  side  "  at 
bat,"  except  when  batsman,  shall 
occupy  any  portion  of  the  space 
within  the  catcher's  lines,  as  defined 
in  Rule  3.  The  triangular  space 
behind  the  home  base  is  reserved  for 
the  exclusive  use  of  umpire,  catcher, 
and  batsman,  and  the  umpire  must 
prohibit  any  player  of  the  side  "  at 
bat"  from  crossing  the  same  at  any 
time  while  the  ball  is  in  the  hands 
of,  or  passing  between,  the  pitcher 
and  catcher,  while  standing  in  their 
positions. 

SEC.  3.  The  players  of  the  side 
"at  bat  "must  occupy  the  portion 
of  the  field  allotted  them,  but  must 
speedily  vacate  any  portion  thereof 
that  may  be  in  the  way  of  the  ball, 
or  any  fielder  attempting  to  catch  or 
field  it. 

THE  BA  TTING  RULES. 

RULE  38.  SECTION  i.— A  Fair 
Hit  is  a  ball  batted  by  the  batsman 
— while  he  is  standing  within  the 
lines  of  his  position — that  first 
touches  "  fair  "  ground,  or  the  per- 
son of  a  player,  or  the  umpire,  while 
standing  on  fair  ground,  and  then 
settles  on  fair  ground  before  passing 
the  line  of  first  or  third  base. 

SEC.  2.  A  Foul  Hit  is  a  similarly 
batted  ball  that  first  touches  "  foul  " 
ground,  or  the  person  of  a  player,  or 
the  umpire  while  standing  on  "  foul " 
ground. 


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SEC.  3.  Should  such  "  fair  hit  " 
ball  bound  or  roll  to  foul  ground, 
before  passing  the  line  of  first  or 
third  base,  and  settle  on  foul  ground, 
it  shall  be  declared  by  the  umpire  a 
foul  ball. 

SEC.  4.  Should  such  "  foul  hit  " 
ball  bound  or  roll  to  fair  ground  and 
settle  there  before  passing  the  line 
of  first  or  third  base,  it  shall  be 
declared  by  the  umpire  a  fair  ball. 

RULE  39. — A  foul  tip  is  a  ball 
batted  by  the  batsman  while  stand- 
ing within  the  lines  of  his  position 
that  goes  foul  sharp  from  the  bat  to 
the  catcher's  hands. 

RULE  40.— A  bunt  hit  is  a  ball 
delivered  by  the  pitcher  to  the  bats- 
man who,  while  standing  within  the 
lines  of  his  position,  makes  a  deliber- 
ate attempt  to  hit  the  ball  so  slowly 
within  the  infield  that  it  cannot  be 
fielded  in  time  to  retire  the  batsman. 
If  such  a  "  bunt  hit  "  goes  to  foul 
ground  a  strike  shall  be  called  by 
the  umpire. 

BALLS    BATTED    OUTSIDE     THE 
GROUND. 

RULE  41.— When  a  batted  ball 
passes  outside  the  grounds,  the 
umpire  shall  decide  it  Fair  should  it 
disappear  within,  or  Foul  should  it 
disappear  outside  of  the  range  of  the 
foul  lines,  and  Rule  38  is  to  be  con- 
strued accordingly. 

RULE  42. — A  fair  batted  ball  that 
goes  over  the  fence  shall  entitle  the 
batsman  to  a  home  run,  except,  that 
should  it  go  over  the  fence  at  a  less 
distance  than  two  hundred  and 
thirty-five  (235)  feet  from  the  home 
base,  when  he  shall  be  entitled  to 
two  bases  only,  and  a  distinctive  line 
shall  be  marked  on  the  fence  at  this 
point. 

STRIKES. 

RULE  43. — A  Strike  is : 

SECTION  i.  A  ball  struck  at  by 
the  batsman  without  its  touching 
his  bat ;  or, 

SEC.  2.  A  fair  ball  legally  de- 
livered by  the  pitcher,  but  not  struck 
at  by  the  batsman. 

SEC.  3.     Any  intentional  effort  to 


hit  the  ball  to  foul  ground,  also  in 
the  case  of  a  "  bunt  hit,"  which 
sends  the  ball  to  foul  ground,  either 
directly,  or  by  bounding  or  rolling 
from  fairground  to  foul  ground,  and 
which  settles  on  foul  ground. 

SEC.  4.  A  ball  struck  at,  if  the 
ball  touches  any  part  of  the  bats- 
man's person. 

SEC.  5.  A  ball  tipped  by  the 
batsman,  and  caught  by  the  catcher, 
within  ten  feet  from  home  base. 

RULE  44. — A  Foul  Strike  is  a  ball 
batted  by  the  batsman  when  any 
part  of  his  person  is  upon  ground 
outside  the  lines  of  the  batsman's 
position. 

THE  BATSMAN  IS  OUT. 

RULE  45.— The  Batsman  is  Out : 

SECTION  i.  If  he  fails  to  take 
his  position  at  the  bat  in  his  order  of 
batting,  unless  the  error  be  dis- 
covered and  the  proper  batsman 
takes  his  position  before  a  time  "  at 
bat  "  is  recorded,  and,  in  such  case, 
the  balls  and  strikes  called  must  be 
counted  in  the  time  "at  bat"  of  the 
proper  batsman,  and  only  the  proper 
batsman  shall  be  declared  out,  and 
no  runs  shall  be  scored  or  bases  run 
because  of  any  act  of  the  improper 
batsman,  provided,  this  rule  shall 
not  take  effect  unless  the  out  is 
declared  before  the  ball  is  delivered 
to  the  succeeding  batsman.  Should 
batsman  declared  out  by  this  rule  be 
sufficient  to  retire  the  side,  the 
Proper  batsman  the  next  innings  is 
the  player  who  would  have  come 
to  bat  had  the  players  been  out  by 
ordinary  play. 

SEC.  2.  If  he  fails  to  take  his 
position  within  one  minute  after  the 
umpire  has  called  for  the  batsman. 

SEC.  3.  If  he  makes  a  foul  hit 
other  than  a  foul  tip,  as  defined  in 
Rule  39,  and  the  ball  be  momen- 
tarily held  by  a  fielder  before  touch- 
ing the  ground  ;  provided,  it  be  not 
caught  in  a  fielder's  hat  or  cap,  or 
touched  by  some  object  other  than  a 
fielder  before  being  caught. 

SEC.  4.     If  he  makes  a  foul  strike. 

SEC.  5.     If  he  attempts  to  hinder 


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the  catcher  from  fielding  or  throw- 
ing the  ball  by  stepping  outside  the 
lines  of  his  position,  or  otherwise 
obstructing  or  interfering  with  the 
player. 

SEC.  6.  If,  while  the  first  base 
be  occupied  by  a  base-runner,  three 
strikes  be  called  on  him  by  the 
umpire,  except  when  two  men  are 
already  out. 

SEC.  7.  If,  after  two  strikes  have 
been  called,  the  batsman  obviously 
attempts  to  make  a  foul  hit,  as  in 
Rule  43,  section  3. 

SEC.  8.  If,  while  attempting  a 
third  strike,  the  ball  touches  any 
part  of  the  batsman's  person,  in 
which  case  base-runners  occupying 
bases  shall  return  as  prescribed  in 
Rule  49,  section  5. 

SEC.  9.  If  he  hits  a  fly  ball  that 
can  be  handled  by  an  infielder  while 
first  and  second  bases  are  occupied, 
or  first,  second  and  third  with  only 
one  out.  In  such  case  the  umpire 
shall,  as  soon  as  the  ball  is  hit, 
declare  infield  or  outfield  hit. 

SEC.  10.  If  the  third  strike  is 
called  in  accordance  with  section  4, 
Rule  43. 

SEC.  11.  The  moment  a  bats- 
man is  declared  out  by  the  umpire, 
he  (the  umpire)  shall  call  for  the 
batsman  next  in  order  to  leave  his 
seat  on  the  bench  and  take  his  posi- 
tion at  the  bat,  and  such  player  of 
the  batting  side  shall  not  leave  his 
seat  on  the  bench  until  so  called  to 
bat,  except  as  provided  by  Rule  37, 
section  I,  and  Rule  52. 

BASE-RUNNING  RULES. 

RULE  46. — WHEN  THE  BATS- 
MAN BECOMES  A  BASE-RUNNER. 

The  Batsman  becomes  a  Base- 
runner  : 

SECTION  i.  Instantly  after  he 
makes  a  fair  hit. 

SEC.  2.  Instantly  after  four  balls 
have  been  called  by  the  umpire. 

SEC.  3.  Instantly  after  three 
strikes  have  been  declared  by  the 
umpire. 

SEC.  4.  If,  while  he  be  batsman, 
without  making  any  attempt  to 


strike  at  the  ball,  his  person  or  cloth- 
ing be  hit  by  a  ball  from  the  pitcher 
unless,  in  the  opinion  of  the  umpire, 
he  plainly  avoids  making  any  effort 
to  get  out  of  the  way  of  the  ball 
from  the  pitcher,  and  thereby  permits 
himself  to  be  so  hit. 

SEC.  5.  Instantly  after  an  illegal 
delivery  of  a  ball  by  the  pitcher. 

An  illegal  delivery  of  the  ball  is 
made  if  the  pitcher's  pivot  foot  be 
not  in  contact  -with  the  rubber  plate 
at  the  time  of  the  delivery  of  the 
ball,  or  if  he  takes  more  than  one 
step  in  delivery,  or  if,  after  feign- 
ing to  throw  to  a  base,  he  fails  to 
pause  momentarily  before  deliver- 
ing the  ball  to  the  bat. 

BASES  TO  BE  TOUCHED. 

RULE  47. — The  base-runner  must 
touch  each  base  in  regular  order, 
viz.,  first,  second,  third  and  home 
bases,  and  when  obliged  to  return 
(except  on  a  foul  hit)  must  retouch 
the  base  or  bases  in  reverse  order. 
He  shall  only  be  considered  as 
holding  a  base  after  touching  it, 
and  shall  then  be  entitled  to  hold 
such  base  until  he  has  legally 
touched  the  next  base  in  order  or 
has  been  legally  forced  to  vacate  it 
for  a  succeeding  base-runner.  How- 
ever, no  base-runner  shall  score  a 
run  to  count  in  the  game  until  the 
base-runner  preceding  him  in  the 
batting  list  (provided  there  has  been 
such  a  base-runner  who  has  not 
been  put  out  in  that  inning)  shall 
have  first  touched  home  base  with- 
out being  put  out. 

ENTITLED   TO  BASES. 

RULE  48. — The  base-runner  shall 
be  entitled,  without  being  put  out, 
to  take  the  base  in  the  following 
cases: 

SECTION  I.  If,  while  he  was  bats- 
man, the  umpire  called  four  balls. 

SEC.  2.  If  the  umpire  awards  a 
succeeding  batsman  a  base  on  four 
balls,  or  for  being  hit  with  a  pitched 
ball,  or  in  case  of  an  illegal  delivery 
— as  in  Rule  46,  section  5 — and  the 
base-runner  is  thereby  forced  to 
vacate  the  base  held  by  him. 


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70 


BASE  BALL 


SEC.  3.  If  the  umpire  calls  a 
"Balk." 

SEC.  4.  If  a  ball,  delivered  by 
the  pitcher,  pass  the  catcher,  and 
touch  the  umpire,  or  any  fence  or 
building  within  ninety  feet  of  the 
home  base. 

SEC.  5.  If,  upon  a  fair  hit,  the 
ball  strikes  the  person  or  clothing  of 
the  umpire  on  fair  ground. 

SEC.  6.  If  he  be  prevented  from 
making  a  base  by  the  obstruction  of 
an  adversary,  unless  the  latter  be  a 
fielder  having  the  ball  in  his  hand 
ready  to  meet  the  base-runner. 

SEC.  7.  If  the  fielder  stop  or 
catch  a  batted  ball  with  his  hat  or 
any  part  of  his  uniform  except  his 
gloved  hand. 

RETURNING  TO  BASES. 

RULE  49. — The  base-runner  shall 
return  to  his  base,  and  shall  be  en- 
titled to  so  return  without  being  put 
out : 

SECTION  i.  If  the  umpire  de- 
clares a  foul  tip  (as  defined  in  Rule 
39),  or  any  other  foul  hit  not  legally 
caught  by  a  fielder. 

SEC.  2.  If  the  umpire  declares  a 
foul  strike. 

SEC.  3.  If  the  umpire  declares  a 
dead  ball,  unless  it  be  also  the  fourth 
unfair  ball  and  he  be  thereby  forced 
to  take  the  next  base,  as  provided  in 
Rule  48,  section  2. 

SEC.  4.  If  the  person  or  clothing 
of  the  umpire  interferes  with  the 
catcher,  or  he  is  struck  by  a  ball 
thrown  by  the  catcher  to  intercept  a 
base-runner. 

SEC.  5.  The  base-runner  shall 
return  to  his  base  if,  while  attempt- 
ing a  strike,  the  ball  touches  any 
part  of  the  batsman's  person. 

WHEN    BASE-RUNNERS    ARE     OUT. 

RULE  50. — The  Base-runner  is 
Out: 

SECTION  i.  If,  after  three  strikes 
have  been  declared  against  him 
while  batsman  and  the  catcher  fail 
to  catch  the  third  strike  ball,  he 
plainly  attempts  to  hinder  the 
catcher  from  fielding  the  ball. 

SEC.  2.     If,   having  made  a  fair 


hit  while  batsman,  such  fair  hit  ball 
be  momentarily  held  by  a  fielder 
before  touching  the  ground,  or  any 
object  other  than  a  fielder ; 
PROVIDED,  it  be  not  caught  in  a 
fielder's  hat  or  cap. 

SEC.  3.  If,  when  the  umpire  has 
declared  three  strikes  on  him  while 
batsman,  the  third  strike  ball  be 
momentarily  held  by  a  fielder  before 
touching  the  ground  ;  PROVIDED,  it 
be  not  caught  in  a  fielder's  hat  or 
cap,  or  touch  some  object  other 
than  a  fielder  before  being  caught. 

SEC.  4.  If,  after  three  strikes  or  a 
fair  hit,  he  be  touched  with  the  ball 
in  the  hand  of  a  fielder  before  he 
shall  have  touched  first  base. 

SEC.  5.  If,  after  three  strikes  or  a 
fair  hit,  the  ball  be  securely  held  by 
a  fielder  while  touching  first  base 
with  any  part  of  his  person  be- 
fore such  base-runner  touches  first 
base. 

SEC.  6.  If,  in  running  the  last 
half  of  the  distance  from  home  base 
to  first  base,  while  the  ball  is  being 
fielded  to  first  base,  he  runs  outside 
the  three-foot  lines,  as  defined  in 
Rule  7,  unless  to  avoid  a  fielder 
attempting  to  field  a  batted  ball. 

SEC.  7.  If,  in  running  from  first 
to  second  base,  from  second  to 
third  base,  or  from  third  to  home 
base,  he  runs  more  than  three  feet 
from  a  direct  line  between  such 
bases  to  avoid  being  touched  by  the 
ball  in  the  hands  of  a  fielder ;  but  in 
case  a  fielder  be  occupying  the  base- 
runner's  proper  path  in  attempting 
to  field  a  batted  ball,  then  the  base- 
runner  shall  run  out  of  the  path,  and 
behind  said  fielder,  and  shall  not  be 
declared  out  for  so  doing. 

SEC.  8.  If  he  fails  to  avoid  a 
fielder  attempting  to  field  a  batted 
ball,  in  the  manner  described  in 
sections  6  and  7  of  this  rule,  or  if 
he,  in  any  way,  obstructs  a  fielder 
attempting  to  field  a  batted  ball,  or 
intentionally  interferes  with  a  thrown 
ball ;  PROVIDED,  that  if  two  or  more 
fielders  attempt  to  field  a  batted 
ball,  and  the  base-runner  comes  in 


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BASE   BALL 


contact  with  one  or  more  of  them, 
the  umpire  shall  determine  which 
fielder  is  entitled  to  the  benefit  of 
this  rule,  and  shall  not  decide  the 
base-runner  out  for  coming  in  con- 
tact with  any  other  fielder. 

SEC.  9.  If,  at  any  time  while  the 
ball  is  in  play,  he  be  touched  by  the 
ball  in  the  hands  of  a  fielder,  unless 
some  part  of  his  person  is  touching 
a  base  he  is  entitled  to  occupy  ;  PRO- 
VIDED, the  ball  be  held  by  the 
fielder  after  touching  him. 

SEC.  10.  The  base-runner  in 
running  to  first  base  may  overrun 
said  base,  without  being  put  out  for  j 
being  off  said  base,  after  first  touch-  ; 
ing  it,  provided  he  returns  at  once 
and  retouches  the  base,  after  which 
he  may  be  put  out  as  at  any  other 
base.  If,  in  overrunning  first  base, 
he  also  attempts  to  run  to  second 
base,  or  after  passing  the  base  he 
turns  to  his  left  from  the  foul  line, 
he  shall  forfeit  such  exemption  from 
being  put  out. 

SEC.  ii.  If,  when  a  fair  or  foul 
hit  ball  (other  than  a  foul  tip  as 
referred  to  in  Rule  39)  is  legally 
caught  by  a  fielder,  such  ball  is 
legally  held  by  a  fielder  on  the 
base  occupied  by  the  base-runner 
when  such  ball  was  struck  (or  the 
base-runner  be  touched  with  the  ball 
in  the  hands  of  a  fielder),  before  he 
retouches  said  base  after  such  fair 
or  foul  hit  call  was  so  caught ; 
PROVIDED,  that  the  base-runner 
shall  not  be  out,  in  such  case,  if, 
after  the  ball  was  legally  caught  as 
above,  it  be  delivered  to  the  bat  by 
the  pitcher  before  the  fielder  holds 
it  on  said  base,  or  touches  the  base- 
runner  with  it;  but  if  the  base-run- 
ner, in  attempting  to  reach  a  base, 
detaches  it  before  being  touched  or 
forced  out,  he  shall  be  declared 
safe. 

SEC.  12.  If,  when  a  batsman 
becomes  a  base-runner,  the  first 
base,  or  the  first  and  second  bases, 
or  the  first,  second  and  third  bases, 
be  occupied,  any  base-runner  so 
occupying  a  base  shall  cease  to  be 


entitled  to  hold  it,  until  any  follow- 
ing base-runner  is  put  out,  and  may 
be  put  out  at  the  next  base,  or  by 
being  touched  by  the  ball  in  the 
hands  of  a  fielder  in  the  same  man- 
mer  as  in  running  to  first  base  at  any 
time  before  any  following  base- 
runner  is  put  out. 

SEC.  13.  If  a  fair  hit  ball  strike 
him  before  touching  the  fielder,  and, 
in  such  case,  no  base  shall  be  run 
unless  forced  by  the  batsman  becom- 
ing a  base-runner,  and  no  run  shall 
be  scored  or  any  other  base-runner 
put  out. 

SEC.  14.  If,  when  running  to  a 
base,  or  forced  to  return  to  a  base, 
he  fail  to  touch  the  intervening  base, 
or  bases,  if  any,  in  the  order  pre- 
scribed in  Rule  47,  he  may  be  put 
out  at  the  base  he  fails  to  touch,  or 
being  touched  by  the  ball  in  the 
hands  of  a  fielder  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  in  running  to  first  base  ;  PRO- 
VIDED, that  the  base-runner  shall  not 
be  out  in  such  case  if  the  ball  be 
delivered  to  the  bat  by  the  pitcher 
before  the  fielder  holds  it  on  said 
base,  or  touches  the  base-runner 
with  it. 

SEC.  15.  If,  when  the  umpire 
calls  "  Play,"  after  any  suspension  of 
a  game,  he  fails  to  return  to  and 
touch  the  base  he  occupied  when 
"Time"  was  called  before  touching 
the  next  base  ;  PROVIDED,  the  base- 
runner  shall  not  be  out,  in  such  case, 
if  the  ball  be  delivered  to  the  bat  by 
the  pitcher  before  the  fielder  holds  it 
on  said  base  or  touches  the  base- 
runner  with  it. 

WHEN  BA  TSMAN  OR  BASE-RUNNER 
IS  OUT. 

RULE  51. — The  umpire  shall 
declare  the  batsman  or  base-runner 
out,  without  waiting  for  an  appeal 
for  such  decision,  in  all  cases  where 
such  player  is  put  out  in  accordance 
with  these  rules,  except  as  provided 
in  Rule  50,  sections  10  and  14. 

COACHING  RULES. 

RULE  52. — The  coacher  shall  be 
restricted  to  coaching  the  base- 
runner  only,  and  shall  not  be  allowed 


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BASE   BALL 


to  address  any  remarks  except  to  the 
base-runner,  and  then  only  in  words 
of  necessary  direction ;  and  shall 
not  use  language  which  will  in  any 
manner  refer  to,  or  reflect  upon  a 
player  of  the  opposing  club,  the 
umpire  or  the  spectators,  and  not 
more  than  one  coacher,  who  may  be 
a  player  participating  in  the  game, 
or  any  other  player  under  contract  to 
it,  in  the  uniform  of  either  club,  shall 
be  allowed  at  any  one  time,  except, 
that  if  base-runners  are  occuping  two 
or  more  of  the  bases,  then  the  cap- 
tain and  one  player,  or  two  players 
in  the  uniform  of  either  club,  may 
occupy  the  space  between  the 
players'  lines  and  the  captains'  lines 
to  coach  base-runners.  To  enforce 
the  above  the  captain  of  the  opposite 
side  may  call  the  attention  of  the 
umpire  to  the  offense,  and,  upon  a 
repetition  of  the  same,  the  offending 
player  shall  be  debarred  from  further 
participation  in  the  game,  and  shall 
leave  the  playing  field  forthwith. 

THE  SCORING  OF  RUNS. 

RULE  53. — One  run  shall  be  scored 
every  time  a  base-runner,  after  hav- 
ing legally  touched  the  first  three 
bases,  shall  touch  the  home  base 
before  three  men  are  put  out. 
(Exception) — If  the  third  man  is 
forced  out,  or  is  put  out  before 
reaching  first  base,  a  run  shall  not 
be  scored. 

GENERAL  DEFINITIONS. 

"  Play  "  is  the  order  of  the  umpire 
to  begin  the  game,  or  to  resume  play 
after  its  suspension. 

"  Time  "  is  the  order  of  the  umpire 
to  suspend  play.  Such  suspension 
must  not  extend  beyond  the  day  of 
the  game. 

"  Game  "  is  the  announcement  by 
the  umpire  that  the  game  is  ter- 
minated. 

An  "  Inning"  is  the  term  at  bat  of 
the  nine  players  representing  a  club 
in  a  game,  and  is  completed  when 
three  of  such  players  have  been  put 
out,  as  provided  in  these  rules. 

A  "  Time  at  Bat  "  is  the  term  at 
bat  of  a  batsman.  It  begins  when 


he  takes  his  position  and  continues 
until  he  is  put  out  or  becomes  a  base- 
runner;  except  when,  because  of 
being  hit  by  a  pitched  ball,  or  in  case 
of  an  illegal  delivery  by  the  pitcher, 
or  in  case  of  a  sacrifice  hit  purposely 
made  to  the  infield  which,  not  being 
a  base-hit,  advances  a  base-runner 
without  resulting  in  a  put-out,  except 
to  the  batsman,  as  in  Rule  45. 

"  Legal "  or  "  Legally  "  signifies  as 
required  by  these  rules. 

SCORING  RULES. 
BA  TTING. 

No  time  at  bat  shall  be  scored  if 
the  batsman  be  hit  by  a  pitched  ball 
while  standing  in  his  position,  and 
after  trying  to  avoid  being  so  hit, 
or  in  case  of  the  pitcher's  illegal 
delivery  of  the  ball  to  the  bat  which 
gives  the  batsman  his  base,  or  when 
he  intentionally  hits  the  ball  to  the 
field,  purposely  to  be  put  out,  or  if  he 
is  given  first  base  on  called  balls. 

A  base-hit  should  be  scored  in  the 
following  cases  : 

When  the  ball  from  the  bat  strikes 
the  ground  within  the  foul  lines  and 
out  of  reach  of  the  fielders. 

When  a  hit  ball  is  partially  or 
wholly  stopped  by  a  fielder  in 
motion,  but  such  player  cannot 
recover  himself  in  time  to  handle  the 
ball  before  the  striker  reaches  first 
base. 

When  a  ball  is  hit  with  such  force 
to  an  infielder  that  he  cannot  handle 
it  in  time  to  put  out  the  batsman. 
(In  case  of  doubt  over  this  class  of 
hits,  score  a  base-hit  and  exempt  the 
fielder  from  the  charge  of  an  error.) 

When  a  ball  is  hit  so  slowly 
toward  a  fielder  that  he  cannot 
handle  it  in  time  to  put  out  the 
batsman. 

That  in  all  cases  where  a  base- 
runner  is  retired  by  being  hit  by  a 
batted  ball,  the  batsman  should  be 
credited  with  a  base-hit. 

When  a  batted  ball  hits  the  per- 
son or  clothing  of  the  umpire.  In 
no  case  shall  a  base-hit  be  scored 
when  a  base-runner  has  been  forced 
out  by  the  play. 


BASE   BALL 


73 


BASE   BALL 


FIELDING. 

Where  a  batsman  is  given  out  by 
the  umpire  for  a  foul  strike,  or  where 
the  batsman  fails  to  bat  in  proper 
order,  the  put-out  shall  be  scored  to 
the  catcher.  In  all  cases  of  "  out  " 
for  interference,  running  out  of 
line,  or  infield  fly  dropped,  the 
"  out "  should  be  credited  to  the 
player  who  would  have  made  the 
play  but  for  the  action  of  the  base- 
runner  or  batsman. 

An  assist  should  be  given  to  each 
player  who  handles  the  ball  in  assist- 
ing a  put-out  or  other  play  of  the 
kind. 

And  generally  an  assist  should  be 
given  to  each  player  who  handles  or 
assists  in  any  manner  in  handling 
the  ball  from  the  time  it  leaves  the 
bat  until  it  reaches  the  player  who 
makes  the  put-out,  or  in  case  of 
a  thrown  ball,  to  each  player  who 
throws  or  handles  it  cleanly  and 
in  such  a  way  that  a  put-out  results, 
or  would  result  if  no  error  were 
made  by  the  receiver. 

ERRORS. 

An  error  shall  be  given  for  each 
misplay  which  allows  the  striker  or 
base-runner  to  make  one  or  more 
bases  when  perfect  play  would  have 
insured  his  being  put  out,  except 
that  "  wild  pitches,"  "  bases  on 
balls,"  bases  on  the  batsman  being 
struck  by  a  "  pitched  ball,"  or  in 
cases  of  illegal  pitched  balls,  balks 
and  passed  balls,  all  of  which  com- 
prise battery  errors,  shall  not  be 
included  in  said  column. 

One  Old  Cat,  a  kind  of  base  ball 
played  by  any  number  of  persons. 
The  Home  base  is  the  only  base,  and 
the  positions  of  the  players  are  Bats- 
man, Catcher,  Pitcher,  and  any  num- 
ber of  fielders,  called  First  Field, 
Second  Field,  and  so  on.  The 
striker  keeps  his  place  till  he  is  put 
out.  He  is  out  if  a  fair  fly  or  a  foul 
bound  is  caught,  all  balls  being  fair 
that  strike  in  front  of  the  base,  or  if 
the  Catcher  catch,  the  ball  after  his 
third  strike.  If  the  ball  is  not  caught 
at  the  third  strike  he  has  three  more, 


and  no  strikes  are  counted  except 
those  actually  made.  When  the 
striker  is  put  out  he  takes  the  place 
of  the  lowest  fielder.  Each  fielder 
then  rises  one  step  in  rank,  and  First 
Field  becomes  Pitcher,  while  Pitcher 
takes  the  Catcher's  place,  and 
Catcher  goes  to  the  bat.  Some- 
times, when  a  fair  ball  is  caught, 
the  fielder  who  makes  the  catch 
is  allowed  to  go  to  the  bat  at  once. 
The  Batsman  takes  the  lowest  place 
as  before,  but  only  those  lower  than 
the  successful  fielder  rise  in  rank. 

One  Old  Cat  is  sometimes  varied 
by  having  two  bases.  Home  and 
First  Base,  and  making  the  Bats- 
man run  to  the  latter  and  back  when 
he  strikes  a  fair  ball.  If  he  does  so 
without  being  put  out  at  Home, 
he  scores  a  run.  There  is  no  First 
Baseman. 

Two  Old  Cat.  This  differs  from 
One  Old  Cat  only  in  having  two 
Batsmen,  to  whom  the  ball  is  pitched 
alternately,  the  Catcher  for  one  act- 
ing as  Pitcher  for  the  other.  The 
fielders  are  partly  behind  one  Bats- 
man and  partly  behind  the  other. 

Single-Handed  Base,  a  kind  of 
Base  Ball  resembling  One  Old  Cat, 
with  a  First  Base,  except  that  there 
is  a  First  Baseman,  who  can  put  the 
striker  out  as  in  the  regular  game. 
No  count  is  kept  of  runs  ;  but  if  the 
Batsman  reaches  his  base  safely  the 
Baseman  goes  to  the  bat,  and  the 
two  thus  alternate  till  one  of  them  is 
put  out.  When  there  is  an  out,  the 
players  change  positions  as  in  One 
Old  Cat,  except  the  Baseman,  who 
continues  at  his  post,  and  alternates 
with  the  new  Batsman. 

History.  Games  of  ball  in  which 
a  feature  is  running  from  one  base  or 
goal  to  another  have  probably  been 
played  for  a  long  time,  and  games  of 
some  sort  in  which  a  bat  is  used  are 
stiil  older  (see  CRICKET).  The  illus- 
tration, from  an  old  manuscript, 
shows  a  game  of  "  club  ball  "  in  the 
I4th  century.  In  1748  the  family  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales  are  said  to  have 
played  "  Base  Ball,"  and  in  1798 


BASE   BALL 


74 


BATTLEDORE,  ETC. 


Miss  Austen  in  one  of  her  novels 
speaks  of  a  game  of  the  same  name 
as  being  played  by  girls.  A  game  of 
"  Base  Ball  "  is  still  played  in  Eng- 
land, by  little  girls,  in  which  the 
striker  hits  the  ball  with  her  hand, 
and  then  runs  from  one  goal  to 
another,  while  those  on  the  opposite 
side  strive  to  hit  her  with  the  ball  by 
throwing  it  while  she  is  between 
bases.  Another  English  game  of 
Base  Ball,  played  by  boys  or  men,  is 


Club  Ball  in  the  I4th  Century. 

called  Rounders.  It  has  been  said 
many  times  that  American  Base 
Ball  is  derived  from  Rounders,  but 
some  writers  deny  this,  and  the  only 
ground  for  the  assertion  seems  to  be 
the  similarity  of  the  games,  which 
have,  very  likely,  a  common  origin. 
Similar  games  are  favorites  in  other 
European  countries.  In  Dentches 
Ballspiel  (German  ball)  the  field  is 
nearly  square  and  the  striker  stands 
on  one  of  the  sides.  There  are  but 
two  bases,  and  the  striker  runs  from 
one  to  the  other  and  back.  If  the 
ball  is  thrown  at  him  and  hits  him, 
while  running,  he  is  out.  The  last 
one  out  can  call  for  three  strikes,  as 
in  Rounders.  The  French  "  Balle 
au  Camp  "  (Camp  Ball)  is  also  like 
Rounders,  except  that  the  ball  is 
struck  with  the  hand,  no  bat  being 
used.  The  shape  of  the  field  (called 
the  Camp)  and  the  number  of  bases 
vary  in  different  places.  In  a  form 
of  the  same  called  Balle  Empoisonte 
(Poisoned  Ball),  the  base-runner  may 
kick  the  ball  out  of  his  way,  but  must 
not  touch  it  with  his  hands,  it  being 
considered  "  poisoned." 

The  first  regular  Base   Ball  club 
in  the    United    States    is   believed 


to  have  been  the  "  Knickerbocker  " 
of  New  York,  formed  in  1845. 
Others  soon  followed,  a  uniform 
set  of  rules  was  adopted  by  a 
convention  of  clubs  it)  1857,  and  in 
1858  "  The  National  Association  of 
Base  Ball  Players "  was  organized. 
In  18593  rule  was  passed  forbidding 
paid  players  to  take  part  in  matches, 
but  this  was  often  broken,  and  in 
1868  it  was  repealed.  In  1871  the 
first  association  of  paid  or  "  profes- 
sional "  players  was  formed,  and 
now  there  are  several  such.  The  old 
"  National  Association  "  is  not  now 
in  existence,  and  the  principal  asso- 
ciations of  amateur  players  are  the 
various  college  associations.  Base 
Ball  is  now  widely  known  as  the 
American  national  game,  and  it  is  the 
only  outdoor  game  that  is  played  al- 
most exclusively  in  the  United  States. 
The  principal  difference  between  the 
present  game  and  its  earlier  forms 
is  that  while  at  first  the  pitcher  was 
compelled  to  pitch  or  toss  the  ball 
to  the  striker,  as  his  name  shows,  he 
is  now  allowed  to  throw  it.  The 
result  is  that  the  ball  is  harder  to  hit 
and  fewer  runs  are  made.  For- 
merly, in  a  match  game,  it  was  not 
unusual  for  each  side  to  make  thirty 
or  fortv  runs. 

BATTLEDORE  AND  SHUTTLE- 
COQK,  a  game  played  by  any  num- 
ber of  persons.  The  implements 
are  shown  in  the  accompanying 
figures.  The  Shuttlecock  is  usually 
made  of  cork  loaded  with  lead,  or 
sometimes  of  rubber,  and  crowned 
with  feathers.  The  Battledore  is 
sometimes  made  entirely  of  wood, 
but  better  of  parchment  stretched 
over  a  wooden  frame,  and  it  is  often 
strung  with  twine  or  catgut,  like  a 
lawn  TENNIS  racket.  The  object  of 
the  game  is  simply  to  prevent  the 
Shuttlecock  from  falling  to  the 
ground  by  striking  it  from  one 
player  to  another  with  the  Battledore. 
The  shuttlecock  has  in  the  air  a  spin- 
ning motion  caused  by  the  feathers. 
In  whatever  direction  it  is  struck,  it 
always  turns  so  that  the  cork  goes 


BEAN   BAGS 


75 


BELL   AND    HAMMER 


foremost,  for  the  same  reason  that  a 
vane  points  toward  the  direction 
from  which  the  wind  is  blowing. 
The  Germans  call  this  game  Feder- 
ball  (Featherball).  As  they  play  it, 
he  who  lets  the  Shuttlecock  fall  loses 
a  point,  and  when  thirty  points  have 
been  lost  the  game  is  ended  ;  he  who 
has  lost  fewest  points  being  the  win- 
ner. The  French  call  the  game  le 
volant  (The  Flyer).  The  Chinese, 
who  are  very  skillful  players,  strike 
the  shuttlecock  with  the  sole  of  their 


Battledores  and  Shuttelcocks. 


feet.  Badminton,  a  game  played 
also  with  Battledores  and  a  Shuttle- 
cock, is  noticed  at  the  end  of  the 
article  on  lawn  TENNIS. 

History.  The  game  was  played 
at  least  500  years  ago.  In  the  I7th 
century  it  was  a  fashionable  game. 
In  a  comedy  printed  in  1609  occur 
the  words,  "  To  play  at  shuttlecock 
methinks  is  the  game  now."  The 
Battledore  is  named  after  a  similar 
instrument  once  used  for  beating 
clothes  in  washing.  The  word 
(sometimes  spelled  Battledoor)  is 
thought  by  some  to  be  the  Spanish 
batallador,  a  combatant,  but  it  is 
more  probably  related  to  the  words 
bat  and  beat.  The  Shuttlecock  is 
so  called  because  it  is  driven  back- 
ward and  forward  like  a  shuttle  in 
weaving.  Some  think  it  is  for 
Shuttle  cork,  and  some  that  it  is  called 
a  cock  on  account  of  its  feathers. 

BATTLE  GAME,  THE.  See 
Fox  AND  GEESE. 

BEAN  BAGS,  a  game  with  cloth 


bags,  partially  filled  with  beans, 
played  by  any  number  of  persons. 
After  choosing  sides,  the  players 
stand  in  two  lines  facing  each  other. 
Each  line  has  a  chair  or  table,  at 
each  end,  on  one  of  which  are  piled 
half  the  bean  bags.  At  a  signal,  the 
player  in  each  line  nearest  his  pile  of 
bags  seizes  them  one  by  one  and 
passes  them  along  the  line  ;  as  they 
reach  the  other  end  of  the  line  they 
are  placed  on  the  chair  or  table  at 
that  end,  and  the  side  which  first 
transfers  all  its  bags  wins  the  game. 
Each  player  must  have  hold  of  only 
one  bag  at  a  time,  and  must  hold 
that  in  only  one  hand  at  a  time, 
passing  it  from  one  hand  to  the  other 
and  from  that  to  the  next  player  in 
order.  If  a  player  pass  a  bag 
wrongly,  or  drop  it,  his  side  loses 
the  game.  There  should  be  an  um- 
pire to  decide  all  disputed  questions. 
This  game  of  bean  bags  is  more 
amusing  when  it  is  played  with  bun- 
dles of  clothes-pins  loosely  tied  to- 
gether, as  it  is  difficult  to  hand  the 
clothes-pins  down  the  line  without 
dropping  some  of  them. 

BELL  AND  HAMMER,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
with  counters,  dice,  and  five  cards, 
which  bear  respectively  the  figures 
of  a  White  Horse,  an  Inn,  a  Bell,  a 
Hammer  and  a  Bell  and  Hammer 
together.  The  dice  bear  not  only 
numbers,  but  also  blanks  and  the 
figures  of  a  bell  and  hammer.  One 
of  the  players  is  chosen  as  cashier, 
who  distributes  an  equal  number  of 
counters  to  each.  He  then  sells  by 
auction,  to  the  one  who  bids  the 
highest  number  of  counters,  the  five 
cards,  separately.  The  counters  thus 
paid  are  placed  in  the  middle  of  the 
table  to  form  the  pool,  to  which  each 
player  pays  four  counters  more.  The 
players  then  throw  the  dice  in  order, 
the  cashier  first  and  then  the  others 
in  any  order  he  may  choose,  but  the 
same  order  must  be  preserved  dur- 
ing the  game.  If  any  one  throw  all 
blanks,  each  player  must  pay  one 
counter  to  the  holder  of  the  White 


BEZIQUE  7 

Horse,  but  if  with  the  blanks  the 
Bell  or  Hammer,  or  both,  be  thrown, 
the  holder  of  the  corresponding  card 
must  pay  one  to  the  White  Horse. 
When  numbers  are  thrown  with  the 
Bell  or  Hammer  the  cashier  pays 
their  sum  in  counters  from  the  pool 
to  the  holder  of  the  corresponding 
card  ;  when  numbers  and  blanks  are 
thrown,  the  cashier  pays  the  amount 
of  such  numbers  from  the  pool  to  the 
thrower.  Where  the  sum  of  the 
numbers  thrown  exceeds  the  number 
of  counters  in  the  pool,  nothing  is 


5  BEZIQUE 

paid  from  the  pool,  but  the  player 
who  would  otherwise  have  received 
pay  pays  the  excess  to  the  holder  of 
the  Inn.  After  the  Inn  has  begun 
thus  to  receive,  if  all  blanks  are 
thrown,  the  players  do  not  pay,  as 
before,  but  the  White  Horse  pays 
one  to  the  Inn.  If  Bell  or  Hammer, 
or  both,  be  thrown  with  blanks  after 
the  Inn  begins  to  receive,  the  holder 
of  the  corresponding  card  pays  one 
to  the  Inn.  The  game  is  won  by  the 
player  having  the  largest  number  of 
counters  at  the  close  of  the  game. 


Bell  and  Hammer  Implements. 


The  game  ends  when  some  player 
takes  all  the  counters  in  the  pool, 
and  such  player  acts  as  cashier  for 
the  next  game.  Bell  and  Hammer 
is  much  played  in  Germany,  where  it 
is  called  Glocke  und  Hammer  (Bell 
and  Hammer)  or  Schimmel  (Horse). 
BEZIQUE,  a  game  of  CARDS 
played  by  two,  three,  or  four  persons, 
with  as  many  EUCHRE  packs  as  there 
are  players.  The  two-handed  game 
will  be  described  first.  The  cards 
rank  as  follows :  Ace,  Ten,  King, 
Queen,  Knave,  Nine,  Eight,  and 
Seven.  The  players  cut  for  deal  and 
the  highest  deals  eight  cards  to  each  ; 
three,  two,  and  three  at  a  time.  The 
cards  that  are  left  are  called  the 
stock,  and  are  placed  where  each 
player  can  reach  them.  The  dealer 
turns  up  the  top  card  of  the  stock 
as  a  trump  and  lays  it  near  the  stock. 
Should  it  be  a  seven,  he  scores  ten. 
The  non-dealer  now  leads  any 


card  he  chooses,  and  his  opponent 
follows,  but  he  is  not  obliged  to  fol- 
low suit  nor  to  win  the  trick.  The 
winner  of  the  trick  scores  ten  for 
every  Ace  and  every  Ten  in  the  trick, 
and  may  also  lay  on  the  table  in 
front  of  him  any  group  of  cards 
that  is  named  in  the  list  given  below, 
scoring  the  proper  number  of  points 
for  it.  This  is  called  making  a  decla- 
ration, and  the  cards  so  laid  down 
are  said  to  be  declared.  They  are 
still  part  of  his  hand,  though  they 
remain  on  the  table,  and  he  may 
play  them  like  the  others.  After 
the  declaration,  if  there  is  any  (other- 
wise immediately  after  the  trick  is 
taken),the  winner  adds  to  his  hand  the 
top  card  of  the  stock,  and  his  oppo- 
nent takes  the  next  one;  thus  each  has 
eight  cards  as  at  first.  The  winner 
of  the  last  trick  leads,  and  the  play- 
ing, declaring,  and  drawing  go  on 
till  the  stock  is  exhausted.  After 


B£ZIQUE 


77 


B£ZIQUE 


this  no  more  declarations  may  be 
made,  and  each  player  takes  into  his 
hand  those  of  his  cards  that  still  lie 
on  the  table.  In  the  subsequent  play 
suit  must  be  followed,  and  the  second 
player  in  each  trick  must  take  it  if 
he  can.  The  winner  of  the  last  trick 
scores  ten. 

The  cards  are  then  dealt  again  and 
the  game  goes  on  as  before,  till  one 
of  the  players  has  scored  the  winning 
number  of  points.  This  is  agreed 
on  before  the  game,  but  is  usually 

JOOO. 

The  groups  of  cards  that  may  be 
declared,  and  the  points  that  may  be 
scored  for  each,  are  as  follows : 
Seven  of  trumps  counts  10 

[This  card  may  be  exchanged  for 
the  trump  card,  if  the  holder  choose, 
instead  of  being  laid  on  the  table.] 
A  Common  Marriage  (King  and 

Queen  of  any  suit  but  trumps) 

counts  20 

A  Royal   Marriage   (King  and 

Queen  of  trumps)  counts  40 

Bezique  (Queen  of  Spades  and 

Knave  of  Diamonds)  counts  40 
Double  Bezique  (two  b£ziques) 

counts  500 

Four  Aces  count  100 

Four  Kings  80 

Four  Queens  60 

Four  Knaves  40 

A    Sequence    (Ace,  Ten,  King, 

Queen,  and  Knave  of  trumps) 

counts  250 

Players  are  not  obliged  to  make  a 
declaration  if  they  do  not  wish  to  do 
so.  The  same  card  can  be  declared 
more  than  once  if  the  second  group 
so  declared  is  of  a  different  kind 
from  the  first.  Thus,  if  a  Bezique 
is  lying  on  the  table,  a  King  of 
Spades  may  be  laid  down  and  mar- 
ried to  the  Queen  that  forms  part  of 
it,  and  afterward  four  Kings  may  be 
declared  by  putting  down  three 
more  Kings,  but  a  King  or  Queen 
can  count  in  only  one  marriage,  and 
an  ace  or  face  card  in  only  one  group 
of  four  ;  a  Double  Bezique  counts  as 
a  group  of  a  different  kind  from 
a  Bezique,  and  therefore  may  be 


formed  by  adding  one  Bezique  to 
another  already  declared.  At  least 
one  card  of  a  group  must  be  laid  on 
the  table  for  the  first  time  when  it 
is  declared  ;  thus,  if  four  Kings  and 
a  Bezique  lie  already  on  the  table, 
one  of  the  Kings  cannot  be  married 
to  the  Queen  in  the  Bezique.  So, 
also,  cards  may  be  added  to  a  Royal 
Marriage  to  form  a  Sequence,  but 
if  a  Sequence  is  declared  first,  the 
Royal  Marriage  it  contains  may  not 
be  declared  afterward.  Any  number 
of  groups  may  be  declared  at  once 
when  they  are  entirely  separate,  but 
not  when  one  or  more  cards  appear 
in  more  than  one  group.  When  the 
Seven  of  trumps  is  exchanged  for  the 
trump  card  as  explained  above,  the 
latter  is  placed  among  those  of  the 
player's  cards  that  are  held  up,  and 
must  not  be  declared  till  he  has  won 
another  trick.  Of  course  no  card 
can  be  declared  that  has  been  played 
in  a  trick. 

In  playing,  the  beginner  must 
think  of  two  things  ;  the  value  of 
his  cards  in  making  declarations,  and 
their  power  to  take  Aces  and  Tens. 
If  the  player  has  no  declaration  to 
make  and  cannot  take  an  Ace  nor  a 
Ten  by  winning  a  trick,  it  is  rather 
a  disadvantage  to  him  to  win  it.  As 
suit  is  not  followed,  except  at  the 
end  of  the  game,  it  is  unsafe  to  lead 
an  Ace  or  a  Ten,  as  they  will  prob- 
ably be  trumped.  Yet  it  is  often 
better  to  do  this  than  to  play  a 
King  or  Queen  that  has  not  yet 
been  married.  By  carefully  watch- 
ing his  opponent's  play,  especially 
that  from  the  declared  cards,  a 
player  may  often  judge  correctly  the 
strength  of  his  hand. 

Scoring  the  Aces  and  Tens  is  often 
left  till  the  end  of  the  hand,  when 
each  player,  gathering  up  the  tricks 
he  has  taken,  reckons  them  all  at 
once ;  but  it  is  simpler  to  score  for 
them  as  they  are  taken.  The  score 
may  be  kept  with  pencil  and  paper, 
but  score  cards  like  the  one  in  the 
illustration  are  commonly  used,  hav- 
ing three  pointers,  for  tens,  hundreds. 


BEZIQUE  J 

and   thousands.     In  the   figure  the 
score  marked  is  3520. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

I.  If  either  player  is  dealt  less  than 
eight    cards   the   number    must   be 


Bezique  Marker. 

made  up  from  the  stock,  or  the  non- 
dealer  may  call  for  a  new  deal,  if  he 
has  not  seen  his  hand. 

2.  If  the  dealer  gives  his  adversary 
more  than  eight  cards,  the  latter  must 
not  draw  till  he  has  played  all  but 
seven.     If  the  dealer  gives   himself 
more  than  eight,  the  other  may  draw 
the  surplus  cards  and  place  them  on 
the  stock. 

3.  If  the  dealer  shows  a  card  in 
dealing,  the  other  player  may  call  for 
a  new  deal. 

4.  If  a  player  draw  out  of  turn,  his 
opponent  may  add  twenty  to  his  own 
score,  or  take  twenty  from  that  of 
the  offender,  unless  he  has  drawn  his 
own  card  before  noticing  the  mistake. 

5.  If  a  player  draw  two  cards  at 
once,  his  opponent  may  look  at  their 
faces  and  give  the  offender  whichever 
he  pleases. 

6.  There  is  no  penalty  for  showing 
the  wrong  card  by  mistake,  or  for 
leading  out  of  turn,  but,  if  the  other 
player  has  not  followed  such  a  lead, 
he  may  correct  it  if  he  wishes. 

7.  Neither  player  may  look  at  the 
tricks  already  played. 

8.  If  a  player  revoke  after  the  cards 
on  the  table  have  been  gathered  up, 
or  if  he  refuse  to  take  a  card  that  is 
led,  when  he  can  do  so,  his  opponent 
shall  score  all  Aces  and  Tens  in  the 
last  eight  tricks. 

9.  A  mistake  in    scoring,   or  an 


3  BEZIQUE 

omission  to  score,  may  be  corrected 
at  any  time  during  the  hand. 

Three-Handed  Bezique.  Three 
EUCHRE-packs  are  used,  and  each 
one  plays  for  himself.  Triple  Bezique 
(three  Queens  of  Spades  and  three 
Knaves  of  Diamonds)  counts  1500, 
and  the  game  is  usually  for  2000 
points. 

Fou  r-H  anded  B  eziq  ue.  Four 
packs  are  used,  and  the  players  may 
play  as  partners  or  each  for  himself. 
In  the  former  case  a  player  may  de- 
clare when  his  partner  takes  a  trick, 
and  Beziques  in  the  hands  of  part- 
ners may  be  declared  as  Double  or 
Triple  Beziques.  In  playing  the 
last  eight  tricks  in  Four-Handed 
B6zique  the  winner  of  the  previous 
trick  and  his  left-hand  opponent 
sometimes  play  by  themselves,  and 
then  the  other  two  play  in  like  man- 
ner. The  players  should  agree  be- 
forehand whether  this  is  to  be  done. 

In  Three  and  Four  Handed  Be- 
zique the  rules  are  the  same  as  in  the 
two-handed  game,  except  that  if  a 
player  lay  a  card  on  the  table  by 
mistake  or  lead  out  of  turn  he  must 
leave  the  exposed  card  on  the  table, 
and  cannot  use  it  in  declaring.  But 
if  all  the  other  players  follow  a 
wrong  lead,  it  cannot  be  changed, 
and  there  is  no  penalty. 

Bezique  Panache.  In  this  form 
of  the  game,  four  Aces,  four  Kings, 
four  Queens,  or  four  Knaves,  do  not 
count  when  two  or  more  of  them  are 
of  the  same  suit. 

Bezique  is  also  played  sometimes 
without  turning  up  any  trump,  and 
the  trump  suit  is  that  of  the  first 
Marriage  that  is  declared,  which  is 
thus  necessarily  a  Royal  Marriage. 

Bezique  probably  originated  in 
France,  where  the  name  is  spelled 
Bdsigue.  It  was  introduced  into 
Paris  in  1826,  but  had  been  a  favor- 
ite in  some  of  the  French  provinces 
for  a  long  time  before.  The  word 
Besigue  is  derived  by  some  from  the 
German  besiegen  (to  conquer)  ;  and 
by  others  from  the  Latin  bijugum  (a 
yoke),  from  the  yoking  together  of 


BEZIQUE 


79 


BEZIQUE 


two  cards  in  the  Bezique  and  the 
Marriages. 

Sixty-Six,  a  kind  of  Bezique.  In 
the  two-handed  game  one  pack  is 
used,  from  which  all  cards  below  the 
Nine  are  left  out.  Each  player  is 
dealt  six  cards,  three  at  a  time,  and 
the  only  groups  that  can  be  de- 
clared are  Common  and  Royal 
Marriages,  which  count  as  in  ordi- 
nary Bezique.  A  player  who  de- 
clares a  marriage  must  lead  one  of 
the  declared  cards.  The  cards 
count  as  follows  to  the  winner  of 
the  trick  containing  them  : 
Ace  ...  1 1  Queen ...  3 
Ten  ...  10  Knave  .  .  2 
King  ...  4  Nine  .  .  .  o 

When  a  player  has  scored  66  it 
counts  him  one  point  toward  game, 
and  the  remaining  cards  in  hand  are 
not  played.  If  he  makes  66  before 
his  opponent  scores  33  it  counts  him 
two  points,  and  if  before  his  oppo- 
nent wins  a  trick,  three  points.  The 
scoring  must  be  done  mentally.  He 
who  first  makes  seven  points  wins 
the  game.  When  a  player  thinks  he 
can  make  66  without  drawing  any 
more  cards,  he  may  turn  down  the 
trump,  if  he  has  the  lead,  and  draw- 
ing ceases.  This  is  called  closing, 
and  may  take  place  even  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  game,  before  a  card  has 
been  drawn.  After  the  trump  is 
turned  down,  the  cards  are  played 
as  if  the  stock  were  exhausted,  suit 
being  followed  and  the  second  player 
being  obliged  to  take  the  trick  if 
he  can.  In  closing,  the  last  trick 
counts  nothing.  If  the  player  who 
closes  fails  to  make  66,  his  opponent 
scores  two  points,  and  if  a  player 
close  before  his  opponent  has  won 
a  trick,  and  fails  to  make  66,  his 
opponent  scores  three  points.  When- 
ever a  player  announces  that  he  has 
made  66  his  opponent  may  look  at 
the  cards  to  see  whether  he  is  cor- 
rect. It  will  be  seen  that  the  two 
together  cannot  make  less  than  130. 
If  this  is  evenly  divided,  so  that  each 
has  65,  neither  scores,  but  the  win- 
ner of  the  next  hand  scores  an  extra 


point.  In  all  other  respects  Sixty 
Six  is  played  like  Bezique,  and  the 
rules  are  the  same.  The  Nine  of 
trumps  can  be  exchanged  for  the 
trump  card,  like  the  seven  in  Be- 
zique, but  counts  nothing. 

Three-Handed  Sixty-Six.  The 
dealer  gives  each  of  the  other  players 
six  cards,  but  none  to  himself,  and 
when  the  hand  is  played  scores  the 
same  number  of  points  as  the  win- 
ner of  the  round,  but  the  dealer  is 
not  allowed  to  score  his  seventh 
point.  The  game  is  frequently 
played  thus  in  Germany. 

Four-Handed  Sixty-Six.  The 
sevens  and  eights  are  added  to  the 
pack,  and  partners  are  decided  upon 
by  dealing  the  cards,  face  upward, 
until  aces  have  fallen  to  two  of  the 
company,  who  must  play  together. 
The  player  who  received  the  first 
ace  deals  first.  The  whole  pack  is 
dealt,  and  the  last  card,  which  is 
turned  as  trump,  is  the  dealer's  prop- 
erty. There  is  thus  neither  drawing 
nor  closing,  and  there  is  also  no  de- 
claration of  marriages.  The  players 
must  follow  suit  if  possible ;  other- 
wise, they  must  trump  if  they  can ; 
and  when  trumps  are  led,  each  must 
try  to  take  the  trick.  The  last  trick 
counts  ten.  If  at  the  end  of  the 
round  the  winning  partners  have 
scored  66  it  counts  them  ona 
point  toward  game,  if  100,  two 
points,  and  if  they  have  won  every 
trick,  three  points.  He  who  takes 
the  Ten  of  trumps  scores  a  point  at 
once,  thus  winning  the  game  if  he 
have  six  points,  though  his  opponents 
may  be  ahead  in  other  respects.  In 
Germany  there  are  forms  of  this 
game  called  Mariage  (Marriage)  and 
Sechsundsechzig  (Sixty-six)  and  the 
four-handed  game  is  called  Kreutz- 
martage  (Cross-marriage). 

Pinocle,  a  kind  of  Bezique  played 
with  two  packs  from  which  all  the 
cards  but  the  Aces,  Tens,  Kings, 
Queens,  Knaves,  and  Nines  have 
been  discarded.  In  the  two-handed 
game  each  player  receives  twelve 
cards,  four  at  a  time.  The  game  is 


BILLIARDS 


80 


BILLIARDS 


1000  points,  toward  which  the  cards 
that  are  won  in  tricks  count  as  in 
Sixty-Six,  and  the  groups  of  cards 
that  are  declared,  as  in  Bezique,  with 
the  additions  and  exceptions  noted 
below.  In  this  game  Bezique  is 
called  Pinocle,  a  group  is  called  a 
Meld,  and  declaring  is  called  meld- 
ing. 

Double  Pinocle  counts  300 


A  Sequence 
Eight  Aces 
Eight  Kings 
Eight  Queens 
Eight  Knaves 


150 

count  1000 
800 

"        600 
400 


The  Nine  of  trumps  is  treated  like 


the  Seven  in  Bezique,  and  when  the 
stock  is  exhausted  the  last  twelve 
tricks  are  played  like  the  last  eight 
in  Bezique.  Only  one  Meld  can  be 
made  at  a  time,  and  a  Pinocle,  if 
melded,  cannot  be  used  as  part  of  a 
Double  Pinocle.  In  all  other  respects 
the  game  is  played  like  Bezique. 

Three-Handed  and  Four-Handed 
Pinocle.  The  cards  are  all  dealt, 
four  at  a  time;  suit  must  be  fol- 
lowed, and  the  trick  taken,  if  possible. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  game,  each 
player  in  order,  beginning  at  the 
dealer's  left,  melds  what  he  has,  and 
the  meld  is  noted,  but  cannot  be 


Fig.  i.     Position  in  Playing  Billiards. 


added  to  his  score  till  he  has  taken  a 
trick.  In  the  four-handed  game 
each  plays  his  first  card  before  thus 
melding.  When  four  play  the  game, 
they  may  play  as  partners  or  each 
for  himself. 

BICYCLING.    See  CYCLING. 

BILLIARDS.  Billiard  tables  origi- 
nally were  six  feet  wide  by  twelve 
feet  long,  with  openings  cut  through 


the  cushion  rails  at  each  corner  and 
at  the  centers  of  each  side  rail. 
Pockets  of  worsted  network  were 
attached  to  these  openings,  into 
which  the  balls  would  drop.  The 
table  now  generally  in  use,  however, 
is  the  carom  table,  without  pockets. 
Tables  five  feet  by  ten  are  used  by 
the  great  experts  in  their  match  con- 
tests, while  public  rooms,  hotels, 


BILLIARDS 


8l 


BILLIARDS 


clubs,  and  private  houses  are  mostly 
fitted  with  four  and  a  half  by  nine 
tables.  Pocket  tables  of  both  these 
sizes  are  still  used  for  pool.  Smaller 
tables  are  built  to  order  to  suit  pur- 
chasers. 

Billiard  balls  are  usually  made  of 
ivory,  but  sometimes  of  a  patent 
composition.  Composition  balls  are 
cheaper  than  ivory  but  are  little  used 
for  billiards,  though  generally  for 
pool.  Standard  billiard  balls  are  2f 
inches  in  diameter.  Pool  balls  vary 
in  size  from  2^  to  2f  inches. 

Cues  are  from  4  feet  6  inches  to  4 
feet  9  inches  in  length,  and  are  from 
i|  inches  to  i|  inches  in  diameter  at 
the  butt,  and  vary  from  ^  to  f  of  an 
inch  in  size  at  the  top  ;  and  varying  in 
weight  from  12  to  21  ounces.  Figs. 
I,  2,  and  3  show  the  various  ways 
of  holding  the  cue,  which  should  be 


o 


Fig.  2.    An  Alternate  Position  of  Left 
Hand. 

held  loos«ly  when  preparing  for  the 
stroke,  and  never  "  grabbed  "  except 
when  making  a  "  draw  "  (see  below). 
In  billiards  proper,  there  are 
four  balls,  two  white,  one  being 
distinguished  from  the  other  by  a 
black  spot,  and  two  red,  one  dark 
and  the  other  light ;  but  experts 
and  professional  players  usually 
play  games  in  which  only  three  balls 
are  needed,  two  white  and  one  red. 
Each  carom  table  has  on  it  two 
spots,  along  an  imaginary  line  drawn 
lengthways  through  the  centre  from 
the  middle  nails  or  "  sights "  in 
the  head  and  lower  cushions  :  the 
first,  opposite  the  second  "sight," 
is  sometimes  called  the  light  red 


spot,  the  second,  opposite  the  sixth 
"sight,"  the  dark  red  spot,  because 
they  mark  the  positions  of  those 
two  balls  in  the  opening  of  the 
American  four-ball  game.  On 
pocket  tables  there  is  a  third  spot 
three  inches  from  the  lower  cushion, 
on  which  the  white  ball  not  played 
is  placed  on  opening  the  game  and 
after  being  pocketed  ;  and  other  spots 
are  used  for  playing  pool  and  the 
English  game.  A  line  supposed  to 
be  drawn  across  the  table  through 
the  light  red  spot  is  called  the 
string-line,  because  it  is  used  in 
"  stringing  "  for  lead — that  is,  choice 
of  balls  and  first  play :  each  player 
plays  a  ball  from  within  this  line 
at  the  head  of  the  table  against 
the  cushion  at  the  foot,  and  he  whose 
ball  stops  nearest  the  head  cushion 
on  the  return  wins  the  choice. 

Four  Ball,  or  American  Garnet 
This  game  is  now  played  on  a  carom 
table  for  34  points  up.  But  the 
game  may  be  for  any  number  of 
points  agreed  upon.  The  leader 
plays  his  ball  from  within  the  string 
line,  so  as  to  pass  the  dark  red  ball, 
but  not  rebound  past  it  or  strike  it. 
His  opponent  then  plays  his  ball  in 
like  manner,  attempting  to  strike  the 
white  ball,  and  one  of  the  red  balls. 
If  he  strike  the  two  balls,  it  is  called 
a  carom,  and  counts  one  point.  If 
he  strike  all  three  balls,  he  counts 
two.  The  striker's  ball  may  rebound 
from  a  cushion  any  number  of  times 
before  the  carom  is  completed.  As 
long  as  the  striker  can  carom  he  can 
continue  his  hand  or  inning.  The 
obligation  to  hit  the  white  ball  first 
holds  only  in  the  opening  stroke,  and 
afterwards  during  the  game  each  may 
play  his  ball  at  any  of  the  other 
balls. 

Three-Ball  Billiards,  or  French 
Caroms-  There  is  but  one  red  ball, 
which  is  "  spotted "  on  the  lower 
spot.  One  white  ball  is  placed  on 
the  upper  spot,  and  the  player  who 
has  first  turn  places  his  ball  not 
more  than  six  inches  from  it  and 
within  the  string.  The  first  player 


BILLIARDS 


82 


BILLIARDS 


must  hit  the  red  ball  with  his  own 
before  striking  his  opponent's  ball 
(though  only  at  the  opening  stroke, 
as  in  the  four-ball  game).  In  other 
respects  the  game  is  like  the  four- 
ball  game. 

The  best  recorded  run  at  the  three- 
ball  carom  game  is  1531,  made  by 
Maurice  Vignaux  in  Paris,  France,  in 
1880,  in  a  match  contest  played  with 
George  F.  Slosson  of  New  York. 

Harvey  McKenna,  in  playing  an 
exhibition  game  in  Boston,  Mass.,  in 


1887,  made  a  run  of  2572,  but  the 
critics  and  experts  of  the  world  do 
not  accept  this  as  a  record.  The 
best  run  at  the  four-ball  carom 
game,  1483,  was  made  by  I.  McDev- 
itt  in  New  York,  in  1868. 

In  match  games,  a  space  4$  inches 
square  at  each  corner  of  the  table 
is  called  the  "crotch,"  and  when  the 
centers  of  both  object-balls  are 
within  a  crotch,  the  player  is  not  al- 
lowed to  make  more  than  three 
caroms  unless  he  force  one  of  the 


Fig.  3.     Using  the  Bridge. 


balls  out  of  the  crotch.  This  rule  is 
to  prevent  players  from  making  long 
runs  in  the  corner  of  the  table,  as 
can  be  done  by  one  of  moderate 
skill. 

Balk  Line  Game.  Four  lines 
are  drawn  on  the  table  each  at  a 
distance  of  eight  to  fourteen  inches, 
as  may  be  agreed,  from  one  of  the 
cushions,  forming  eight  compart- 
ments or  spaces.  Not  more  than 
two  successive  caroms  can  be  made 


on  object  balls  the  centers  of  which 
are  within  any  one  of  these  spaces. 

All  these  games  can  be  played  by 
three  persons,  if  they  use  alternate 
white  balls,  or  four  if  they  are  di- 
vided into  sides,  those  on  the  same 
side  using  the  same  ball  in  turn. 

Pocket  Game.  This  game  is 
played  on  a  six-pocket  or  a  four- 
pocket  table,  the  side  pockets  being 
sometimes  omitted.  If  the  cue-ball 
strikes  the  obiect-ball  so  as  to  drive 


BILLIARDS 


BILLIARDS 


it  into  a  pocket,  or  "  pocket  "  it,  it  is 
a  "  winning  hazard  "  and  counts  a 
point.  If  a  player  tries  to  pocket  a 
ball  and  fails  and  does  not  carom, 
his  inning  comes  to  an  end.  Car- 

O 


Fig.  4. 

oms  count  as  in  the  ordinary  game, 
and  the  winner  must  make  100 
points. 

Practical  Suggestions.    The  art 
of  playing  billiards  is  not  so  much 


Fig.  5- 


the  art  of  making  the  balls  go  as 
they  are  aimed,  as  of  overcoming 
their  tendency  to  go  as  they  are 
limed.  If  a  ball  strikes  another  ball 


Fig.  6. 

or  a  cushion,  its  natural  tendency 
is  to  rebound  at  the  same  angle  that 
it  struck  on;  for  instance,  (See  Fig.  4) 
if  the  ball  strikes  the  cushion  on  the 
line  AO,  its  natural  tendency  is  to 


go  off  to  A' :  if  struck  along  BO  it 
goes  to  £',  and  if  along  CO  to  C'\ 
but  suppose  that  while  your  ball  is 
at  B  another  ball  that  you  want  to 
hit  after  striking  the  cushion  is  at  A', 
then  you  must  strike  the  ball  at  B  on 
its  right  side,  as  to  give  it  a  spinning 
motion  which  will  prevent  its  run- 
ning out  as  far  as  B' .  Or  if  you 
wanted  it  to  come  nearer  the  mid- 
dle of  the  table,  say  to  C,  you  should 
give  it  the  opposite  spinning  motion 
by  striking  it  on  its  left  side.  The 


Fig.  7. 


same  would  be  true  if  the  cue-ball 
were  to  first  strike  another  ball  in- 
stead of  striking  the  cushion.  The 
effect  of  side  twist  on  the  rebound  of  a 
ball,  either  from  another  ball  or  from 
a  cushion,  is  to  make  it  bound  farther 
to  the  side  on  which  the  cue  struck 
it.  In  addition  to  the  twists  toward 
the  side,  a  ball  can  be  given  a  twist 
forward  or  backward.  If  a  ball  is 
struck  by  the  cue  square  in  the  cen- 
ter, as  at  A  (Fig.  5)  and  strikes  the 
object-ball  square  in  the  center,  the 


BILLIARDS 


84 


BILLIARDS 


cue-ball  will  part  with  all  its  motion 
to  the  object-ball  and  will  stop  still, 
the  object-ball  going  on  in  the  same 
line.  But  if  the  cue-ball  is  struck 
above  the  center,  as  at  C,  it  gets  an 
extra  twist  forward  which  will  make 
it  follow  the  object-ball,  and  if  it  is 
struck  on  one  side  as  well  as  above 
the  center,  it  will  not  follow  straight, 


but  will  follow  toward  that  side,  so 
that  it  may  strike  a  second  ball  on 
that  side  of  the  table  of  the  object- 
ball  ;  thus  (See  Fig.  6),  A  being 
twisted  forward  and  to  the  right 
does  not  stop  at  B,  but  follows  on 
to  the  right  to  A',  and  the  object 
ball  B  goes  on  to  B' . 

The  reverse  of  this  is  true  when  A 


Fig.  8. 


instead  of  being  struck  above  the 
center  is  struck  below,  as  at  B  (Fig. 
5),  but  not  pushed.  It  gets  a 
backward  twist.  The  ball  B  in 
Fig.  6  would  go  on  to  B'  and  A 
would  roll  back  to  its  original  posi- 
tion at  A.  This  stroke  needs  prac- 
tice, however,  as,  if  the  cue  does 


not  leave  the  ball  as  soon  as  it  has 
struck  it,  but  pushes  it  a  little,  the 
twist  will  be  destroyed.  This  back- 
ward twist  is  generally  termed  a 
"  draw,"  and  the  forward  one  a 
"  follow."  The  side  twist  is  some- 
times termed  "English." 

It  is  very  seldom  that  the  balls 
are  in  such  positions  that  strokes  can 
be  made  without  follow,  draw,  or 
twist.  The  art  of  playing  billiards 
is  not  so  much  the  art  of  starting  the 
cue-ball  straight  for  the  object,  as  of 
starting  it  with  just  the  proper  twist 
to  make  it  behave  as  you  wish  after 
it  has  struck  the  object. 


If  the  cue  is  held  as  in  D  (Fig. 
5),  it  makes  a  "  jump  "  stroke  and 
causes  the  ball  to  bound  into  the 
air.  The  position  marked  E  is 
called  massJ  and  makes  the  ball  roll 
backward,  or  move  on  a  curve.  The 
manner  of  holding  the  cue  in  the  masst 


is  shown  in  Fig.  7.  Both  jump  and 
masst  are  too  difficult  for  beginners. 
If  the  cue-ball  strikes  the  object- 
ball  squarely  in  the  center,  it  is  called 
a  "  full  ball  ";  if  it  barely  scrapes  the 
edge  it  is  a  "  fine  ball,"  and  balls 
between  these  extremes  are  called 


BILLIARDS 


BILLIARDS 


"  half  ball,"  "  quarter  ball,"  and  so  on. 
(See  Fig.  8).  The  dotted  lines  show 
how  the  object-ball  will  move  after 
each  of  these  shots.  In  general,  the 
more  widely  the  object-ball,  after 
being  struck,  departs  from  the  first 
direction  of  the  cue-ball,  the  less  the 
cue-ball  will  depart  from  its  first 
direction,  but  the  force  with  which 
the  cue-ball  is  struck  has  much  to  do 
with  the  result.  The  harder  the  cue- 
ball  is  struck,  the  more  will  it  depart 
from  its  first  direction,  as  in  Fig.  9, 
where  i  shows  the  hardest  stroke,  etc. 
These  strokes  should  all  be  prac- 
ticed by  the  beginner,  who  will  learn 
by  experience  the  result  of  each. 

The  diagrams,  Figs.  10,  n,  12,  and 
13,  show  various  shots,  which,  in 
some  shape  or  other,  are  constantly 
offering.  The  full  lines  show  the 
path  of  the  cue-ball  before  it  strikes 
the  object-ball ;  and  the  broken  line, 
its  course  after  it  has  bounded  from 
the  object-ball. 

Fig.  10  shows  two  shots :  in  the 
left  hand  one,  the  ball  a  must  be 
struck  forcibly  above  the  center  and 
just  graze  b.  In  the  right  hand  one, 
the  cue-ball  d  must  strike  e  half-ball. 
In  Fig.  it,  the  cue-ball  g  on  the  left 
must  be  struck  sharply  on  the  left 
side  below  the  center.  The  one  in 
the  middle  (a  simple  "  follow  shot ") 
shows  how  a  carom  can  be  made, 
even  when  the  three  balls  are  in  a 
straight  line  ;  the  cue-ball  a  must  be 
played  forcibly  at  b,  the  merest  shade 
to  one  side.  Then  b  will  strike  c 
on  the  other  side  and  pass  to  that 
side  of  it ;  c  will  go  to  the  cushion 
and  come  back  to  meet  a,  which 
will  follow  on  to  it.  In  the  shot  on 
the  right,  d  must  be  played  high  on 
the  left  side,  full  at  e. 

In  Fig.  12,  the  cue-ball  a  on  the 
right  hand  must  be  played  low  on 
the  right  side.  The  cue-ball  on  the 
left,  d,  must  be  played  forcibly  on 
the  right  side  below  the  center. 

In  Fig.  13,  the  ball  a  on  the  left 
must  be  played  high  on  the  right  side, 
striking  b  as  a  three-quarters  ball; 
the  cue-ball  on  the  right  must  be 


played  very  low  on  the  right  side  so 
as  to  hit  between  e  and  the  cushion, 
striking  both  at  nearly  the  same  in- 
stant. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

These  are  usually  changed  slightly 
[or  each  particular  match.  The  ones 
given  below  are  simplified  from  those 
generally  observed. 

1.  In    stringing    for    lead,    if    a 
player's    ball   touch   his  opponent's 
after  the    latter    has    stopped,    the 
former  loses  choice  and  lead.     If  the 
balls  strike  while  both  are  moving 
the  players  must   string  again.     In 
stringing,  one  ball  must  not  reach 
the  bottom  cushion  before  the  other 
is  in  motion. 

2.  In  the  lead,  if  the  ball  led  do 
not  pass  the  dark  red  ball,  or  if  it 
bound  back   past  it,  or  if  it  jump 
from  the  table,  or  strike  either  red 
ball,  the  leader's  opponent  may  take 
the  lead  instead,  or  he    may   place 
the  offender's  ball  five  inches  from 
the  center  of  the  lower  cushion,  or 
require  him  to  lead  over  again. 

3.  Should  the  first  player  fail  to  hit 
the  white  ball  first,  or  if  any  player 
during  the  game  fail  to  hit  a  ball,  a 
point  is  added  to  his  opponent's  score. 

4.  If  a  player's  ball  goes  off  the 
table,  a  point  may  be  added  to  his 
opponent's   score,  and  the   ball  re- 
mains off  the  table  until  its  next  turn. 
But,  in  the  three  ball  game,  no  forfeit 
is  required,  and  the  ball  is  "  spotted." 
If  possible  it  is  placed  on  the  spot  at 
the  head  of  the  table  ;  if  that  be  oc- 
cupied, on  the  spot  at  the  foot,  and,  if 
the  latter  be  occupied,  in  the  center 
of  the  table. 

5.  Balls  forced  off  the  table  shall 
be  spotted  as  above,  but  each  ball 
must  be  placed  on  its  own  spot  if 
possible.     The  cue-ball  if  it  go  off 
the  table  must  be  played  from  the 
string,  as  at  the  opening  of  the  game. 
When   the   cue-ball  is  thus   played 
it  must  not  be  played  directly  at  any 
ball  or  cushion  behind  the  string  line. 

6.  Should  a  player  play  with  the 
wrong  ball,  he  cannot  count,  and  the 
position  of  balls  must  be  transposed, 


BILLIARDS 


86 


BILLIARDS 


unless  the  player  has  made  his  sec- 
ond stroke  before  the  error  is  dis- 
covered ;  in  which  case  he  may  con- 
tinue to  play  with  the  same  ball,  or 
have  the  balls  changed.  But  at  the 
end  of  the  run  the  position  of  the 
balls  must  be  transposed. 

7.  Should  both  white  balls  be  off 
the  table  together  and  a  player  pick 


up  the  wrong  one,  and  play  with  it, 
the  stroke  is  good. 

8.  The  striker  must  not  play  till 
every  ball  on  the  table  is  at  rest. 

9.  The   cue  must  be  withdrawn 
before  the  cue-ball  touches  the  object- 
ball. 

10.  The  cue  must  touch  the  ball 
but  once. 


Fig.  10. 


Fig.  ii. 


11.  The  player  must  keep  at  least 
one  foot  on  the  floor  while  playing. 

12.  No  player  can  score  by  a  play 
violating  any  of  the  four  preceding 
rules. 

13.  If    the   cue-ball    is    touching 
another  ball   the   player  must  play 
first  upon  some  other  ball  than  the 
one  the  cue-ball  touches. 

In  the  Three  Ball  game  the  balls 


are  generally  "  spotted  "  when  the 
cue-ball  touches  another,  and  the 
striker  plays  as  in  opening  the  game. 
14.  If  the  cue-ball  touch  two  balls 
or  more  so  that  it  is  impossible  to 
play  first  on  some  other  ball,  the 
balls  must  be  spotted  as  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  game,  and  the  player 
whose  turn  it  is  may  choose  whether 
he  or  his  opponent  shall  lead. 


BILLIARDS 


BILLIARDS 


Pool,  a  game  played  on  a  pocket- 
table,  in  which  the  object  is  not  to 
carom,  but  to  pocket  the  balls. 
There  are  several  kinds. 

Fifteen  Ball  Pool.  There  are  fif- 
teen object-balls,  colored,  and  marked 
with  numbers  from  I  to  15.  The 
deep-red  ball,  which  bears  the  highest 
number,  is  placed  on  its  usual  spot, 


and  the  others  are  placed  close  to- 
gether to  form  a  triangle  of  which  it 
is  the  point,  the  base  of  the  triangle 
being  toward  the  lower  cushion. 
Any  number  of  persons  may  play, 
all  using  the  same  white  ball,  in  an 
order  decided  by  lot  before  beginn- 
ing. The  first  player  plays  the 
cue-ball  from  within  the  string  line; 


Fig.  12. 


after  that  it  is  played  from  wher- 
ever it  may  be,  unless  it  leaves  the 
table,  when  it  must  be  played  from 
within  the  string  line.  A  player 
scores  the  number  of  the  ball  or 
balls  that  he  pockets,  unless  he 
pocket  one  or  more  object  balls  and 
the  white  ball,  in  which  case  the 
object-balls  must  be  placed  on  the 
dark-red  spot  or  directly  behind  it, 


while  three  points  are  deducted 
from  the  player's  score.  Three 
points  also  are  deducted  from  the 
score  of  any  one  who  misses  a  bali, 
or  plays  his  ball  so  that  it  leaves 
the  table.  As  in  ordinary  Billiards, 
an  inning  ends  only  when  the  player 
fails  to  score.  A  player  may  play 
against  any  object-ball,  even  when 
the  cue-ball  touches  it,  and  the  cue 


BILLIARDS 


83 


BILLIARDS 


need  not  leave  the  cue-ball  before  it 
strikes  the  object-ball.  Every  pocket- 
ed ball  remains  pocketed'«xcept  the 
white,  as  described  above,  so  120  is 
the  highest  number  of  aggregate 
points  that  can  be  made. 

Rules  of  the  Game.  Billiard  rules 
8,  10,  11,  and  12  apply  to  this  game, 
and  in  addition  the  following: 

1.  When    the   cue-ball   is   played 
from  within  the  string  line,  it   can 
be  played  directly  at  no  ball  in  the 
string.     But  if  all   the   object-balls 
are   in   the   string,   the  one  nearest 
the  line  may  be  spotted  and  played 
on. 

2.  If  the  player  move  his  ball  be- 
fore making   his  stroke,  it  shall   be 
considered  a  stroke.     If  he  move  an 
object-ball,  either  before  or  after  a 
stroke,  he   loses   his   hand   and  the 
moved  ball  must  be  replaced. 

3.  If  a  player  play  out  of  turn,  the 
balls  shall  be  replaced;  and  he  can- 
noi  count  unless  he  make  more  than 
one  stroke  before  the  mistake  is  dis- 
covered, when  the  play  is  good. 

Pyramid  Pool.  This  differs  from 
Fifteen  Ball  Pool  only  in  the  manner 
of  counting.  Each  ball  pocketed 
counts  one  point,  and  15  is  therefore 
the  highest  score  that  can  be  made. 
The  rules  are  the  same  as  those  of 
Fifteen  Ball  Pool.  The  score  is 
often  kept  by  placing  each  ball,  as  it 
is  pocketed,  in  a  frame,  containing 
a  sort  of  trough  for  each  player. 
Whenever  a  player  pockets  the  white 
ball,  or  misses  a  shot,  one  of  the 
balls  in  his  trough  is  replaced  on 
the  table. 

Pin  Pool.   Five  small  wooden  pins 
are  set  up  in  the  centre  of  the  table; 
each  having  a  number  marked  on  the 
table  beside  it,  as  in  the  figure. 
4« 

3.    5.    2. 
I  « 

The  pins  are  placed  about  2J< 
inches  apart  so  that  the  balls  can  pas: 
between  them  without  touching. 
The  object  of  the  players  is  to  over- 
turn the  pins,  or  move  them  at  least 
two  inches  from  the  spots  where 


they  were  placed.  Two  white  balls 
and  one  red  are  used  ;  the  red  ball  is 
spotted  about  five  inches  from  the 
ower  cushion  and  one  of  the  white 
Dalls  is  placed  on  the  dark  red  spot. 
After  the  order  of  play  has  been 
determined  by  lot,  each  player  draws 
a  little  ball  from  a  bag,  or  is  given 
one  by  some  person  not  a  player. 
These  balls  are  numbered  in  order, 
and  are  called  the  private  balls. 
Each  player  keeps  secret  the  num- 
ber on  his  private  ball  till  he  has 
overturned  pins  the  sum  of  whose 
numbers,  with  that  on  his  ball, 
exactly  equals  31,  when  he  wins 
the  game.  But  if  the  sum  is  more 
than  31,  he  is  said  to  be  "burst  " 
and  is  out  of  the  game,  unless  he 
claim  what  is  called"  the  privilege." 
In  this  case  he  draws  a  new  private 
ball,  and,  after  choosing  between  the 
old  and  new,  discards  one  of  them 
and  continues  in  the  game. 

The  game  is  begun  thus.  After 
the  white  and  red  ball  have  been 
spotted^as  explained  above,  the  lead- 
er plays  at  either  with  the  remain- 
ing white  ball  from  within  the  string 
line,  or  he  may  place  his  own  ball 
upon  the  spot  at  the  head  of  the 
table,  and  the  next  player  must  then 
play.  The  second  player  and  the 
others  after  him  may  play  at  or  with 
any  of  the  three  balls,  red  or  white. 
Pins  must  not  be  played  at  directly, 
but  must  be  overturned  by  a  rebound 
of  the  cue-ball  from  a  cushion  or  an 
object-ball,  except  when  two  balls 
are  in  contact,  when  either  may  be 
played  directly  at  the  pins.  If  a 
player  knock  down  the  four  outside 
pins  in  one  shot,  leaving  the  middle 
one  standing,  he  wins  the  game  at 
once,  no  matter  what  his  score  is. 
All  pins  knocked  down  are  replaced 
before  the  next  shot. 

Rules  of  the  Game.  I .  No  player 
may  claim  privilege  after  the  next 
stroke  has  been  made. 

2.  When  a  player  claims  privilege, 
his  order  in  playing  is  not  changed. 

3.  If  a  player  miss,  pocket  his  ball, 
or  cause  it  to  leave  the  table,  it  must 


BILLIARDS 


89 


BILLIARDS 


be  spotted  five  inches  from  the  cen- 
ter of  the  lower  cushion ;  or,  if  that 
spot  is  occupied,  on  the  dark-red 
spot ;  or,  if  that  spot  is  occupied,  on 
the  light-red  spot. 

4.  If  a  pin  be  knocked  down,  and 
a  ball  roll  into  its  place,  the  pin  must 
not  be  replaced  till  the  ball  is  moved 
in  course  of  play. 

5.  A   pin   is  considered   knocked 
down  when  it  has  been  moved  two 
inches,  even  though  it  remain  upright. 

6.  Pins  must  be  knocked  down  by 
rebound  of  the  cue-ball  from  a  cush- 
ion or  an  object-ball ;  or  by  an  ob- 
ject-ball   so   set   in   motion,   except 
when  two  balls  are  in  contact,  when 
either  can  be  played  directly. 

History.     Little  is  known  of  the 
origin  of  Billiards,  some  authorities 


saying  that  it  was  invented  in  France, 
others  ii>/£ermany,  and  still  others  in 
England.**  It  seems  to  have  been 
derived  from  BOWLS  or  Pall  Mall 
(see  CROQUET)  ;  and  it  is  said  that 
Henrique  Devigne,  who  lived  in  the 
time  of  Charles  IX.  of  France,  first 
gave  it  form  and  rule.  Louis  XIV. 
was  advised  by  his  physician  to  prac- 
tice the  game  after  eating,  to  aid  di- 
gestion, and  since  his  time  it  has 
been  a  favorite  in  France.  It  was 
played  in  England  certainly  as  early 
as  the  1 6th  century,  for  Shakespeare 
in  "Antony  and  Cleopatra,"  makes 
Cleopatra  say,  "  Let  us  to  billiards." 
In  the  earliest  times  the  game  was 
played  by  driving  a  ball  through  a 
ring  which  turned  on  a  pin  fastened 
in  a  table  or  on  the  floor.  A  game 


Ancient  Billiards. 


called  Rural  Billiards  is  still  played 
thus  in  England.  When  it  began  to 
assume  the  present  form,  the  balls 
were  struck  or  pushed  with  a  sort  of 
mace,  but  about  1789  the  cue  came 
into  general  use.  When  the  game 
was  first  played  in  the  United  States, 
the  use  of  the  cue  was  forbidden  to 
all  but  skillful  players,  lest  the  cloth 
on  the  table  should  be  injured.  This 
was  before  the  introduction  of  leather 
cue  tips  which  are  now  used  every- 
where. The  top  of  the  table,  now  of 
slate  or  marble,  covered  with  cloth, 
was  formerly  of  wood.  The  cush- 
ions were  first  stuffed  with  list,  then 
made  of  india  rubber,  and  now  they 
are  generally  of  a  combination  of 
various  substances  as  suggested  by 
Michael  Phelan,  an  American  player 
and  billiard-table  manufacturer.  In 
the  old  form  of  cushions  the  ball 


sank  in  a  little  way,  so  that  it  never 
bounded  correctly;  but  the  modern 
cushions  are  comparatively  hard  on 
the  outside,  with  an  elastic  backing. 
A  table  was  once  made  in  this  coun- 
try with  cushions  stuffed  with  curled 
hair. 

The  game  was  introduced  into  the 

United  States  in  the  first  years  of 

this  century, and  it  is  nowplayed  more 

here  than  in  any  other  country  in  the 

world.      The   early   tables    all   had 

pockets;  pocketing  a  red  ball  counted 

3,  a  white  ball  2  ;  caroming  on  the 

2  reds  counted  3,  and  on  a  red  and 

a  white,  2,  so  that  it  was   possible, 

and  not  unknown,  for  a  single  stroke 

to   count    13.     The  game   was    ico 

points  up.     This  game  began  to  go 

|  out  of  use  about  1860,  as  cushions 

!  were  improved  by  Phelan,  and  con- 

j  sequently  longer  rolls  and  more  com- 


90        BILLIARD  BALL  AND  CUES 


plex  caroms  were  possible.  First  the 
side  pockets  were  left  off  the  tables, 
and,  by  about  1870,  the  corner  pock- 
ets disappeared  too.  Meantime  how- 
ever, the  French,  the  best  players 
in  the  world,  had  used  smaller  tables, 
without  pockets,  so  as  to  make  com- 
plex caroms. 

The  games  already  described  are 
those  now  generally  played  in  the 
United  States.  The  English  game  em- 
ploys not  only  caroms  but  winningand 
losing  hazards,  as  in  the  old  Ameri- 


can game,  but  both  kinds  of  hazards 
score  in  the  player's  favor.  Other 
games  played  in  England  are  the 
White  winning  game,  the  White  los- 
ing game,  the  Red  winning  game.and 
the  Red  losing  game,  in  all  of  which 
caroms  do  not  count  at  all.  In  Ger- 
many a  kind  of  pool  is  played  called 
Wurst  Partie  (The  Sausage  Game), 
because  the  balls  are  placed  in  a  line 
supposed  to  look  like  a  sausage. 
The  Russians  have  a  kind  of  billiards 
called  Carline  or  Caroline  which  re- 


Billiard*  in  1610. 


sembles  the  American  game,  and 
very  many  other  kinds  are  played 
in  different  countries. 

The  word  Billiards  (French  Bil- 
lard}  is  from  the  French  btlle,  a 
ball.  Carom  or  Carrom  is  from  the 
French  Carambole,  meaning  the 
same  thing.  The  origin  of  this  last 
word  is  unknown,  but  some  think  it 
is  a  corruption  of  Quatre  Bottles 
(four  balls).  In  England  a  carom  is 
called  a  cannon.  The  word  cue  is 
the  same  as  the  French  queue,  which 
means  a  tail  or  handle. 


BILLIARD  BALL  AND  CUES, ex* 

periment  with.  Place  two  billiard 
cues  side  by  side  on  the  table,  so  as 
to  make  a  railway  on  which  a  billiard 
ball  may  roll.  The  small  ends  of 
the  cues  should  touch,  while  the 
large  ends  are  so  far  apart  that  the 
ball  may  be  just  placed  between 
them.  If  a  ball  be  now  placed  on 
the  cues  at  the  small  ends,  it  will  run 
to  the  large  ends,  apparently  rolling 
up  hill,  though  it  really  descends 
slightly,  as  will  be  seen  by  observing 
it  closeity. 


BIRDS   FLY 


BLIND   MAN  S    I'.'JFP 


BIRDS  FLY|  a  game  played  by 
any  number  01  persons,  generally 
young  children.  One  of  the  players 
calls  out  "  Robins  Fly  "  or  "  Cats 
Fly  "  (using  the  name  of  any  bird  or 
animal  he  chooses),  at  the  same 
time  holding  up  both  his  hands.  If 
the  creature  mentioned  be  one  that 
can  fly,  all  the  others  raise  their 
hands  also,  but  if  it  cannot  fly,  all 
keep  their  hands  down.  Those  who 
raise  their  hands  when  they  ought 
not,  or  keep  them  down  when  they 
should  raise  them,  pay  forfeits.  In 
France  this  game  is  called  Pigeon 
Vole  (The  pigeon  flies),  and  in 
Germany  its  title  is  Alles  was 
Federn  hat  fli'egt  hoch  (Everything 
which  has  feathers  flies  high). 

BLACK  ART.  See  GUESSING 
THE  SIGN. 

BLACKNESS,  Experiment  on. 
No  paint  nor  substance  in  the  world 
is  perfectly  black,  for  they  all  reflect 
a  little  light ;  but  a  design  or  figure 
may  be  made  as  follows,  which  will 
be  nearly  so,  appearing  even  darker 
than  the  surface  of  black  velvet. 
Paint  a  pasteboard  box  black  on  the 
inside,  or  cover  the  inside  with  dead- 
black  cloth.  Cut  a  small  hole  in  the 
cover,  not  larger  than  one-tenth  its 
area,  and  then  holding  the  box  so 
that  no  light  enter  the  hole  directly, 
it  will  appear  intensely  black.  If 
the  hole  be  shaped  to  represent 
some  figure,  an  imp,  for  instance, 
and  the  outside  of  the  cover  coated 
with  black  cloth  or  painted  black, 
:he  figure  will  appear  dark  in  con- 
trast even  with  its  black  background. 
The  reason  is  that  almost  no  light 
at  all  reaches  the  inside  of  the  box, 
which  is  accordingly  nearly  quite 
black.  This  kind  of  black  is  called 
"  Chevreul's  Black,"  after  a  French- 
man who  invented  the  method  of 
producing  it. 

BLACK  PETER,  a  game  of 
CARDS  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons, not  exceeding  twelve.  At  the 
beginning,  if  necessary,  one  or  more 
small  cards  are  thrown  out  of  the 
7"Ck,  so  that  those  that  remain  may 


be  divided  evenly  among  the  players. 
They  are  then  dealt,  one  at  a  time, 
and  the  last  is  turned  up  as  trump. 
The  cards  rank  as  in  WHIST.  The 
object  of  the  game  is  to  take  neither 
Black  Peter  (the  Knave  of  Spades) 
nor  the  last  trick  in  the  hand,  and 
with  these  exceptions  it  makes  no 
difference  who  takes  any  of  the 
tricks,  except  to  decide  the  lead. 
Each  player's  score  is  credited  with 
10  points  in  the  beginning,  and  at  the 
end  of  each  hand  one  point  is  sub- 
tracted from  the  score  of  the  player 
who  took  Black  Peter,  and  one  from 
him  who  took  the  last  trick.  He 
whose  score  is  first  reduced  to  noth- 
ing is  the  loser,  and  is  also  called 
Black  Peter,  while  he  who  has  the 
highest  score  is  the  winner.  Some 
amusing  penalty  for  Black  Peter  to 
pay  may  be  agreed  on  beforehand. 
(See  FORFEITS.) 

BLIND  MAN'S  BUFF,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
one  of  whom  is  blindfolded  by  tying 
a  handkerchief  over  his  eyes.  The 
object  of  the  blind-man  is  to  catch 
one  of  the  others.  If  he  guess  cor- 
rectly the  name  of  the  one  caught, 
that  one  must  take  his  place  as  blind- 
man  ;  if  the  guess  be  wrong,  he  must 
try  to  catch  some  one  else.  The 
players  usually  try  to  mislead  the 
blind-man  and  turn  his  attention  in 
various  ways. 

RULES  OF  THE  CAME. 

1.  One  who  has  been  caught  may 
be  touched  by   the  blind-man  any- 
where above  the  waist,  but  must  not 
be  pinched  nor  made  in  any  way  to 
utter  a  sound. 

2.  The  blind-man  must  make  his 
guess  in  one  minute,  or  let  the  cap- 
tive go. 

3.  No  capture  shall  count  that  is 
made  while  looseness  of  the  hand- 
kerchief allows  the  blind-man  to  see, 
no  matter  how  little. 

4.  If  any  player  is  fairly  held,  even 
for  an  instant,  he  is  caught,  and  must 
not  try  to  get  away,  but  a  mere  touch 
does  not  count. 


BLIND    MAN'S   BUFF 


92 


BLIND   MAN'S   BUFF 


Still  Pond,  a  kind  of  Blind  Man's 
Buff  in  which  the  players  do  not  run 
about,  but  keep  each  in  one  place, 
without  making  the  slightest  noise. 
The  blind-man  gives  them  time  to 
take  what  positions  each  wishes,  and 
then  cries  "  Still  Pond  !  "  (or,  some- 
times, "  Still  Proving,  no  Moving,") 
after  which  no  one  but  him  may 
move,  or  make  a  noise.  The  players 
generally  prefer  to  hide  under  tables 
or  on  chairs,  but  one  may  often  stand 
still  in  the  middle  of  the  room  with- 
out being  found.  The  rules  are  the 
same  as  for  common  Blind  Man's 
Buff. 

Seven  Steps,  a  variation  of  Still 
Pond,  in  which  each  of  the  players  is 
allowed  to  take  not  more  than  seven 
steps  to  escape  from  the  blind-man. 
The  steps  may  be  taken  at  any  time 
after  he  calls  "  Still  Pond ! "  In 
other  respects  the  game  is  played  like 
Still  Pond. 

French  Blind  Man's  Buff.  The 
players  form  a  ring,  hand  in  hand, 
and  the  blind-man  stands  in  the 
middle  holding  a  wand,  or  cane. 
The  players  dance  around  him  till  he 
raps  on  the  floor.  When  they  stop, 
he  holds  out  the  cane,  and  the  one 
to  whom  it  points  must  grasp  the 
end.  The  blind-man  then  asks  any 
three  questions  he  pleases,  all  of 
which  must  be  answered  in  a 
changed  voice.  The  blind-man 
guesses  who  is  talking ;  if  he  is  right, 
the  two  change  places;  but  if  he  is 
wrong,  the  players  dance  about  him 
again,  and  the  game  goes  on.  This 
is  also  called  Blind  Man's  Wand, 
Buff  with  the  Wand,  Indian  Buff, 
and,  in  New  York,  Peggy  in  the 
Ring. 

Blind  Man's  Buff  with  Numbers, 
a  form  of  the  game  in  which  the 
players,  who  are  all  numbered,  sit 
around  the  room,  while  the  blind- 
man  stands  in  the  middle.  He  calls 
out  two  numbers,  and  their  owners 
must  change  places,  the  blind-man 
trying  to  catch  them  as  they  do  so. 
No  one  can  be  caught  after  he  has 
taken  his  seat.  In  this  y»fQf>  the 


blind-man  does  not  have  to  guess 
the  name  of  the  one  that  he  catches. 
Sometimes,  instead  of  numbers,  the 
players  take  the  names  of  towns, 
and  the  blind-man  calls  out,  for 
instance,  "  Let  New  York  go  to 
Chicago,"  when  he  wishes  the  players 
with  these  names  to  change  places. 
Jingling,  a  kind  of  Blind  Man's 
Buff,  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons in  a  square  place,  inclosed  by 
ropes,  tied  to  corner-stakes.  One  of 

|  the  players,  who  is  chosen  "Jingler," 
or  "  Bell  man,"  has  his  hands  tied 
behind  his  back  and  a  bell  fastened 
around  his  neck,  while  all  the  others 
are  blindfolded.  The  blind-men  try 

!  to  catch  the  Jingler,  guided  by  his 
bell,  and  the  Jingler  tries  to  deceive 

j  them  in  every  way  he  can.  Two 
blind-men  often  seize  each  other, 

j  each  believing  the  other  to  be  the 
Jingler.  When  any  player  succeeds 
in  catching  the  Jingler,  the  two 
change  places.  In  England,  Jin- 
gling matches  are  popular  at  country 
fairs.  If  the  Jingler  can  avoid  his 
pursuers  for  a  given  time,  he  is  the 
winner,  otherwise  the  prize  is  given 
to  the  blind-man  who  catches  him. 
The  size  of  the  space  or  "  ring  "  in 
which  the  game  is  played,  depends 
on  the  number  of  players  and  their 
agility.  A  few  trials  will  usually 
determine  the  proper  size.  If  the 
Jingler  keeps  too  long  from  being 
caught,  it  is  too  large ;  if  he  is 
caught  too  soon,  it  should  be  larger. 
In  some  parts  of  England  a  pig  is 
placed  in  the  ring  instead  of  the 
Jingler,  and  the  blind-men  are 
armed  with  whips.  He  who  hits 
the  pig  becomes  its  owner.  The 

i  sport  is  usually  more  amusing  to  the 
spectators  than  to  the  contestants, 
as  they  are  apt  to  give  each  other  a 
sound  beating  before  any  one  suc- 
ceeds in  hitting  the  pig. 

Spoons,    a    kind    of    Blind  Man's 

|  Buff  in  which  the  blind-man  holds  a 
large  tablespoon  in  each  hand.  The 
other  players  circle  around  him  till 
he  cries  "  spoons ! "  when  he  ad- 
vances and  tries  to  guess  who  any 


BLIND   MAN'S  BUFF 


93 


BLIND    MAN'S   BUFF 


player  is,  by  touching  him  with  the 
spoon  only.  If  he  guesses  correctly 
the  player  takes  his  place,  otherwise 
the  players  circle  around  him  as  be- 
fore. 

History. — Blind  Man's  Buff  is  a 
very  old  game.     The  Greek  youths 


played  it,  calling  it  muia  chalkl 
(brazen  fly).  The  old  English  name 
for  it  was  Hoodman  Blind.  People 
often  wore  head-dresses  called  hoods, 
and  the  blind-man  turned  his  over  his 
face,  while  the  others  used  theirs  to 
strike  him  with,  as  shown  in  the  illus- 


Hoodman  Blind. 


tration,  taken  from  an  old  manuscript 
in  the  Bodleian  library  at  Oxford. 
It  was  also  sometimes  called  Harry- 
racket  and  Hoodwink.  The  English 
had  other  blindfold  games,  one  of 
which  is  shown  in  the  second  illus- 
tration. The  French  call  it  Colin 


Maillard,  which,  it  is  said,  was  the 
name  of  a  warrior  in  the  loth  cen- 
tury, who  continued  to  fight  in  a 
battle  after  both  his  eyes  were  put 
out.  His  full  name  was  Jean  Colin, 
and  he  was  surnamed  Maillard 
(Mallet-wielder)  from  his  favorite 


An  Old  English  Blindfold  Game. 


weapon.  The  Germans  have  several 
names  for  the  game,  among  which 
are  Blinde  Kuh  (Blind  Cow),  and 
Maus  v«  Finstern  (Mouse  in  the 
Dark).  The  Italians  call  it  Mosca 
Cieca  (Blind  Fly) ;  the  Norwegians, 
Blind  Thief,  and  the  Poles, 


Man.  French  Blind  Man's  Buff  fs 
called  in  Germany  Blinde  Kuh  im 
Kreise  (Blind  Cow  in  the  Ring),  or 
"Piep."  The  name  Blind  Man's 
Buff  is  probably  from  the  blows,  or 
buffets,  that  the  blind-man  gets  from 
his  companions. 


BLIND  MAN'S  SINGING 


94 


BLOWPIPE 


BLIND  MAN'S  SINGING 
SCHOOL,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  one  of  whom  is 
blindfolded  and  takes  the  part  of 
teacher,  while  the  others  personate 
scholars.  The  scholars  sing  the 
scale,  each  singing  one  note,  in  or- 
der, to  the  syllable  "  Ah."  They 
can  sing  correctly  or  not,  as  they 
please.  When  the  teacher  thinks 
he  recognizes  a  voice,  he  says 
"  Stop  !  "  and,  calling  the  scholar 
by  name,  makes  some  correction  or 
criticism.  If  the  name  is  given  in- 
correctly the  singing  goes  on  ;  but 
if  it  is  right,  the  scholar  and 
teacher  must  change  places.  After 
the  new  teacher  is  blindfolded,  the 
pupils  must  change  seats,  so  that 
they  cannot  be  recognized  by  the 
directions  from  which  their  voices 
come. 

BLOCKADE,  a  SOLITAIRE  game 
of  CARDS,  played  with  two  full  packs. 
The  Kings  and  Aces  are  placed  in 
two  rows  as  they  come  from  the 
pack.  On  the  Kings,  families  are 
built  by  piling  downward,  and  on  the 
Aces,  upward.  Cards  which  cannot 
be  so  used  are  placed  in  rows  of  ten 
each,  face  upward,  on  the  table,  one 
row  directly  below  another.  Any 
card  in  the  upper  or  lower  row  may 
be  used  in  bui'ding,  or  any  card 
having  an  empty  space  above  or 
below  it.  Those  having  other  cards 
above  and  below  them  are  said  to  be 
blockaded,  and  cannot  be  used. 
When  all  the  possible  cards  have 
been  played  at  any  time,  the  spaces 
must  be  filled  in  regular  order  from 
the  pack.  The  player  has  the  privi- 
lege of  using  one  blockaded  card  in 
building,  after  the  pack  is  exhausted. 

BLOTTING-PAPER,  Experiment 
with.  Fill  a  goblet  to  overflowing 
with  water,  lay  over  it  a  thick  sheet 
of  blotting-paper,  and  on  this  place  a 
pane  of  glass,  or  a  plate.  After  the 
water  has  soaked  a  little  into  the 
paper  the  goblet  will  adhere  to  it  so 
strongly  that  it  may  be  picked  up  by 
the  glass  and  even  made  to  stand  out 
sidewise  from  it.  The  reason  is  that 


the  blotting-paper  soaks  out  some  of 
the  water  from  the  inside  of  the 
glass,  reducing  the  pressure  there, 
and  so  the  pressure  of  the  air  outside 
holds  goblet  and  glass  together. 

With  care  the  glass  or  plate  can 
be  dispensed  with  and  the  experi- 
ment performed  with  the  paper  alone. 
BLOWPIPE,  Experiments  with 
the.  The  ordinary  blowpipe  is  a 
metal  tube  shaped  as  shown  in  the 
illustration.  When  the  short  end 
(which  is  usually  made  of  platinum 
to  prevent  its  melting)  is 
placed  in  a  flame  and  the 
mouth  applied  to  the  other 
end,  a  long,  pointed,  very- 
hot  tongue  of  flame  is  pro- 
duced by  blowing.  The 
flame  may  be  that  of  a 
candle,  an  alcohol  lamp,  or 
a  gas  burner.  If  a  candle 
is  used,  the  wick  is  bent 
over  at  right  angles  so  as 
not  to  interfere  with  the 
blowpipe.  If  gas  is  used, 
a  flat  brass  tube  is  slipped 
over  the  burner  as  shown 
in  Fig.  2.  Fig.  3  represents 
the  blowpipe  flame.  Blowpipes, 
burners,  and  everything  needed  for 
the  experiments  described  in  this 
article  can  be  bought 
of  any  dealer  in 
chemical  supplies. 
The  flame,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  3,  consists 
of  a  central  blue 
part,  B,  and  an  • 
outer  part  A,  of  an- 
other color.  Either 
of  these  parts  may 
be  made  larger  at 
the  expense  of  the 
other  by  varying  the 
force  of  the  breath,  as  will  be  found 
by  experiment. 

Blowing.  It  is  often  necessary  to 
keep  the  flame  steady  for  several 
minutes.  In  order  to  do  this,  the 
operator  must  be  able  to  take  breath 
through  his  nose,  while  blowing 
The  effort  should  be  simply  to  keep 
the  cheeks  constantly  distended, 


Fig.  i. 

Blow- 
pipe. 


BLOWPIPE 


95 


letting  their  elasticity  drive  the  air 
out  through  the  pipe. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

I.  Melting.  Take  a  small  platinum 
wire  or  a  bit  of  lime,  and  hold  it  in 
various  parts  of  the  blowpipe  flame. 
(Objects  may  be  so  held  by  a  pair  of 
platinum  forceps.)  The  wire  will  shine 
more  brightly  in  some  places  than 


Fig.  3- 

others,  and  it  will  thus  be  found  that 
the  hottest  part  of  the  flame  is  just  at 
the  tip  A  (Fig.  3),  where  it  is  almost 
invisible.  Hold  various  substances, 
bits  of  glass,  stone,  or  metal  in  this 
part  of  the  flame,  and  it  will  be  found 
that  some  melt  easily  in  it,  while 
others  do  not. 

2.  Oxydizing.     Near  the  end  of  a 
strip  of  fine  charcoal  make  a  cavity 
by  pressing  the  edge  of  a  coin  on  it 
and  turning  it  around.     Put  in  the  | 
cavity  a  bit  of   lead  or  antimony  and 
hold   it   in   the  tip  of   the  flame  A. 
The   heat    will   oxydize  it,    that    is, 
cause  it  to  unite  with  the  oxygen  of 
the  air.     A   colored  film  or  coating 
of  the   oxide  will  form  around  the 
metal.     Other   metals  may  be  tried 
in   the  same  way.     Some    will  form 
colored  films  and  others  will  not. 

3.  Reducing.     Mix  together  small 
equal  qualities  of  dry  washing  soda 
and  lead  oxide.     Put  a  little  in  the 
charcoal  cavity,  and    heat   it   in  the 
inner  blue  part  of  the  flame,  near  the 
tip   B,  regulating  the  flame  so  that  \ 
the    mixture    is    surrounded    by  it. 
After  a   time  little  globules  of  lead 
will    be   seen    in.  the  mass.     It  may 
then   be  cooled,  put  with  water  into 
a  little  mortar  and  broken  up,  when 
the  beads  of  lead  can  be  picked  out. 


The  lead  came  from  the  lead  oxide, 
whose  oxygen  left  it  to  unite  with  the 
gases  of  the  blue  flame.  This  is 
called  reducing  and  the  blue  flame  is 
called  the  reducing  flame.  Oxides 
of  other  metals  may  be  treated  in  like 
manner. 

Borax  Beads.  Fix  a  piece  of 
platinum  wire  in  a  cork  for  a  handle, 
and  make  a  little  loop  at  the  end 
of  the  wire.  Heat  the  loop  red  hot 
and  dip  it  into  powdered  borax,  some 
of  which  will  stick  to  it.  The  borax 
may  now  be  melted  to  a  transparent 
bead,  which  will  remain  on  the  wire 
loop.  This  bead  has  the  property  of 
dissolving  many  of  the  oxides  of 
metals,  which  give  it  different  colors, 
as  may  be  seen  by  trial.  A  minute 
speck  of  oxide  is  sufficient.  If  the 
bead  be  then  held  in  the  reducing 
flame,  the  metal  may  often  be  ob- 
tained from  the  oxide,  forming  a  glob- 
ule in  the  center  of  the  bead,  whence 
it  may  be  taken  out,  when  cool,  by 
breaking  with  the  hammer. 

BLOW  THE  FEATHER,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons 
sitting  in  a  square  around  a  stretched 
sheet,  which  they  hold  just  below 
their  mouths.  On  the  sheet  is  placed 
a  feather,  which  each  must  try  to 
keep  away  from  him  by  blowing  it 
toward  some  one  else.  If  it  touches 
any  one  he  pays  a  forfeit.  The 
game  is  played  also  by  persons  sit- 
ting around  a  table  and  trying  to 
keep  the  feather  in  the  air  by  blow- 
ing it.  If  any  player  allow  it  to  fall 
to  the  table  in  front  of  him,  or  to 
touch  him,  he  pays  a  forfeit. 

The  game  is  sometimes  called 
"  French  and  English,"  in  which 
case  the  players  divide  into  two 
parties,  which  sit  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  room.  The  room  is  divided 
into  two  "Camps  "  by  a  line  drawn 
through  the  '  middle.  Each  side 
chooses  a  champion,  who  strives  to 
blow  the  feather  so  that  it  will  fall 
to  the  ground  in  the  opposite  Camp. 
When  one  succeeds,  the  other  be- 
comes a  prisoner  and  leaves  the 
game.  He  is  replaced  by  a  second 


BLUE  VITRIOL 


96 


BOAT-BUILDING 


champion,  and  the  game  goes  on  till 
all  on  one  side  have  been  taken 
prisoners. 

BLUE  VITRIOL,  Experiments 
with.  Blue  Vitriol,  or  Sulphate  of 
Copper,  is  described  in  C.  C.  T.  under 
VITRIOL.  If  the  blue  liquid  left  in 
the  flask  in  making  SULPHUR  DI- 
OXIDE be  evaporated  over  a  water 
bath,  crystals  of  blue  vitriol  will 
finally  appear. 

1.  If  a  crystal   of  blue  vitriol  be 
heated  in  a  test-tube,  it  will  turn  to 
a  white  powder,  and  water  will  con- 
dense in  the  upper  part  of  the  tube. 
A  drop  of  water  on  the  powder  will 
at    once   restore    the  original  blue 
color. 

2.  Make  a  strong  solution  of  blue 
vitriol,  and  dip  into  it  a  knife-blade, 
carefully    cleaned    and     free    from 
grease.      In  a  few  minutes,  copper 
will  be  deposited  on  the  blade,  mak- 
ing it  look  as  if  made  of  that  metal. 

BOAT-BUILDING.  Toy  boats 
may  either  have  hulls  built  of  sep- 
arate pieces  or  be  cut  out  of  a  solid 
block.  The  latter  method,  being  the 
easier,  will  be  described  first.  The 
best  wood  to  be  used  is  even- 
grained,  well-seasoned  yellow  pine. 
The  dimensions  of  the  block  used  for 
naking  a  cutter  yacht  may  be  two 
/eet  long,  five  inches  wide,  and  five 
inches  deep,  but  the  size  and  pro- 
portions may  of  course  be  varied  to 
suit  the  builder.  The  block  is  first 
planed  and  squared,  and  then 
straight  lines  are  drawn  from  end  to 
end  along  the  middle  of  two  oppo- 
site sides.  The  ends  of  these  are 
connected  by  similar  lines  across  the 
ends  of  the  block.  All  these  lines 
must  be  carefully  measured  and 
drawn.  On  the  side  chosen  for  the 
deck  a  line  is  drawn  across  the  mid- 
dle at  right  angles  to  the  long  line, 
and  then  the  deck  plan  is  laid  out  as 
in  the  diagram.  The  curved  lines 
must  pass  through  the  ends  of  the 
cross  line,  but  their  shape  may  be 
varied  to  suit  the  builder,  provided 
the  sides  are  exactly  alike. 

The  first  part  to  be  shaped  should 


be  the  "  counter,"  or  overhanging 
stern,  which  is  made  as  shown  in 
the  diagram  at  the  place  marked 
"  After  end  of  the  block  of  timber." 
Curves  representing  sections  across 
the  hull  at  different  points  are  now 
drawn  on  paper,  and  pieces  of  card- 
board called  section  molds  are  cut  out 
to  fit  them.  The  block  is  turned  deck 
downward,  and  the  wood  cut  away 
with  chisel  and  gouge  till  it  fits  the 
proper  piece  of  cardboard  at  each 
place.  As  the  wood  nears  its  final 
shape  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
cut  away  too  much,  and  the  molds 
should  be  applied  frequently.  Be- 
sides these  cross  sections,  lengthwise 
sections  may  also  be  used,  which  will 
make  the  work  still  more  accurate. 
Both  sections  are  shown  in  the  dia- 
grams, and  others  may  be  tried  exper- 
imentally by  the  builder,  or  copied 
from  the  lines  of  large  yachts.  The 
diagrams  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
page  show  a  method  of  laying  them 
off  from  a  drawing.  The  lowest  fig- 
ure show?  the  sweep  of  the  lines  from 
bow  to  stern  at  different  levels,  the 
outside  lines  denoting  their  shape  at 
the  top  and  the  inside  ones  near  the 
keel.  A  set  of  horizontal  lines  for  the 
different  levels  are  then  made  as 
shown  in  the  square  figure  to  the 
left,  which  must  be  just  as  high  as 
the  block  used.  To  find  the  shape 
of  the  cross  section  at  any  place,  for 
instance  the  third  vertical  line  from 
the  right  (marked  C  in  the  upper- 
most figure),  measure  off  the  dis- 
tance of  each  curved  line  from  the 
center,  on  the  same  line  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  page,  and  lay  off  the 
respective  distances  on  their  corre- 
sponding levels  at  the  left.  When  the 
points  so  formed  are  joined,  a  curved 
line  will  result  like  that  marked  C  in 
the  small  figure  at  the  top,  and  this 
will  be  the  shape  of  the  section  at  C. 
In  the  same  way  the  sections  at  the 
other  vertical  lines  may  be  found 
and  molds  made  fr.om  them. 

The  fullest  part  of  the  hull  should 
be  at  the  "  midship  section,"  or  just 
half  way  between  the  stem  and  stern. 


BOAT-BUILDING 


97 


BOAT-BUILDING 


AT.  1  AT. 


How  to  Plan  a  Boat. 


BOAT-BUILDING 


98 


BOAT-BUILDING 


The  hull  is  now  turned  over  and 
hollowed  out  with  gouges,  leaving 
the  sides  thick  at  first,  and  thinning 
them  gradually.  The  upper  half 


Arrangement  of  Masts. 

inch  of  the  sides  should  be  made 
very  thin,  for  bulwarks,  and  a  ledge 
should  be  left  just  below  for  the 
deck  to  rest  upon.  This  is  made  of  a 
thin  piece  of  pine,  cut  to  the  proper 
shape.  Some  boats  require  a  false 
keel  to  make  them  float  properly. 
This  is  of  lead,  shaped  in  a  mold 
made  of  three  laths  nailed  together 
to  form  a  narrow  channel,  which 
with  the  dimensions  given  above 
must  be  an  inch  and  a  half  in  depth 
and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick. 
The  channel  is  stopped  at  the  ends 
with  wood,  so  as  to  be  exactly  the 
length  of  the  boat's  keel.  Six  or 
eight  nails  are  driven  into  the  bot- 
tom of  the  mold,  so  that  they  will 
project  from  the  lead  keel  when 
molded,  and  enable  it  to  be  fast- 
ened to  the  boat.  The  bottom  of  the 
mold  should  therefore  be  thin,  so 
that  it  can  easily  be  pulled  away 


from  the  nails.  The  mold  is  now 
filled  with  melted  lead,  which  is 
taken  out  when  it  has  hardened,  and 
may  then  be  shaped  with  a  plane,  as 
if  it  were  of  wood.  The  lower  end 
of  the  false  keel,  at  the  bow,  should 
be  rounded. 

Before  nailing  down  the  deck,  holes 
must  be  bored  in  it  for  the  mast  and 
rudder.  The  hole  for  the  mast  in  a 
boat  of  the  size  described  should  be 
half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  eight 
inches  from  the  bow.  A  similar 
hole  must  be  bored  part  way  through 
the  bottom  of  the  hull  to  fix  the 
lower  end.  The  mast  should  be 
half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  is  best 
made  of  pine.  It  is  made  in  two 
parts,  the  lower  of  which  must  meas- 
ure, between  the  deck  and  the  top- 
mast, just  three  times  the  greatest 
width  of  the  vessel,  in  this  case  fif- 
teen inches.  Adding  four  inches  for 
the  part  below  the  deck,  and  two  and 
a  half  for  the  mast-head,  the  total 
length  becomes  twenty-one  and  a 
half  inches.  The  mast  must  be 
rounded  with  a  plane,  or  by  whit- 
tling, and  the  mast-head  (the  upper 
two  and  a  half  inches)  must  be  whit- 
tled down  to  half  its  diameter,  to  join 
it  to  the  topmast.  A  quarter  of  an 
inch  at  the  top  must  be  made  still 
smaller.  The  topmast  is  fastened  to 


Ribs,  Keel,  and  Keelson. 

the  lower  mast  by  two  "  caps,"  seen 
in  the  illustration,  the  lower  one  rest- 
ing on  the  lower  part  of  the  reduced 
portion,  and  the  upper  one  fitting 


BOAT-BUILDING 


99 


BOAT-BUILDING 


the  narrowest  part.  These  may  be 
made  of  hard  wood  or  of  brass.  Be- 
fore fixing  the  mast  in  the  .place  pre- 
pared for  it,  about  a  dozen  brass 
rings  are  placed  on  it.  A  cross-tree 
of  flattened  brass  wire  equal  in  length 
to  the  width  of  the  boat  is  fastened 
at  the  top  of  the  lower  cap,  and, 
through  holes  drilled  in  the  ends, 
cords  pass  from  the  top  of  the  mast 
to  the  bulwarks.  These  are  called 
stays.  The  arrangement  of  these 
and  other  parts  of  the  rigging  for  a 


cutter  yacht  is  shown  in  the  figure. 
(For  definitions  of  the  various  terms 
used,  and  hints  on  rigging  different 
styles  of  boats,  see  the  article  on 
SAILING.)  The  bowsprit  should  have 
a  length  of  about  twice  the  beam, 
and  a  notch  should  be  cut  in  the  stem 
of  the  boat  to  receive  it. 

Instead  of  having  a  hull  hollowed 
out  of  a  block  of  wood,  the  boat 
may  be  built  up  like  a  real  one.  The 
keel  is  first  made,  then  the  stem  and 
stern  posts  are  set  up,  and  then  the 


I.     Mast 

a.     Topmast 

3.     Bowsprit. 


Jib. 

Foresail. 

Mainsail. 

Topsail. 

Gaff. 

Boom. 

Shrouds. 


Topmast  Shrouds. 
Runner. 
Preventer. 
Topmast  Stay. 
Forestay.  • 

Bobstay. 
Boom  Lifts. 
Ensign   Halyards. 
Mainsail   Halyards. 
Throat  of  Mainsail. 


22. 

•3- 

»4- 

25- 
26. 

27- 

B& 


Crosstree. 

Leech  of  Mainsail. 

Mainsheet. 

Tiller. 

Companion. 

Bulwarks. 

Hull. 

Ensign. 

Burgee. 

Foresheet. 


ribs,  which  are  sawed  out  of  wood 
with  a  scroll  saw,  in  curves,  which  are 
given  by  the  cardboard  models  de- 
scribed above.  The  ribs  are  fitted  in 
notches  in  the  keel,  held  in  place  by 
glue,  and  then  a  strip  of  wood  called 
the  keelson  is  laid  along  the  inside 
and  nailed  down  to  both  ribs  and 
keel,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  Then 
flexible  boards,  not  more  than  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  are  nailed 


over  the  ribs  with  fine  brads,  to  form 
the  planking,  the  cracks  between  be- 
ing filled  in  with  putty.  The  rest  of 
the  construction  is  the  same  as  with 
hollowed-out  boats. 

Sai7s.  Patterns  should  first  be 
cut  from  paper  and  adjusted  in  place, 
and,  when  these  have  been  cut  to  the 
proper  shape,  they  should  be  copied 
in  white  muslin.  Each  sail  should 
be  hemmed  around  the  edges.  The 


BOB£CHON 


100 


BOILING 


luff  of  the  mainsail  is  sewed  to  the 
rings  on  the  mast,  and  its  upper  edge 
is  fastened  to  the  gaff  by  cords.  The 
lower  edge  is  fastened  to  the  boom 
only  at  the  corners. 

BOAT  RACING.    See  ROWING. 

BOBECHON,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons  with  the  toy 
shown  in  the  illustration,  which  is 
made  as  follows :  Make  a  tight 
roll  of  flannel  or  cloth,  about  three 
inches  high  and  half  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter, and  secure  it  by  winding 
thread  around  it.  Sew  this  to  the 
center  of  a  circular  piece  of  fur  or 
very  thick  cloth,  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  diameter,  so  that  it  will  stand 
upright  on  this  circle  as  a  base. 
This  toy  is  called  the  Bobechon.  It 


Bobechon. 

is  placed  upright  in  the  center  of  an 
ordinary  dinner  plate,  and  a  small 
coin  is  laid  on  the  top  of  the  flannel 
roll.  The  object  is  to  remove  both 
Bobechon  and  coin  from  the  plate 
with  a  flexible  rod  or  cane,  like  the 
end  of  a  fishing  rod.  The  coin  need 
not  keep  its  place  on  the  flannel  roll, 
so  long  as  both  it  and  the  Bobechon 
fall  clear  of  the  plate.  The  players 
take  turns,  and  he  who  succeeds 
most  times,  in  a  number  previously 
agreed  upon,  is  the  winner. 

The  task  seems  an  easy  one,  but 
it  is  really  very  difficult,  as  will  be 
seen  on  trial.  If  the  rod  be  applied 
near  the  base,  the  Bobechon  with  its 
coin  may  be  slid  along  till  it  reaches 
the  slop:'ng  edge  of  the  plate,  and  if  it 


is  then  given  a  push,  the  coin  will  fall 
off  into  the  plate.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  rod  be  now  applied  to  the 
upper  part  of  the  toy,  it  will  tip  over, 
throwing  the  coin  outside,  but  itself 
falling  on  the  plate.  The  proper 
way  is  to  press  the  end  of  the  rod  on 
the  farther  edge  of  the  plate  so  that 
it  curves  downwards,  as  shown  in 
the  second  figure,  the  lower  part  of 
the  curve  touching  the  flannel  roll 
just  where  it  is  sewed  to  the  circle. 
The  Bobechon  is  then  pushed  slowly 
along  till  it  reaches  the  sloping  edge, 
when  by  a  peculiar  twist  of  the  rod, 
learned  only  by  practice,  both  it  and 
the  coin  can  be  thrown  without  the 
plate.  The  toy  is  shown  in  the  up- 
per part  of  the  cut ;  the  way  of  re- 
moving it  in  the  lower. 

Bobechon  is  a  French  game,  and 
is  said  to  be  much  used  by  sharpers 
in  that  country,  who,  being  prac- 
ticed, can  always  succeed,  while  their 
victims,  who  think  the  task  very  easy, 
always  fail. 

BOILING,  Experiments  in.  I. 
The  boiling  of  water  is  described  in 
C.  C.  T.  in  the  article  STEAM.  It  is 
best  observed  by  filling  a  test-tube 
(see  CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS)  a 
quarter  full  of  cold  water,  and  hold- 
ing the  lower  end  in  the  flame  of 
an  alcohol  lamp  or  Bunsen  burner. 
Little  bubbles  will  first  form  and 
stick  to  the  sides  of  the  tube.  By 
and  by  these  will  disappear,  and 
other  little  bubbles,  like  white  specks, 
will  form  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
liquid,  and  rise  toward  the  top,  but 
will  disappear  before  they  get  there. 
These  rapidly  increase  in  numbers 
and  size  and  go  higher  and  higher., 
till  finally  they  burst  from  the  top, 
when  it  is  seen  that  they  consist  of 
steam.  When  they  vanish  before 
reaching  the  top  a  simmering  or 
"  singing  "  noise  is  heard.  After- 
ward the  noise  is  the  bubbling  sound 
of  boiling.  The  first  formed  bubbles, 
which  stick  to  the  sides,  are  com- 
posed of  air,  which  was  dissolved 
in  the  water.  The  others  are  com- 
posed of  steam,  but  as  fast  as  they 


BOILING 


101 


BOILING 


get  further  away  from  the  heat  of 
the  flame  they  condense  back  to 
water,  making  the  sound  of  simmer- 
ing. By  and  by  the  water  gets  so 
hot  all  the  way  through  that  they 
can  rise  out  of  the  top. 

2.  Buy  a  small  chemical  thermo- 
meter, which  is  simply  a  thermome- 
ter without  any  tin  case,  so  that  it 
can  be  put  into  liquids  to  get  their 
temperature.     The  scale   is  marked 
directly  on  the  glass  tube.     One  can 
be  made  by  taking  an  ordinary  ther- 
mometer, scratching  the  divisions  of 
the  scale  on  the  tube  with  a  diamond, 
or  a  sharp  file,  and  then  removing 
the  bulb  and  tube   from   the   case. 
Put  the  thermometer  into  water  be- 
fore it  begins  to  boil,  being  careful 
that  it  does  not  touch  the  bottom  or 
sides  of  the  vessel.     As  the  water 
gets  hotter,   the  mercury   will    rise 
until  it  boils,  when  the  thermometer 
will  stand  at  about  212°,  if  it  has  a 
Fahrenheit  scale,  or  at  100°  if  it  is 
Centigrade  (See  THERMOMETER,  in 
C.  C.  T.).      Chemical   thermometers 
usually   have   the  Centigrade   scale, 
but  if  the  one  used  has  been  made 
from  an  ordinary  thermometer  it  will 
probably  be  Fahrenheit.     This  tem- 
perature is  called  the  boiling  point. 
If  you  now  try  to  make  the  thermo- 
meter rise  higher   by  continuing  to 
hold  it  in  the  boiling  water,  you  will 
find  it  impossible.     No  matter  how 
much  the  heat  is  increased,  the  mer- 
cury will  not  rise  any  more,  but  the 
water  will  simply  boil   away  faster. 
The  reason  is,  that  as  soon  as  the 
water  begins  to  boil  all  the  heat  is 
used  in  turning  it  to  steam  and  not 
in  raising  its  temperature. 

3.  Boil  some  water  for  ten  or  fif- 
teen minutes ;  let  it  cool  and   then 
heat  it  again  with  the  thermometer 
in  it.     By  keeping  it  very  still,  you 
will    probably   find   that   it   can    be 
raised  several  degrees  above  the  boil- 
ing point,  without  causing  it  to  boil. 
If  some  scraps  or  filings  of  metal  be 
now  cast   into  it   the  water  will  at 
once  begin  to  boil,  and  the  mercury 
will  fall  to  the  boiling  point.     The 


reason  is  that  water  with  air  dis- 
solved in  it  boils  sooner  than  pure 
water,  and  by  boiling  it  once  the  air 
is  driven  out,  so  that  at  the  second 
heating  it  rises  higher  than  212°. 
But  when  scraps  of  metal  are 
dropped  in  they  carry  air  with  them, 
and  boiling  begins. 

4.  Find  the  boiling  point  of  water 
with  various  substances — for  instance 
salt  or  sugar — dissolved  in  it.     In  all 
cases  it  is  higher  than   the   boiling 
point  of  pure  water.     The  reason  is 
that  it  takes  some  heat  to  separate 
the  water  from  the  salt   or  sugar 
when  it  is  turning  to  steam. 

5.  Boil  water  in  a  glass  flask,  and 
while  it   is   boiling  cork    the   flask 
tightly,  and  remove  it  at  once  from 
the   flame.     When  it  stops   boiling 
pour  cold  water  over  the  flask,  and 
it   will   begin   to  boil    again.     This 
may  be  done  several   times.      The 
same  result  will  follow  if  the  flask  be 
plunged  into  cold  water.     The  rea- 
son is  that  when  a  flask  of  boiling 
water  is  corked  the  space  above  the 
water  is  filled  with  steam,  when  this 
steam    is   turned  to  water  by  being 
cooled   some  of  the  pressure  is  re- 
moved from  the  surface  of  the  water, 
which,   accordingly,   begins   to   boil 
again,  since  it  is  easier  for  the  bub- 
bles of  steam  to  get  out  of  the  water. 

6.  Some  time  when  you  go  up  on 
a  high    mountain,   take  with  you  a 
chemical  thermometer  and  an  alco- 
hol lamp,  and  find  the  boiling  point 
of   water  there.     It   will    be    lowef 
than   212°.     This  is  because  not  stf 
much  air  is  pressing  on  the  water  on 
the  summit  as   in  the  valley  below. 
Sometimes  the  height  of  mountains 
is  measured   by  finding  the   boiling 
point  of  water  on  their  summits.   On 
a   mountain   6000   feet   high,  water 
boils   at   about  200°  Fahrenheit,  in- 
stead  of   212°. 

7.  Find  the  boiling  points  of  other 
fluids  than  water.     It  will   be  found 
that  some  are  higher  and  some  are 
lower,  and    that  it  is  impossible   to 
boil   some  of  them  at  all — oils   for 
instance. 


BOOKBINDER 


102 


BOOK  NOTICES 


8.  Pour  a  little  ether  into  a  test-tube 
<ind  hold  it  in  the  hand.     The  heat  of 
the  hand  will  cause  it  to  boil,  its  boil- 
ing point  being  only  99°  Fahrenheit. 

9.  Mix  together  water  and  bisul- 
phide    of    carbon,    both    previously 
heated    to     113°    Fahrenheit.     The 
mixture  will  at  once   begin  to  boil. 
This   is    because,   contrary    to    the 
usual  rule,  a  mixture  of   these   two 
liquids  boils  at  a  lower  temperature 
than  either  of  them  separately. 

10.  Weight  a  piece  of  ice  as  large 
as  the  tip  of  the  little  finger,  by  tying 
a  bit  of  lead  to  it,  so  that  it  will  sink 
to  the  bottom  of  a  test-tube  of  water. 
Incline  the  tube  and  hold  it  in  a  flame 
so  that  the  upper  part  of  the  water 
will  be  heated.     The  water    above 
the  ice  may  thus  be  boiled  while  the 
ice   remains  unmelted.     The  reason 
is  that  the  water  is  a  poor  conductor 
of    heat.     If   the   ice   be   above  the 
place  where  the  heat  is  applied,  the 
experiment  does  not  succeed,  because 
hot  water,  being  lighter   than   cold, 
ascends  and  melts  the  ice. 

BOOKBINDER,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  who  sit 
in  a  circle,  each  holding  a  book  on 
the  back  of  his  clenched  fists.  One, 
who  has  been  chosen  bookbinder 
and  stands  in  the  middle  of  the 


Manner  of  Holding  Rook. 

circle,  goes  to  any  player  and  seizing 
that  player's  book  attempts  to  rap 
his  knuckles,  which  the  holder  of  the 
book  tries  to  avoid  by  pulling  back 
his  hands  quickly.  If  the  book- 
binder succeed  in  this,  the  player 
whose  knuckles  he  raps  changes 
places  with  him ;  otherwise,  he  re- 


places the  book  and  tries  to  do  the 
same  with  someone  else.  The  book- 
binder may  pretend  to  seize  a  book 
without  actually  doing  so,  and  if  the 
holder  pulls  away  his  hands  so  that 
the  book  fall,  he  must  take  the  lead- 
er's place  as  if  his  knuckles  had  been 
rapped.  The  leader  can  make  this 
game  very  exciting  if  he  run  quickly 
from  one  to  another,  pretending  to 
take  up  one  book  and  then  seizing 
another,  thus  keeping  the  players 
constantly  on  the  lookout. 

BOOK  NOTICES.  A  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  each  of 
whom  has  a  pencil  and  sheet  of 
paper.  The  players  usually  sit 
around  a  taMe,  and  each  begins  the 
game  by  writing  at  the  top  of  the 
paper  the  pretended  title  of  a  book. 
The  papers  are  then  folded  so  as  to 
hide  what  has  been  written,  and 
passed  to  the  left.  Each  then  writes, 
just  under  the  hidden  title,  the  word 
"  or  "  and  follows  it  by  a  pretended 
sub-title.  After  this,  the  following 
are  written  in  like  manner,  the  pa- 
pers being  folded  and  passed,  after 
each  writing,  as  before.  (3)  The 
word  "by,"  followed  by  a  person's 
name  (generally  that  of  one  of  the 
players);  (4)  the  words  "author 
of,"  followed  by  another  title  ;  (5) 
the  word  "or  "  followed  by  another 
sub-title ;  (6)  a  pretended  critical 
notice  of  the  book  ;  (7)  the  name 
of  a  newspaper  or  magazine. 

The  number  of  titles  and  notices 
may  be  increased  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  company.  When  the  papers  are 
finished  they  are  passed  to  the  left 
again,  and  read  aloud,  one  by  each 
player;  or  one  of  the  company  may 
be  chosen  to  read  them  all.  An  ex- 
ample of  one  of  the  papers  thus  writ- 
ten is  as  follows  :  "  The  Witch's 
Fate;  or,  A  Treatise  on  Soap  Boil- 
ing, by  James  M ,  author  of  The 

Heavenly  Bodies;  or,  What  I  Found 
in  My  Hat.  This  work,  by  its  pro- 
found learning  and  fascinating  style, 
can  scarcely  fail  to  place  the  author 
in  the  same  rank  with  Shakespeare. 
London  Times." 


BOOMERANG 


103 


BOOMERANG 


BOOMERANG,  a  flat  curved  piece 
of  wood,  used  as  a  missile.  When 
held  by  one  end  and  thrown,  it 
moves  in  a  curve,  and  if  thrown 
skillfully  can  be  made  to  return  to 
the  place  from  which  it  started. 
Several  boomerangs  can  be  made,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration,  from  a 
piece  of  hickory  wood,  1,  half  an  inch 
thick,  by  steaming  it  thoroughly, 
and  then  bending  it  so  that  the  sides 


Making  Boomerang. 

are  nearly  at  a  right  angle.  The  wood 
can  be  held  in  shape  by  tying  it,  till  it 
is  dry,  and  then  strips  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  thick  may  be  sawed  from 
it,  each  of  which  when  shaped  with  a 
knife  will  be  a  boomerang.  The 
shape  is  shown  at  2,  and  the  end- 
wise view,  when  it  is  sawed  across 
the  middle,  at  3.  A  single  boom- 

ng  may  be  cut  or  sawed  from 
*•  lat  piece  of  wood,  but  it  will 

apt  to  split.      A    small    boom- 


erang may  be  cut  from  pasteboard, 
and  sent  by  placing  it  on  a  book 
with  one  end  projecting  over  the 
right  edge.  The  book  is  held  in 
the  left  hand  and  the  end  of  the 
boomerang  struck  with  a  ruler  or 
paper-cutter  held  in  the  right  hand. 
The  best  pasteboard  boomerangs  are 


Sending  a  Paper  Boomerang, 
about  an  inch  long,  and  can  be 
snapped  with  the  forefinger  from  the 
edge  of  a  book.  To  throw  a  wooden 
boomerang  accurately  requires  great 
skill,  and  can  be  learned  only  by 
practice.  The  instrument  is  held 
like  a  club  in  throwing  it,  the  con- 
vex side  outward.  A  large  open 


Australian  Throwing  a  Boomerang. 

space  should  be  taken  for  the  trial, 
since  the  boomerang  may  curve  in  an 
unexpected  direction. 

The  boomerang  is  used  as  a 
weapon  by  the  natives  of  Australia, 
who  throw  it  with  great  skill,  making 
it  strike  an  enemy  in  the  back,  while 
he  is  advancing  toward  them. 


BOSTON 


104 


BOSTON 


BOSTON,  a  game  of  CARDS, 
played  by  four  persons  with  a  full 
pack.  The  cards  rank  as  in  Whist. 
The  pack  is  usually  shuffled  only  at 
the  beginning  of  the  game.  Before 
each  succeeding  deal  it  is  cut,  each 
player  having  the  right  to  do  so  once, 
the  dealer  last.  Shuffling  is  omitted 
that  cards  of  the  same  suit  may  be 
kept  together.  The  dealer  gives  each 
player  thirteen  cards,  four,  four,  and 
five  at  a  time.  The  eldest  hand  may 
now  say  "  I  pass,"  or  undertake  to 
win  five  or  more  tricks  (called  "  bid- 
ding"). Each  player,  in  turn,  has 
the  same  privilege,  but  each  must 
pass  if  he  cannot  bid  to  take  more 
tricks  than  any  one  before  him. 
When  a  player  bids,  the  one  that 
bid  just  before  him  may  bid  higher 
if  he  can,  before  the  next  one  to  the 
left  has  the  privilege.  If  all  the 
players  pass,  there  is  a  new  deal. 
Otherwise  the  bidding  goes  on 
around  the  table  till  all  but  one  pass, 
but  no  one  that  has  already  passed 
may  bid.  The  remaining  bidder 
names  the  trump,  and  playing  be- 
gins, the  eldest  hand  leading.  If  the 
bidder  wins  as  many  tricks  as  he  bid, 
or  more,  he  scores  the  number  of 
points  shown  in  the  table  given  be- 
low; otherwise  each  of  the  other 
players  scores  that  number.  In- 
stead of  bidding  to  take  a  certain 
number  of  tricks,  a  player  may  bid 
"  Great  Misery  "  or  "  Little  Misery," 
and  he  may  do  this  when  he  has  al- 
ready passed.  He  who  bids  Great 
Misery  must  play  his  cards  so  as  not 
to  take  a  single  trick.  If  he  take 
one,  he  loses.  He  who  bids  Little 
Misery  must  discard  one  card,  and 
play  the  other  twelve  without  taking 
a  trick.  In  either  case  there  is  no 
trump.  A  player  may  bid  either 
Great  or  Little  Misery  Ouverte 
(French  for  Open),  in  which  case  he 
must  lay  his  cards  face  upward  on 
the  table  and  play  them  in  that  man- 
ner. These  bids  rank  differently,  as 
is  shown  in  the  following  list  of  bids, 
where  they  are  given  in  their  order, 
beginning  with  the  lowest : 


1.  Five  Tricks,  or  Boston. 

2.  Six  Tricks. 

3.  Seven  Tricks. 

4.  Little  Misery. 

5.  Eight  Tricks. 

6.  Nine  Tricks. 

7.  Great  Misery. 

8.  Ten  Tricks. 

9.  Eleven  Tricks. 

10.  Little  Misery  Ouverte. 

11.  Twelve  Tricks. 

12.  Great  Misery  Ouverte. 

13.  Thirteen     Tricks    or    Grand 
Slam. 

When  all  the  players  pass,  instead 
of  having  a  fresh  deal,  what  is  called 
Misery  Partout  (Misery  All)  is  some- 
times played  by  agreement.  In  this 
case  there  is  no  trump,  and  each 
tries  to  take  as  few  tricks  as  he  can. 
Each  scores  10  for  every  trick  he  has 
less  than  each  of  the  others.  Thus, 
if  A  takes  four  tricks ;  B  the  same ; 
C  three  and  D  two,  since  D  has  one 
less  than  C,  two  less  than  B,  and 
two  less  than  A,  he  scores  50.  C 
scores  20,  in  like  manner,  and  A  and 
B  score  nothing. 

The  following  table  shows  the 
number  of  points  to  be  scored  by  a 
player  taking  all  the  tricks  he  bid,  or 
more : 


U) 

'-£.   ' 

y  g 

TRICKS  TAKEN. 

HW 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

IO 

II 

12 

'3 

5 

12 

12 

13 

13 

14 

M 

14 

15 

15 

6 

IS 

16 

16 

I? 

18 

'9 

2O 

20 

7 

18 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

26 

8 

23 

24 

26 

28 

29 

3' 

9 

32 

34 

36 

39 

41 

10 

42 

45 

48 

5* 

II 

63 

68 

72 

12 

106 

"4 

»3 

1  66 

If  a  player  does  not  take  as  many 
tricks  as  he  bid,  he  is  said  to  be  "  put 
in  for  "  the  number  of  tricks  that  are 
wanting,  and  each  of  the  other  play- 
ers, all  whom  play  against  him,  score 
the  number  of  points  he  is  "  put  in 
for."  The  following  table  shows 
what  his  opponents  score  in  each 
c;\se: 


BOSTON 


105 


BOSTON 


Ba 

TRICKS  "Pur  IN  FOR." 

HW 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

ii 

12 

*3 

5 

ii 

31 

31 

4» 

5° 

6 

'5 

24 

35 

45 

55 

66 

7 

19 

29 

40 

5° 

60 

73 

82 

8 

23 

34 

46 

56 

67 

78 

89 

no 

9 

33 

44 

57 

68 

80 

92 

103 

"5 

127 

10 

44 

56 

70 

82 

94 

107 

119 

132 

MS 

'57 

ii 

67 

80 

95 

109 

"3 

138 

'Si 

165 

180 

194 

208 

12 

"3 

130 

148 

165 

182 

200 

217 

234 

252 

270 

286 

304 

"3 

177 

198 

222 

241 

262 

284 

3°5 

326 

348 

369 

39° 

412 

433 

The  bidder  of  Little  Misery  loses 
or  wins  20  points  ;  of  Great  Misery, 
40;  of  Little  Misery  Ouverte,  80; 
and  of  Great  Misery  Ouverte,  160. 

The  score  may  be  kept  with  count- 
ers, in  which  case  they  are  divided 
equally  among  the  players  at  the  be- 
ginning. If  the  bidder  win,  each  of 
the  others  gives  him  as  many  count- 
ers as  the  points  he  wins;  if  not,  he 
gives  each  of  them  as  many  as  the 
points  he  loses. 

Boston  is  often  played  with  two 
packs,  in  which  case  while  the  dealer 
is  giving  cards  from  one  pack  his 
partner  turns  up  the  top  card  of  the 
other.  The  suit  of  the  turned-np 
card  is  called  "First  Preference"; 
that  of  the  same  color,  "  Second 
Preference  ";  while  the  two  remain- 
ing suits  are  called  common  suits. 
When  a  player  bids  anything  but  a 
Miser)',  his  left-hand  neighbor  may 
say"  I  '  eep,"  meaning  that  he  under- 
takes to  win  the  same  number  of 
tricks  by  making  one  of  the  prefer- 
ence suits  trump.  This  is  called 
"  playing  in  color."  The  next  player 
may  say  "  I  keep  over  you,"  meaning 
that  he  undertakes  to  do  the  same 
with  the  turned-up  suit  as  trump. 
This  is  called  "  playing  in  trump." 
A  bid  in  color  is  always  preferred  to 
a  common  bid  of  the  same  rank,  and 
one  in  trump  to  one  in  color. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  In  cutting  for  deal,  the  lowest 
deals. 

2.  If  there  be  a  misdeal,  or  the 
dealer  expose  any  of  the  other  play- 
ers' cards,  there  must  be  a  new  deal. 

3.  If    two   packs   are   used    they 


must  be  used  alternately  for  dealing. 

4.  If  a  player  deal  out  of  turn  or 
with  the  wrong  pack,  and  complete 
the  deal  unnoticed,  it  must  stand; 
and  the  player  at  his  left  deals  next. 

5.  No   player    who    passes    may 
afterward  bid  during  the  same  hand, 
unless  he  bids  a  Misery. 

6.  If  a  card  be  led  or  played  out  of 
turn,  it  must  be  taken  back  into  the 
owner's  hand,  unless  the  whole  trick 
has  been  played. 

7.  Cards  so  taken  back,  or  other- 
wise exposed  must  be  played  when 
they  are  called  for,  unless  playing 
them  would  cause  a  revoke. 

8.  Only    the    last    trick    may  be 
looked  at. 

French  Boston,  or  Boston  de  Fon- 
tainebleau.  In  bidding,  the  suits 
rank  as  follows,  beginning  with  the 
highest :  Diamonds,  Hearts,  Clubs, 
Spades.  Each  bidder  must  name 
with  his  bid  the  suit  he  purposes  to 
make  trumps  (except  of  course  in 
the  case  of  a  Misery,  when  there  is 
no  trump),  and  the  same  bid  in  a 
higher  suit  is  given  preference  over 
it.  The  bids  to  win  a  certain  num- 
ber of  tricks  are  called  Six  Levees, 
Seven  Levees,  and  so  on,  and  the 
Grand  Slam  is  called  "  Chelem,"  or 
''  Grand  Boston."  There  are  two 
new  bids  :  "  Picolissimo  "  (ranking 
between  Seven  and  Eight  Levees), 
in  which  the  bidder  discards  one 
card  as  in  Little  Misery,  but  tries  to 
win  one  trick,  neither  more  nor  less ; 
and  "  Grand  Boston  on  the  Table," 
in  which  the  bidder  exposes  his  hand 
and  tries  to  win  every  trick.  The 
highest  bidder,  if  he  has  bid  to  take 


BOSTON 


106 


BOTTLE    TRICK 


not  more  than  ten  tricks,  may  call 
for  a  partner  or  "  Whister."  Any 
player  that  is  willing  to  aid  him  may 
answer  "  Whist,"  and  the  two  to- 
gether must  then  take  three  more 
tricks  than  the  number  that  was  bid. 
The  partners  share  in  profit  and  loss. 
If  two  or  more  players  answer 
"  Whist,"  that  one  is  accepted  who 
sits  nearest  the  bidder's  left  hand. 

The  number  of  points  or  counters 
won  or  lost  by  the  bidder  is  shown 
in  the  following  table: 

Five  Levees  (Boston),  .     .     .     .     10 

Six  Levees, . 30 

Little  Misery,  ....*..     75 

Seven  Levees, 50 

Picolissimo, 100 

Eight  Levees, 70 

Grand  Misery, 1 50 

Nine  Levees, 90 

Little  Misery  on  the  Table,   .     .  200 

Ten  Levees, no 

Grand  Misery  on  the  Table,     .  250 

Eleven  Levees 130 

Twelve  Levees, 150 

Chelem,  or  Grand  Boston,  .  .  400 
Chelem  on  the  Table,  ....  600 

The  above  figures  are  for  the 
cases  where  Clubs  or  Spades  are 
trumps.  If  Hearts  are  trumps  10 
must  be  added  to  each  number,  and 
if  Diamonds  are  trumps,  20  must  be 
added  to  each  number.  For  every 
trick  taken  beyond  the  number  bid, 
5  must  be  added. 

The  Ace,  King,  Queen,  and 
Knave  of  Trumps  are  called  honors. 
If  the  successful  bidder  hold  the 
majority  of  them,  each  one  that  he 
has  more  than  his  opponents  counts 
as  an  extra  trick.  Thus,  if  he  hold 
three  honors  to  his  opponents'  one, 
he  is  said  to  be  "two  by  honors," 
and  scores  for  two  extra  tricks.  If 
he  hold  all  the  honors,  he  is  "  four 
by  honors,"  and  scores  for  four 
extra  tricks.  Honors  do  not  count 
as  tricks  bid ;  for  instance,  if  a 
player  bid  Six  Levees,  and  take  only 
five  tricks,  he  loses,  even  if  he  have 
four  honors.  In  all  other  respects, 
French  Boston  is  played  like  the 


common  game.  The  player  who 
plays  alone,  without  a  Whister,  is 
sometimes  said  to  play  "  Independ- 
ence." 

History.  Boston  is  said  to  have 
originated  in  this  country.  Some 
writers  say  that  it  was  taken  to 
France  by  Benjamin  Franklin  and 
named  after  his  native  city.  French 
authors  say  that  the  terms  "  Misery  " 
and  "Independence"  refer  respec- 
tively to  the  sufferings  of  the  Amer- 
icans in  the  Revolution  and  the 
cause  for  which  they  fought.  Boiteau 
says:  "  Boston  is  the  North  American 
Whist ;  it  was  born  in  the  war  of 
independence;  it  is  a  political  mani- 
festo." However  this  may  be,  Bos- 
ton has  never  been  a  popular  game 
in  this  country,  but  became  a  great 
favorite  in  France,  and  was  much 
played  in  Paris  in  the  first  half  of 
this  century.  It  is  similar  to  other 
French  games,  and  is  probably  of 
French  origin,  the  name  Boston 
and  the  terms  "  Independence,"  etc., 
being  introduced  at  the  time  of  the 
American  Revolution.  Boston  is 
played  in  Germany  and  England  also 
under  the  same  name. 

BOTTLE  LIFTED  WITH  A 
STRAW.  A  bottle  may  be  lifted 
with  a  stout  straw,  if  it  be  bent  and 
arranged  within  the  bottle  as  shown 
in  the  illustration  on  next  page. 

BOTTLE,  to  Crawl  into-  Lay  a 
bottle  on  the  floor  with  the  neck 
toward  an  open  door.  Say  that  you 
propose  to  try  to  crawl  into  it,  if  the 
audience  will  keep  so  still  as  not  to 
disturb  the  experiment,  and  talk  and 
act  any  hocus-pocus  you  please  about 
the  difficulties  and  dangers  of  the 
experiment.  Make  a  fuss  about  ar- 
ranging your  dress,  etc.,  etc.  Go  in- 
to the  open  room  and  face  the  audi- 
ence, squint  hard  at  the  bottle,  alter 
your  position  once  or  twice,  get  on 
your  hands  and  knees,  get  up  and  ad- 
just the  bottle  again,  go  out  again, 
and  after  just  enough  fuss,  but  not 
too  much,  crawl  in  to  the  bottle. 

BOTTLE  TRICK.  To  pick  up 
a  handkerchief  from  the  floor  by  the 


BOTTLE   TRICK 


107 


BOUTS-RIMES 


teeth  while  balancing  a  bottle  on  the 
head :   Bow  the  head  well  forward, 


Lifting  Bottle  with  a  Straw. 

and  place  an  empty  claret  or  cham- 
pagne bottle  on  the  crown.     Gradu- 


on  both  knees.  Bend  forward  with 
the  arms  in  advance,  and  parted 
about  two  feet,  until  they  touch  the 
floor.  Extend  the  legs  one  by  one 
backwards,  swing  forward  between 
the  arms  so  that  most  of  the  weight 
is  on  them.  Seize  the  handkerchief 
by  the  teeth  (Fig.  2),  or  the  tongue 


ally  lower  the  body  on  one  leg  (Fig. 
l),  and  come  to  a  kneeling  position 


Bottle  Trick— Fig.  2. 

may  assist,  and  rise  as  you  descended. 
The  bottle  will  invariably  fall  a  little 
out  of  the  perpendicular,  but  with  a 
little  practice  can  be  easily  kept  in 
balance.  The  handkerchief  should 
be  bunched  high,  and  placed  about 
four  feet  in  front  of  the  body  when 
upright. 

BOUTS-RIMES  (pronounced  boo 
re-mdy),  a  game  in  which  each  player 
writes  on  a  slip  of  paper  four  or 
more  words  that  rhyme  alternately, 
as  boy,  long,  toy,  strong.  The  slips 
are  mixed  ;  each  player  draws  one, 
and  must  then  write  a  verse  whose 
lines  end,  in  order,  with  the  words  he 
has  drawn.  The  number  of  words 
and  the  order  in  which  they  rhyme 
may  be  varied  by  agreement  of  the 
players  at  the  beginning  of  the  game, 
and  the  subject  of  the  verses  may 
also  be  given  out,  increasing  the  dif- 
ficulty of  the  task. 

History.  This  game  is  French 
in  origin,  as  its  name  shows.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  originated  in  1648, 
by  the  poet  Dulos,  who  was  accus- 
tomed to  write  the  rhymes  of  his 
sonnets  before  he  filled  in  the  other 
words.  His  friends,  amused  at  this, 
devised  a  game  on  the  same  plan, 
and  it  became  very  popular  in  French 
society.  Bouts-Rimes  means  rhymed 
ends.  The  Germans  call  it  Endreim- 
spiel  (end-rhyme-play).  The  follow- 
ing verses  are  said  to  have  been 
written  by  Horace  Walpole,  on 


BOWLING 


108 


BOWLING 


drawing  the  four  words,  brook,  why, 
crook,  I: 

THE   GENTLE   SHEPHERD. 

I  sits  with  my  toes  in  a  brook. 
And  if  any  one  asks  me  for  why, 

I  hits  'em  a  rap  with  my  crook, 
And  "  'tis  sentiment  kills  me,"  says  I. 

Machine  Poetryf  a  kind  of  Bouts- 
Rimes  where  the  rhymes  are  given 
by  the  holders  of  several  cards.  A 
pack  of  playing  cards  is  dealt  to  the 
company  in  order,  one  at  a  time. 
One  player  begins  by  throwing  out 
any  card  and  calling  out  a  word. 
The  players  who  hold  the  correspond- 
ing cards  in  the  other  three  suits  do 
likewise,  in  order,  to  the  left,  each 

fiving  a  word  to  rhyme  with  the 
rst  player's.  The  player  of  the 
last  card  must  make  a  stanza  of  four 
lines  ending  with  the  four  words  in 
the  order  in  which  they  were  given. 
.If  a  player  hold  more  than  one  card 
of  the  same  kind  he  may  play  them 
one  after  the  other,  or  wait  till  the 
second  round,  as  agreed  by  the  com- 
pany before  the  same  begins.  In- 
stead of  having  all  the  rhymes  in  the 
stanza  the  same,  two  may  be  given 
alternately,  or  in  any  way  the  play- 
ers choose.  Sometimes  the  first 
player  makes  the  "  poetry  "  instead 
of  the  last  player,  and  the  game  may 
be  varied  in  other  ways. 

Instead  of  giving  simply  a  word, 
the  players  may  each  furnish  an  en- 
tire line  of  the  stanza. 

Another  method  is  for  one  player 
to  select  a  sonnet  from  the  works  of 
any  poet,  and  then  read  aloud,  in 
order,  the  final  words  of  each  line, 
waiting  after  each  till  every  player 
has  composed  a  line  ending  with 
that  word.  The  players  thus  com- 
pose poems  the  last  words  of  whose 
lines  are  alike,  but  which  differ 
widely  in  other  respects. 

BOWLING,  the  game  of  bowls, 
originally  played  on  smooth  turf,  but 
now  more  generally  on  long,  narrow 
platforms  called  alleys.  The  alleys, 
about  60  feet  long  and  4  feet  wide, 
are  usually  constructed  of  narrow 
strips  of  yellow  pine,  set  edgewise, 


and  made  very  smooth  and  nearly 
level.  At  the  lower  end  is  a  de- 
pressed space,  commonly  floored 
with  tan-bark  or  sawdust,  and 
padded  at  the  back  to  break  the 
force  of  the  balls,  which  are  returned 
to  the  players  by  an  attendant.  The 
pins  used  are  about  1 5  inches  around 
at  the  thickest  part,  and  15  or  16 
inches  high.  Balls  (bowls)  are  of 
different  sizes,  to  suit  the  taste  of 
the  players,  varying  from  5  to  10 
inches  in  diameter. 

Ten  Pins,  the  game  of  bowls  most 
common  in  the  United  States.  The 
pins,  ten  in  number,  are  set  up  on 
spots  arranged  in  a  triangle,  as 
shown  in  the  figure  : 

o  o  o  o 

o  o  o 

o  o 

o 

The  pin  at  the  point  of  the  triangle, 
which  is  toward  the  player,  is  called 
the  King  Pin.  The  players  take 
turns,  and  continue  to  bowl  in  the 
same  order  during  the  game,  which 
lasts  until  each  has  had  ten  turns. 
Each  player  scores  one  point  for 
i  every  pin  he  knocks  down,  and  is  al- 
lowed to  bowl  three  balls  in  each 
turn,  unless  he  knocks  down  all  the 
pins  before  he  has  used  that  number, 
in  which  case  his  play  ceases.  If  he 
overturn  them  all  with  one  ball 
(called  making  a  "  ten-strike  ")  he  is 
said  to  have  a  "  double  spare,"  and 
whatever  he  makes  with  the  first  two 
balls  in  his  next  turn  counts  on  the 
former  turn  as  well  as  on  the  latter. 
Thus,  if  a  player  make  10  with  his 
first  ball,  he  stops  playing.  If,  in  his 
next  turn,  he  make  with  the  three 
balls  4,  2,  and  3  respectively,  he 
scores  16  for  his  first  turn  and  9  for 
his  second,  the  4  and  2  counting 
twice.  If  the  first  ball  of  the  second 
turn  also  make  a  ten-strike,  then  the 
first  of  the  third  turn  counts  as  part 
of  each  of  the  three  turns.  If  the 
pins  are  down  after  two  balls  have 
been  played,  the  player  has  a  "  single 
spare"  or  "spare,"  and  reckons  in 
the  same  way  what  he  makes  with 


BOWLING 


109 


BOWLING 


the  first  ball  of  his  next  turn.     If  a ' 
spare  or  double  spare  be  made  in  the  ; 
tenth  turn,  the   player  rolls  one  or  | 
two  extra  balls.     If  a  player  make  a 
spare,  a  cross  is  marked  opposite  his 
score  for  that  turn  ;   if  he  make   a 
double  spare,  a  double  cross  is  used. 
This  way  of  scoring,  which  is  some- 
times called  "  counting  old  and  new," 
is   generally  used,    but   the   players 
may  agree  on  any  other  ;  for  instance, 
if  a  player  make  a  ten-strike,  the  pins 
may  be  set  up  again,  and  he   may 
finish  rolling  his  three  balls  before 
the  next  player  takes  his  turn. 

The  scores  are  usually  kept  with 
chalk  on  blackboards  at  the  side  of 
the  alleys.  He  wins  whose  score  is 
the  highest  at  the  end  of  the  game. 
The  players  may  be  divided  into  two 
sides,  in  which  case  the  points  made 
by  those  on  each  side  are  added  to 
determine  the  winning  side.  Where 
there  are  two  alleys,  the  players  use 
them  alternately,  and  the  pins  are  set 
up  on  one  alley,  while  bowling  is  go- 
ing on  at  the  other.  Where  there 
are  only  two  players,  they  often  bowl 
at  the  same  time  on  different  alleys, 
but  they  should  change  alleys  at  the 
end  of  each  game. 

Rules.  The  following  rules  are 
substantially  those  of  the  Amateur 
Athletic  Bowling  League,  which 
have  been  adopted  also  by  the  Ama- 
teur Athletic  Union.  Those  relating 
merely  to  matters  of  discipline  have 
been  omitted : 

1.  The  game  adopted  to  be  played 
by  clubs  belonging  to  this  League, 
shall  be  what  is  known  as  the  Amer- 
ican Ten  Frame  Game. 

2.  In  the  playing  of  match  games 
there  shall  be  a  line  drawn  upon  the 
alleys  sixty  feet  from   the  head  or 
front  pin. 

3.  In  the  playing  of  match  games, 
any  wooden  ball  may  be  used  that 
does  not  exceed  twenty-seven  inches 
in  circumference. 

4.  The  game  shall  consist  of  ten 
frames  on  each  side,  when,  should 
the  number  of  points  be  equal,  the 
play  shall  be  continued  until  a  ma- 


jority of  points  upon  an  equal  num- 
ber of  frames  shall  be  attained,  which 
shall  conclude  the  game.  All  strikes 
and  spares  made  in  the  ten  frame 
shall  be  completed  before  leaving  the 
alley  and  on  same  alley  as  made. 

5.  In  playing  all  match  games,  ten 
players  from  each  Club  shall  con- 
stitute a  full  team. 

6.  Players  must  play  in  regular  ro- 
tation, and  after  the  first  inning  no 
changes  can   be   made  except  with 
the  consent  of  the  Captains. 

7.  In  match  games  two  alleys  only 
are  to  be  used  ;  a  player  to  roll  but 
one  frame  at  a  time,  and  to  change 
alleys  every  frame. 

8.  The   umpire   shall   take    great 
care  that  the  regulations  respecting 
the  balls,  alleys,  and  all  rules  of  the 
game  are  strictly  observed.     He  shall 
be  the  judge  of  fair  and  unfair  play, 
and  shall  determine  all  disputes  and 
differences  which  may  occur  during 
the  game. 

9.  In  all  matches  the  umpire  shall 
be  selected  by  the  Captains  of  the 
respective  teams,  and  he  shall  per- 
form all  the  duties  in  Rule  8,  except 
recording  the  game,  which  shall  be 
done  by  two  scorers,  one  of  whom 
shall  be  appointed  by  each  of  the 
contending  clubs. 

10.  Neither    umpire,    scorer,    or 
player  shall  be  changed  during  the 
match,  unless  with  the  consent   of 
both  Captains,  except  for  reasons  of 
illness  or  injury,  or  for  a  violation  of 
these  rules,   and   then   the    umpire 
may  dismiss  any  such  transgressors. 

11.  No  person  except  the  Captains 
shall  be  permitted  to   approach   or 
speak  with  the  Umpire,  scorers,  or 
players  during  the  progress   of  the 
game,  unless  by  special  request  of 
the  Umpire. 

13.  Should  either  Club  fail  to  pro- 
duce its  players  within  thirty  min- 
utes after  the  game  is  called,  the 
Club  so  failing  shall  admit  a  defeat, 
and  the  game  shall  be  considered  as 
won,  unless  the  delinquent  Club  fail 
to  play  on  account  of  the  recent 
death  of  one  of  its  members,  and 


BOWLING 


no 


BOWLING 


sufficient  time  has  not  elapsed 
to  enable  them  to  give  their  oppo- 
nents due  notice  before  arriving  at 
the  place  appointed  for  the  match. 

14.  A  player  must  not  step  on  or 
over  the  line  in  delivering  the  ball, 
nor  after  it  has  been  delivered,  until 
it  leaves  the  alley.     Any  ball  so  de- 
livered shall  be  deemed  "  foul,"  and 
the  pins  (if  any  made  on  such  ball) 
shall  be  placed  in  the  same  positions 
as   they  were   before  the   ball   was 
rolled.     It  is  also  considered  a  foul 
ball  if  any  part  of  the  person  should 
touch  any  part  of  the  alley  beyond 
the  line  before  the  ball  leaves  the 
alley.     All  foul  balls  shall  count  as 
balls  rolled. 

1 5.  Should  any  ball  delivered  leave 
the  alley  before  reaching  the  pins,  or 
any    ball   rebound   from    the    back 
cushion,  the  pins,  if  any,  made  on 
such  balls  shall  not  count,  but  must 
be  placed  in  same  position  as  they 
were  before  the  ball  was  rolled.     All 
such  balls  to  count  as  balls  rolled. 

1 6.  In  all  match  games,  two  per- 
sons to  act  as  Judges  shall  be  chosen, 
one  by  each  Captain,  who  shall  take 
their  positions  at  the   head   of  the 
alleys   and   see   that   the    pins    are 
properly  set  up,  and  that  no  one  in- 
terferes with  them  in  any  way  until 
the  player  is  through  rolling.     They 
will  immediately  report  to  the  Cap- 
tains any  irregularities  that  they  may 
notice  during  the  game. 

24.  A  regulation  pin  must  be  used 
in  match  playing.  Each  pin  to  be 
from  fifteen  to  sixteen  inches  in 
length,  fifteen  inches  in  circumfer- 
ence at  the  thickest  part,  and  two 
inches  across  the  bottom. 

26.  In    match     games    the    dead 
wood  must  be  removed  from  the  alley 
after  each  ball.     Should  a  pin  fall  on 
the  removal  of  the  dead  wood,  it  is 
to  be  re-spotted. 

27.  Sufficient  space   shall   be '  al- 
lotted to  the  participants  in  the  game, 
to  which  none  but  members  of  the 
teams  shall  be  admitted. 

Nine  Pins,  a  bowling  game  in 
which  the  king  pin  is  omitted,  and 


the  object  is  to  leave  one  pin  stand- 
ing. He  who  does  this  in  three  balls 
or  less  scores  one,  and  as  each  has 
ten  turns,  no  more  than  ten  points 
can  be  made. 

Cocked  Hat,  a  bowling  game  in 
which  only  the  three  corner  pins  of 
the  triangle  are  set  up.  The  method 
of  playing  is  the  same  in  Ten  Pins. 
The  player  scores  a  point  for  each 
pin  he  overturns,  and  "  spares  "  are 
played  as  in  Ten  Pins.  The  game 
is  difficult,  as  the  three  pins  are  so 
far  apart  that  it  is  hard  to  knock 
more  than  one  at  a  time. 

Four  Back,  a  bowling  game  in 
which  only  four  pins  are  set  up, 
forming  a  straight  line  across  the 
rear  of  the  alley.  Each  pin  knocked 
down  counts  one  point,  and  Spares 
are  scored  as  in  Ten  Pins. 

Parlor  Ten  Pins.  There  are  sev- 
eral forms  of  Ten  Pins  to  be  played 
in  the  parlor.  In  one,  pins  about  a 
foot  high  are  set  up  at  one  end  of 
the  room,  and  bowled  at  from  the 
other  with  balls  about  the  size  of 


TEN 
Parlor  Ten  Pins  with  Elastic  Cord. 

Croquet  balls.  In  another  a  minia- 
ture alley  four  or  five  feet  long  is 
used,  which  can  be  placed  on  a  table. 
The  pins  are  about  three  inches 
high  and  the  balls  the  size  of  mar- 


BOWLING 


III 


BOWLING 


bles.  In  still  another,  a  post  stands 
by  the  side  of  the  pins  with  an  arm 
projecting  over  them,  and  from 
the  arm  a  ball  is  hung  by  a  string. 
The  player  swings  the  ball  against 
the  pins  so  as  to  overturn  them.  In 
Germany  this  is  played  as  a  lawn 
game,  the  post  being  two  or  eight 
feet  high  and  the  pins  ordinary  ten- 
pins. It  is  called  there  Wurfkegel- 
spiel  (Throw-Bowling).  In  another 
form  the  pins  stand  on  a  triangular 
frame  which  can  be  placed  on  a  table. 
The  ball  is  fastened  to  one  of  the 
angles  of  the  frame  by  an  elastic 
cord.  The  player  holding  the  ball 
stretches  the  cord  about  fifteen  feet 
and  then  releases.it,  so  that  the  ball 
will  strike  the  pins.  Another  kind  is 


played  on  a  board  like  a  BAGATELLE 
board,  the  balls  being  moved  by  a 
spring.  In  all  these  forms  of  the 
game  the  method  of  scoring  may  be 
the  same  as  in  regular  Ten  Pins,  or 
a  special  method  may  be  agreed  on 
by  the  players  before  the  game. 

History.  —  The  game  of  bowls, 
still  a  favorite  in  England  and  Scot- 
land, was  practiced  as  early  as  the 
twelfth  century.  It  is  played  on  a 
bowling-green,  on  which  the  turf  is 
closely  shaven  and  rolled,  surrounded 
by  a  shallow  trench.  A  small  round 
white  ball,  called  the  Jack,  is  placed 
at  one  end,  and  the  object  of  the 
players  is  to  roll  their  bowls  so  that 
they  shall  stop  near  as  possible  to 
this  mark.  The  bowls,  which  are  of 


Bowling  in  the  i3th  Century. 


hard  wood,  six  or  eight  inches  in  di- 
ameter, are  not  quite  round,  but  a 
little  one-sided  (sometimes  they  are 
loaded  with  lead  on  one  side),  so 
that  a  peculiar  twist  is  needed  to 
make  them  go  where  wanted.  The 
players  are  generally  divided  into  two 
sides,  and  each  man  on  each  side  has 
two  bowls.  The  side  whose  bowls 
stop  nearest  the  Jack  counts  one 
point  in  the  game  for  each  bowl.  The 
number  of  points  to  be  considered 
the  game  is  decided  before  bowling 
begins. 

The  earliest  form  of  this  game  is 
shown  probably  in  the  accompany- 
ing illustration,  taken  from  an  Eng- 
lish manuscript  of  the  thirteenth 
century,  in  which  the  object  rolled  at 
is  a  pin  pointed  at  the  top.  The 


French  called  this  form  of  the  game 
Carreau  (paving  stone),  from  the 
square  stone  upon  which  the  pin 
was  set. 

Bowls  was  a  favorite  with  the 
Dutch,  and  the  early  citizens  of  New 
York  (then  New  Amsterdam)  used 
to  play  it  on  the  ground  still  called 
Bowling  Green,  near  the  lower  end 
of  Broadway.  In  Paris,  the  game 
was  played  on  the  ramparts  of  the 
city,  which  were  hence  called  Boule- 
vards (from  boule,  a  ball),  a  name 
now  given  to  the  streets  that  oc- 
cupy their  site.  Bowling  alleys 
were  first  built  at  noblemen's  houses 
in  England.  Henry  VIII.  had  sev- 
eral constructed  at  the  Palace  of 
Whitehall.  They  became  popular 
and  many  were  built  in  London,  but 


BOXING 


112 


BOXING 


as  they  grew  to  be  places  of  resort 
for  bad  characters,  many  laws  were 
made  against  them,  and  finally,  in 
1728  they  were  abolished,  and  the 
statutes  against  them  were  not  re- 
pealed till  1845. 

Our  game  of  Ten  Pins  is  derived 
from  an  old  English  form  of  bowls 
called  Kayles,  Cayles,  or  Keiles,  a 
corruption  of  the  French  Quilles 
(cones,  from  the  shape  of  the  pins) 


still  played  in  France  under  that 
name.  The  Kayle  pins  were  set  in 
a  row  and  were  of  various  numbers. 
Sometimes  a  stick  was  thrown  at 
them  instead  of  a  ball.  Kayle  pins 
were  afterwards  called  Kettle  or  Kit- 
tle pins,  and  then  Skittle-pins,  and  a 
bowling  game  called  Skittles  is  still 
a  favorite  in  England.  There  were 
also  other  bowling  games.  Nine 
Pins,  the  original  form  of  Ten  Pins, 


Kayles. 


or  the  game  as  we  play  it,  came  into 
favor  after  the  abolition  of  alleys  in 
England.  It  was  also  known  there 
as  Long  Bowling  and  Dutch  Rub- 
bers. The  tenth  pin  is  said  to  have 
been  added  to  evade  a  law  prohibit- 
ing the  sport  because  it  was  used  for 
gambling. 

There  are  a  few  ten-pin  alleys 
in  London,  but  this  form  of  the  game 
is  not  played  much  outside  of  the 
United  States.  There  has  recently 
been  a  great  revival  of  interest  in 
bowling  in  some  parts  of  the  Eastern 
States.  Near  New  York  many  places 
have  regular  bowling  clubs,  which 
are  sometimes  formed  into  county 
leagues,  and  play  regular  series  of 
games  annually  for  the  champion- 
ship. 

BOXING,  the  art  of  fighting  with 
the  fists.  The  boxer's  hands  are 
usually  covered  with  gloves  padded 
on  the  back  with  hair  two  or  three 
inches  thick  to  prevent  injury  from  a 
blow. 


Correct  Position.  The  boxer  usu- 
ally stands  with  his  left  foot  advanced, 
and  on  a  line  with  his  adversary,  his 
right  being  in  the  rear  and  turned 


Boxing  Gloves. 

slightly  outward,  resting  his  weight 
chiefly  on  the  right  leg.  The  fists 
are  closed,  not  too  tightly,  and  the 
arms  are  held  as  shown  in  Fig.  I. 

Advancing  and  Breaking  Ground. 
In  advancing  the  right  foot  is  never 
put  before  the  left,  as  in  walking,  but 
follows  it,  falling  nearly  on  the  place 


BOXING 


BOXING 


from  which  the  left  was  raised.  Thus 
in  advancing  and  retreating  the  two 
feet  keep  at  about  the  same  dis- 


Fig.  i. 

tance.  Retreating  is  called  "  break- 
ing ground,"  and  is  always  per- 
formed by  first  moving  the  right 
foot  backward  and  then  drawing  the 
left  back  to  the  place  just  occupied 
by  the  right. 


Fig.  2. 

Both  on  Guard.  The  boxers  stand 
so  facing  each  other  that  the  left 
fist  of  one  is  on  a  level  with  the 
other's  wrist  and  their  left  toes  are 
15  to  1 8  inches  apart.  Thelefthand 
is  used  for  striking  when  the  oppo- 
nent is  just  within  distance,  and  the 
right  when  he  is  close.  A  skillful 
boxer  makes  his  blows  from  the 


shoulder,  and  renders  them  more 
effective,  when  he  wishes,  by  throw- 
ing the  weight  of  his  whole  body 
forward  (Fig.  2).  Blows  made  by 
swinging  the  arms  like  a  windmill 
should  never  be  used  by  a  beginner. 
The  learner  should  take  care  never 
to  hit  fiercely  when  out  of  distance, 
as  it  jars  the  muscles.  The  left  foot 
and  hand  should  be  kept  well  in 
front,  and  after  delivering  a  blow  the 
boxer  should  move  to  the  right,  thus 
keeping  away  from  his  opponent's 
right  arm. 

Guards. — Blows  may  be  met  by 
"  guarding  "  or  "  stopping."  The 
former  means  receiving  an  adver- 


sary's  blow  on  the  right  or  left  arm 
as  the  occasion  demands,  the  latter 
is  planting  a  sudden  blow  which  pre- 
vents the  opponent's  hit  from  reach- 
ing its  destination.  Thus,  if  the 
boxer  sees  that  his  enemy  is  about  to 
deliver  a  body-blow  with  his  left,  he 
may  guard  with  the  right,  or  stop 
the  intended  hit  by  delivering  a  quick 
blow  at  the  adversary's  face  before 
he  can  get  his  head  down,  which 
would  be  his  natural  position  in  de- 
livering the  blow.  In  guarding  the 
blows  should  be  caught  on  the 
muscles  of  the  forearm  slantingly, 
and  never,  if  possible,  on  the  bone. 
To  be  a  skillful  boxer  it  is  best  to 


BOXING 


114 


BOXING 


take  lessons  of  one  who  is  proficient 
in  the  art,  as  it  is  difficult  to  teach  it 
on  paper. 

The  four  principal  blows  made  use 
of  in  boxing,  with  their  recognized 
guards,  will  now  be  described.  They 
are 

1.  Left  hand  at  the  head. 

2.  Left  hand  body-blow. 

3.  Right  hand  at  the  head. 

4.  Right  hand  body-blow. 

The  first  is  met  by  leading  off  in 
like  manner  at  the  opponent's  head, 
at  the  same  time  throwing  up  the 
right  or  guard  arm  to  catch  his  blow 
(Fig.  3).  Care  must  be  taken  not  to 
obstruct  the  sight,  for  the  boxer 
must  never  take  his  eye  from  his 
opponent.  Each  boxer  thus  makes 
the  same  blow  (Fig.  4),  and  the  same 
guard  at  once.  This  movement, 
which  is  very  common,  is  called  the 
"  double  lead  and  stop." 


Fig.  4. 


In  guarding  the  left  hand  body- 
blow,  the  boxer  should  bear  in  mind 
that  it  will  fall  on  his  left  side  and 
therefore  must  be  taken  on  his  left 
arm.  The  right  arm  must  therefore 
be  put  up  at  once  and  the  left  arm 
dropped  across  the  body,  keeping  the 
elbow  well  into  the  side  and  the  fore- 
arm braced  firmly  against  the  ribs. 
As  the  blow  is  taken  the  boxer  should 
"  break  ground  "  a  little. 


For  a  right  hand  blow  at  the  head 
the  usual  guard  is  to  raise  the  left 
elbow  quickly,  pointing  it  nearly  in 
the  direction  of  the  coming  blow,  and 
at  the  same  time  drop  the  left  fist 
toward  the  body,  turning  the  palm  a 
little  outward.  Leaning  forward  the 
boxer  catches  the  blow  on  the  fore- 
arm, near  the  elbow,  and  and  at  the 
same  time  retires  slightly. 

To  guard   the    right  hand  body- 


Fig.  5. 

blow,  the  left  hand  is  dropped 
almost  at  full  length,  the  fist  touch- 
ing the  inner  side  of  the  left  thigh, 
and  at  the  same  moment  the  shoulder 
is  raised  quickly  toward  the  chin 
rounding  the  whole  upper  arm  over 
the  chest,  and  slightly  turning  the 
left  side  (Fig.  5).  The  heart  and  the 
whole  of  the  left  side  are  thus  com- 
pletely shielded. 

Feinting,  pretending  to  strike  one 
blow  when  another  is  intended.  A 
feint  may  be  made  by  an  actual 
movement  of  the  hand,  or  simply  by 
glancing  at  one  place  and  then  strik- 
ing at  another. 

Ducking.  A  movement  of  the 
head  in  sparring,  called  "head-work  " 
or  "  ducking,"  generally  accompanies 
a  counter  (explained  below),  the  head 
being  bent  toward  the  hand  which 
delivers  the  counter.  The  rule  is 
always  to  duck  in  the  opposite  di- 
rection from  the  enemy  and  not  to 
raise  the  head  till  the  boxer  is  out  of 


BOXING 


BOXING 


his  reach. 
"  ducks." 


There  are  three  distinct 


I.  The  duck  to  the  right,  allowing 


a   blow    to 
(Fig.  6). 


pass    by    the    left    ear 


Fig.  6. 


2.  To  the  left,  letting  a  blow  pass 
to  the  right. 

3.  Forward,  lowering  the  head  so 
that  the  blow  passes  directly  over  it. 
(Fig.  7). 


The  boxer  must  be  careful  not  to 
duck  too  soon,  or  his  opponent  will 


have  time  to  change  the  direction  of 
his  blow.  When  ducking  the  oppor- 
tunity should  always  be  taken  to  de- 
liver a  blow  at  the  same  time. 


Fig.  8. 

Counters.  A  "  counter  "  is  a  blow 
given  by  a  boxer  when  he  sees  his 
adversary  about  to  strike,  and  is 
accompanied  by  a  motion  to  ward  off 


Fig.  9. 

the  opponent's  attack.  In  a  "  plain  " 
or  "straight"  counter  both  boxers 
strike  at  once  with  the  same  hands. 
The  blows  may  both  take  effect 
(Fig.  8)  or  both  men  may  duck 
(Fig  9).  In  a  "cross  counter"  as 
one  boxer  leads  off  the  other  strikes 
across  the  former's  arm.  The 
right  hand  cross-counter  is  given  by 


BOXING 


116 


BOXING 


stepping  in  10  to  15  inches  as  the 
opponent  leads  at  the  head,  ducking 
to  the  left,  turning  the  body  so  as  to 
bring  the  right  arm  well  up,  and 
striking  with  it  over  the  opponent's 
outstretched  left.  The  blow  is  natu- 
rally delivered  upward  at  the  jaw  or 
chin,  and  the  fist  performs  a  quar- 
ter circle  to  the  left  (Fig.  10).  To 
master  this  blow  constant  practice 
and  great  agility  are  required. 

Body-Blows.  Though  the  head 
and  face  are  the  main  points  of  at- 
tack, the  boxer  should  never  let  pass 
an  opportunity  to  strike  his  adver- 
sary's chest  or  stomach.  Such  op- 


Fig,  10. 

portunities  will  generally  offer  when 
the  opponent  is  leading  at  the  head 
with  either  of  his  hands.  When  he 
does  so,  instead  of  ducking,  guard- 
ing or  countering  at  his  head,  the 
boxer  should  aim  a  blow  at  his  body, 
but  as  this  necessitates  stepping  in 
closer,  it  should  be  certain  that  there 
is  plenty  of  room  behind  fora  retreat. 
A  feint  at  the  heacl.when  a  body-blow 
is  intended,  often  causes  the  opponent 
to  throw  up  his  right  arm,  thus  ex- 
posing himself.  In  giving  a  left 
hand  body-blow,  duck  to  the  right 
(Fig.  6) ;  in  a  right  hand  blow  to  the 
left,  to  avoid  a  possible  counter. 
The  right  hand  blow  does  not  re- 
quire such  a  long  step  forward  as 
the  left. 


Upper  Cuts.  These  blows  should 
always  be  given  when  an  opponent, 
trying  to  get  in  a  body-blow,  lunges 
forward  with  head  in  advance  of  his 
body.  Drop  the  left  fist  a  little  and 
draw  the  arm  back  as  far  as  possible  ; 


Fig.  ii. 

then  swing  it  up  quickly  between  the 
opponent's  hands  so  as  to  strike  his 
chin  or  nose  (Fig.  1 1 ).  The  blow  is 
aided  by  swinging  the  body  upward. 


Fig.  12. 


A  skillful  boxer  often  tempts  his  ad- 
versary to  try  an  upper  cut  by  throw- 


BOXING 


117 


BOXING 


ing  his  head  forward,  and  then,  duck- 
ing, gives  a  heavy  left  hand  body- 
blow,  so  an  upper  cut  should  rarely 
be  tried  against  a  clever  adversary. 

Side  Step.  This  is  executed  by 
ducking  smartly  to  the  right  as  the 
opponent  steps  in,  passing  rapidly 
under  his  left  arm  by  a  movement 
like  a  run  and  jump  combined,  and 
facing  him  again  by  turning  sharply 
to  the  left.  This  is  an  effective  way 
of  avoiding  furious  rushes,  but  must 
be  as  quick  as  lightning,  and  re- 
quires long  practice.  In  Fig.  12  the 
boxer  on  the  right  is  just  getting  out 
of  reach  by  the  side  step. 

In-Fighting.  This  takes  place 
when  a  boxer  succeeds  in  getting 
both  his  arms  inside  his  opponent's, 
when  he  can  give  several  blows  in 
rapid  succession,  striking  by  swing- 
ing the  shoulders  forward  and  not  by 
drawing  the  arm  back  (Fig.  13). 


Sometimes  a  boxer  leads  with  two 
blows  in  succession,  striking  with 
left  hand  at  the  face,  for  instance, 
and  then  with  the  same  hand,  or  with 
the  right  hand,  at  either  face  or  body. 

The  beginner  should  practice  each 
blow  and  guard  separately,  slowly  at 
first,  and  then  increasing  in  rapidity, 
returning  to  the  position  of  guard 
after  each  blow. 

The  boxer  should  avoid  getting  ex- 
cited, should  fix  his  eyes  on  his  op- 


ponent, and  should  try  to  tell  by  his 
movements  what  his  intentions  are. 
He  should  never  do  the  same  thing 
twice  in  succession.  In  some  boxing 
contests  wrestling  forms  a  part,  but 
in  others  it  is  forbidden.  In  general 
a  boxer  should  avoid  getting  to  close 
quarters  with  a  heavier  adversary, 
and  with  a  taller  opponent  should 
direct  his  blows  at  the  body. 

Supplementary  Exercise.  Prac- 
tice with  Indian  clubs  and  dumb- 
bells (see  GYMNASTICS)  is  good  for 
the  boxer,  but  his  special  exercise  is 
that  known  as  "  punching  the  bag." 
Three  kinds  of  bags  are  commonly 
used  ;  the  first  or  heavy  bag,  weighs 
10  to  20  pounds  and  is  made  of 
chamois  skin  or  kid  stuffed  with 
horse-hair.  It  is  suspended  from  the 
ceiling  by  a  rope.  The  method  of 
using  it  is  to  set  it  swinging  and  then 
follow  it  about,  hitting  it  as  it  moves 
away  from  the  boxer.  The  heavy 
bag  should  not  be  used  by  a  beginner. 
The  light  or  flying  bag  is  of  inflated 
India  rubber.  The  object  is  never  to 
let  the  bag  get  past  without  hitting 
it,  and  as  it  flies  about  very  rapidly, 
this  is  excellent  training  for  quick 
movement.  The  third  bag  is  the 
one  most  generally  in  use.  It  resem- 
bles the  flying  bag,  but  is  attached  to 
the  floor  as  well  as  to  the  ceiling  and 
does  not  require  quite  as  much 
agility  to  hit. 

Boxing  is  valued  highly  as  an 
exercise  and  also  because  it  trains 
the  learner  to  use  his  fists  in  his  own 
defence,  which  he  may  at  some  time 
or  other  have  occasion  to  do. 
Thomas  Hughes,  in  his  story  of 
"  Tom  Brown's  School  Days  at 
Rugby,"  says  :  "  Learn  to  box  then, 
as  you  learn  to  play  cricket  and  foot- 
ball. Not  one  of  you  will  be  the 
worse,  but  very  much  the  better  for 
learning  to  box  well.  Should  you 
never  have  to  use  it  in  earnest,  there's 
no  exercise  in  the  world  so  good  for 
the  temper,  and  for  the  muscles  of 
the  back  and  legs. "  Boxing  matches 
now  form  part  of  many  of  the  indoor 
meetings  of  athletic  associations. 


BOXING 


118 


BOXING 


RULES, 

The  following  are  the  boxing  rules 
of  the  National  Amateur  Athletic 
Union : 

1.  In  all    open   competitions   the 
ring  shall  be  roped,  and  of  not  less 
than    12  ft.    or    more    than    24  ft. 
square. 

2.  Competitors    to    box    in   light 
boots  or  shoes  (without  spikes)  or  in 
socks. 

3.  Weights  to  be  bantam,  105  Ibs. 
and  under ;  light,  135  Ibs.  and  under ; 
middle,  158  Ibs.  and  under. 

4.  In  all   open   competitions    the 
result  shall  be  decided  by  two  judges, 
with  a  referee.     A  timekeeper  shall 
be  appointed. 

5.  In  all  competitions  the  number 
of  rounds  to  be  contested  shall  be 
three.    The  duration  of  the  rounds 
in  the  trial  bout  shall  be  limited  to 
three  minutes  each.     In  the  "  finals  " 
the  first  two  rounds  shall  be  three 
minutes  each,  and  the  final   round 
four  minutes.     The  interval  between 
each  round  shall  be  one  minute. 

6.  In  all  competitions,  any  com- 
petitor failing  to  come  up  when  time 
is  called  shall  lose  the  bout. 

7.  Where  a  competitor  draws  a 
bye,  such  competitor  shall  be  bound 
to  spar  such   bye  for  the   specified 
time,  and  with  such  opponent  as  the 
judges  of  such  competition  may  ap- 
prove. 

8.  Each  competitor  shall   be  en- 
titled to  the  assistance  of  one  second 
only,   and    no    advice    or  coaching 
shall    be    given   to   any  competitor 
by  his  second,  or  by  any  other  per- 
son,  during    the    progress    of    any 
round. 

9.  The  manner  of  judging  shall  be 
as  follows  :  The  two  judges  and  the 
referee  shall  be  stationed  apart.     At 
the  end   of  each   bout  each   judge 
shall  write  the  name  of  the  competi- 
tor who,  in  his  opinion,  has  won,  and 
shall  hand  the  same  to  an  official  ap- 
pointed for  the  purpose.    In  the  cases 
where  the  judges  agree,  such  official 
shall  announce  the  name  of  the  win- 
ner, but  in  cases  where  the  judges 


disagree,  such  official  shall  so  inform 
the  referee,  who  shall  thereupon  him- 
self decide. 

10.  The  referee  shall  have  power 
to  give   his  casting  vote  when   the 
judges   disagree,  to  caution  or  dis- 
qualify a  competitor   for   infringing 
rules,  or  to  stop  a  round  in  the  event 
of  either  man  being  knocked  down, 
provided  that  the  stopping  of  either 
of  the  first  two  rounds  shall  not  dis- 
qualify any  competitor  from   com- 
peting in  the  final  round.     And  he 
can  order  a  further  round,  limited  to 
two  minutes,  in  the  event  of  the 
judges  disagreeing. 

11.  That  the  decision  of  the  judges 
or  referee,  as  the  case  may  be,  shall 
be  final. 

12.  In  all  competitions  the  deci- 
sions shall  be  given  in  favor  of  the 
competitor  who    displays  the    best 
style  and  obtains  the  greatest  num- 
ber of  points.     The  points  shall  be: 
for  attack,  direct  clean  hits  with  the 
knuckles  of  either  hand  on  any  part 
of  the   front   or  sides  of  head,   or 
body  above  the  belt ;  defense,  guard- 
ing,    slipping,     ducking,     counter- 
hitting,   or    getting  away.      Where 
points  are  otherwise  equal,  consider- 
ation to  be  given  the  man  who  does 
most  of  the  leading  off. 

13.  The  referee  may,  after  caution- 
ing the  offender,   disqualify  a  com- 
petitor who  is   boxing   unfairly,  by 
flicking  or    hitting   with   the    open 
glove,  by  hitting  with  the  inside  or 
butt  of  the  hand,  the  wrist  or  elbow, 
or  by  wrestling  or  roughing  at  the 
ropes. 

14.  In  the  event  of  any  question 
arising   not    provided   for    in   these 
rules,  the  judges  and  referee  to  have 
full  power  to  decide  such  question  or 
interpretation  of  rule. 

History.  Boxing  was  said  by  the 
Greeks  to  have  been  invented  by 
Theseus ;  and  Pollux,  Hercules,  and 
other  Greek  heroes  are  described  as 
excelling  in,  it.  It  was  one  of  the 
important  features  of  the  Olympic 
games  (C.  P.  P.,  article  OLYMPIA.) 
Instead  of  boxing  gloves,  the  ancients 


BOXING 


119 


BREATH    FIGURES 


used  the  cestus,  an  arrangement  of 
leather  strips  wound  around  the 
hand  and  sometimes  up  the  arm  as 
far  as  the  elbow.  These  were  some- 
times loaded  with  lumps  of  lead  and 
were  very  dangerous.  In  ancient 
boxing  contests  the  right  arm  was 
used  chiefly  for  striking  and  the  left 
for  warding  off  blows. 

The  Romans  liked  to  look  at  exhi- 
bitions of  boxing,  but  considered  it 
undignified  to  take  part  in  them. 
Boxing  was  revived  in  England  in 


Cestua. 

the  eighteenth  century,  when  it  be- 
gan to  be  called  "  the  noble  art  of 
self-defense."  A  teacher  of  boxing 
named  Broughton,  who  is  said  to 
have  invented  the  boxing-glove  at 
this  time,  gave  public  exhibitions  of 
his  skill  in  a  theater,  which  he  built 
for  the  purpose.  Boxing  contests 
without  gloves,  called  prize-fights, 
were  also  held,  but  they  became  so 
brutal  that  laws  were  passed  against 
them,  and  at  present  boxing  is  prac- 
ticed by  respectable  people  only  as 
a  form  of  athletic  exercise.  It  is  in 


favor  principally  in  England  and  the 
United  States. 

Savate.  The  French  are  not 
skilled  in  the  English  system  of  box- 
ing, but  practice  a  kind  called  Savate, 
in  which  the  head  and  feet,  as  well  as 
the  fists,  are  used  for  attack  and  de- 
fense. It  is  said  that  those  skilled  in 
the  method  have  defeated  some  of 


Savate. 

the  best  English  boxers,  whose 
guards,  though  perfect  against  a 
blow  from  the  fist,  would  often  be 
no  defense  at  all  against  one  from 
the  foot.  The  sailors  of  the  French 
navy  are  trained  every  day  in  Savate, 
in  which  they  are  very  expert. 

BREATH  FIGURES,  Experiments 
on.  l.  Trace  a  figure  with  the  fin- 
ger on  a  pane  of  glass.  Nothing 
will  be  seen  until  the  plate  is  breathed 
on,  when  the  figure  becomes  visible. 

2.  Lay  a  coin  on  a  freshly  polished 
plate  of  glass  or  metal.     After  sev- 
eral minutes  remove   the  coin  and 
breathe  on  the  metal,  when  an  image 
of  the  coin  will  appear.     The  result 
will  be  the  same  if  the  coin  is  polished 
instead  of  the  plate  on  which  it  is 
laid. 

3.  Breathe  on   the  surface  of  a 
pane  of  glass  which  has  been  in  con- 
tact for  several  years   with  an  en- 
graving.    In  many  cases  the  lines  of 
the  engraving  will  become  visible  on 
the  glass. 

Explanation.  On  the  surface  of 
all  solids  gathers  a  layer  of  gas, 
vapor,  and  fine  dust,  which  is  re- 
moved by  polishing  and  altered  by 


BREATH  PORTRAITS 


120 


BUCK 


the  contact  of  other  solids.  If  the 
object  be  breathed  upon  the  breath 
will  condense  more  easily  on  some 
parts  than  others,  according  to  the 
state  of  this  layer,  and  any  marks 
made  on  it  will  hence  become  visible. 
BREATH  PORTRAITS.  To  finely 
powdered  fluor  spar  add  enough 
sulphuric  acid  to  make  the  mixture 
of  the  proper  thickness  to  be  used  as 
ink.  With  a  quill  pen,  write  or  draw 
with  it  on  the  surface  of  plate  glass. 
After  the  fluid  has  been  on  the  glass 
five  to  ten  minutes  wash  it  off  with 
water.  The  surface  of  the  glass 
under  it  will  be  slightly  eaten  away, 
but  so  little  that  it  will  not  be  noticed 
unless  the  glass  is  breathed  upon, 
when  the  design  or  writing  will  stand 
out  clearly.  The  effect  is  very  striking. 
BROTHER,  I  AM  BOBBED,  a 
trick,  in  the  form  of  a  game,  in  which 
any  number  of  persons  take  part. 
Two  persons,  to  act  the  part  of 
"brothers,"  are  selected,  of  whom 
one  must  not  have  played  the  game 
before.  The  brothers  are  blind- 
folded and  kneel  back  to  back,  and 
the  other  players  stand  around  them 
in  a  circle,  each  with  a  knotted  hand- 
kerchief. The  "  brother  "  who  does 
not  understand  the  game  is  told  that 
the  players  are  to  hit  one  of  the 
brothers  with  a  handkerchief  from 
time  to  time,  and  the  one  hit  is  to 
cry  out  "  Brother,  I  am  bobbed !  " 
The  other  must  then  respond,  "  Who 
bobbed  you  ?  "  and  the  first  must 
guess  who  hit  him.  He  is  told  that 
if  the  guess  be  correct  the  person 
who  struck  him  will  have  to  change 
places  with  him.  When  the  game 
has  begun,  however,  the  "  brother  " 
who  knows  the  trick  removes  the 
handkerchief  that  covered  his  eyes, 
and,  knotting  it,  strikes  his  compan- 
ion. When  asked,  "Who  bobbed 
you  ?  "  the  latter  of  course  makes  a 
wrong  guess.  This  is  kept  up  till 
the  victim  suspects  that  he  is  de- 
ceived. The  "  brother"  who  knows 
the  trick  should  occasionally  cry  out 
"  Brother,  I  am  bobbed,"  to  keep  up 
the  illusion. 


In  France  this  game  is  called 
"  Frtre,  on  me  bat  "  (Brother,  some 
one  strikes  me). 

BRUNETTE  AND  BLONDE,  a 
SOLITAIRE  game  of  CARDS,  played 
with  two  packs.  The  first  eight 
cards  played  are  laid  in  a  row,  and 
on  each  of  them  are  placed  others  in 
descending  order,  but  of  different  col- 
or alternately.  Thus,  on  a  red  nine  a 
black  eight  must  be  placed  ;  on  this 
a  red  seven,  and  so  on.  Whenever 
the  Aces  appear  they  are  placed  in  a 
row  by  themselves,  and  on  them  are 
built  families  in  ascending  order, 
without  regard  to  suits,  except  that 
no  card  must  be  placed  on  one  of  the 
same  color.  The  families  may  be 
built  up  by  using  cards  as  they  come 
from  the  pack,  or  the  top  cards  of  the 
piles.  All  cards  that  cannot  at  once 
be  used  are  laid  aside  to  form  stock, 
which  can  be  shuffled  and  relaid 
twice.  If  the  families  can  be  com- 
pleted thus,  the  player  wins. 

BUCK,  a  game  played  by  two  per- 
son, one  of  whom  places  his  arms 
across  his  breast,  or  rests  them  on 
his  knees,  and  bends  forward,  rest- 
ing his  head  against  a  fence,  tree,  or 
wall.  This  is  called  "  giving  a  back." 
The  other  player  sits  astride  the  back 
of  the  first,  and  holding  up  one  or 
more  fingers,  says,  "  Buck,  Buck, 
how  many  horns  do  I  hold  up  ?  " 
The  first  player  guesses,  and  if  his 
guess  is  correct  the  two  change 
places  ;  but  if  the  guess  is  wrong,  the 
rider  gets  down,  leaps  on  again,  and 
holds  up  one  or  more  fingers  again 
with  the  same  question.  So  the  game 
goes  on  as  long  as  the  players  choose. 
The  "  buck  "  is  sometimes  blindfold- 
ed, and  a  third  person  often  acts  as 
umpire,  to  see  that  there  is  fair  play. 

History.  This  game  is  very  old. 
Petronius  Arbiter,  a  writer  in  the 
time  of  the  Roman  Emperor  Nero, 
describes  a  man  playing  it  with  a 
boy.  The  boy  "  mounting  as  on  horse- 
back, smote  his  shoulders  with  his 
open  hand,  and  laughing  said,  'Bucca, 
Bucca,  quot  sunt  hie?  ' '  (Bucca, 
Bucca,  how  many  are  here  ? ) 


BURIED  WORDS 


121 


BUTTON,  BUTTON 


In  another  form  of  the  game,  a  child 
hides  his  head  in  another's  lap,  and 
the  latter  says : 

*'  Mingledy,  mingledy,  clap,  clap,  clap, 
How  many  fingers  do  I  hold  up?  " 

or  some  similar  rhyme.  The  game, 
in  all  its  forms,  is  probably  related 
to  MORA. 

In  France  a  game  resembling  this, 
called  Les  Metiers  (The  Trades),  is 
played.  The  player  who  makes  the 
back  chooses  a  trade  and  the  name 
of  something  connected  with  it,  for 
instance,  shoemaking  and  wax.  The 
trade  is  announced,  but  the  article 
kept  secret.  Each  player  in  turn 
must  then  say,  as  he  mounts  the  back, 
"  A  good  shoemaker  must  have  good 
leather,"  or  "  good  pegs,"  or  any- 
thing else  he  pleases.  Whoever 
mentions  the  word  chosen  by  the 
player  who  makes  the  back  must 
take  his  place. 

BURIED  WORDS,  a  game  played 
by  two  or  more  persons,  one  of  whom 
gives  a  sentence  in  which  a  word  is 
concealed  by  being  formed  partly  of 
one  of  the  words  in  the  sentence, 
and  partly  of  one  or  more  imme- 
diately following.  Thus  the  word 
"  London  "  is  concealed  or  "  buried  " 
in  the  sentence,  "  Do  not  let  the  rain 
fall  on  Don  Carlos,"  as  will  be  seen 
if  the  proper  letters  be  capitalized, 
thus,  "  Do  not  let  the  rain  falL  ON 
DON  Carlos."  The  one  who  gives 
out  the  sentence  must  state  that  the 
buried  word  is  the  name  of  a  city,  per- 
son, flower,  article  of  food,  or  what- 
ever it  may  be,  and  the  first  one  who 
guesses  it  correctly  scores  a  point. 
The  guesser  then  gives  out  another 
sentence,  and  the  game  goes  on  for 
any  length  of  time  agreed  on,  or  till 
some  orte  has  scored  a  certain  num- 
ber of  points.  After  a  little  practice 
words  can  thus  be  buried  very  skill- 
fully. The  hardest  ones  to  guess 
are  those  in  which  pronouncing  the 
words  gives  no  clew.  Thus  in  the 
following, "  buried  fruits,"  the  former 
can  be  guessed  by  pronouncing  the 
sentence  slowly,  while  the  latter  can- 
not: 


"Some,  fairy  OR  ANGEI  must 
have  done  this."  "  The  baboon  and 
aPE  ARe  both  curious  animals." 

The  best  plan  m  burying  a  word 
is  first  to  see  whether  it  contains  an- 
other word  within  it.  Thus  in  bury- 
ing the  word  "  Orange  "  it  is  seen 
that  the  word  "  rang  "  is  so  contained. 
A  sentence  must  now  be  constructed 
with  the  word  "  rang  "  in  it,  while 
the  word  just  before  must  end  with 
"  O,"  and  that  just  following  begin 
with  "  e."  Thus  :  "  They  danced  a 
fandango,  rang  Edward's  door  bell, 
and  behaved  very  wildly."  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  word  is  thus  "  buried  " 
much  more  deeply  than  in  the  other 
example  given. 

A  somewhat  similar  game,  played 
in  Germany,  is  there  called  Worte 
Verbergen  (Word-hiding).  The  title 
or  first  verse  of  some  well-known 
song  or  poem  is  selected  by  one  of 
the  players,  who,  in  answer  to  any 
question,  returns  a  reply  including  its 
first  word.  To  a  second  question  he 
gives  an  answer  containing  the  first 
two  words  in  succession,  and  so  on, 
till  the  line  is  guessed.  Thus,  sup- 
pose the  song  "  A  life  on  the  ocean 
wave"  be  chosen.  The  following 
may  be  the  questions  and  answers : 

Q.  How  do  you  do  ? 

A.  A  little  better,  thank  you. 

Q.  Where  do  you  spend  the  sum- 
mer? 

A.  In  the  country.  I  enjoy  a  life 
spent  outdoors. 

Q.  Who  was  your  grandfather  ? 

A.  He  was  the  celebrated  Dr. 
Bobus,  who  sacrificed  a  life  on  the 
altar  of  science  by  visiting  the  North 
Pole. 

By  this  time  the  title  will  probably 
be  guessed  by  the  repetition  of  the 
word  "  life."  The  most  difficult  lines 
to  guess  are  of  course  those  contain- 
ing small  and  frequently  used  words 
at  the  beginning. 

BUTTON,  BUTTON,  a  drawing- 
room  game,  played  by  any  number  of 
persons.  The  players  sit  in  a  circle 
around  the  leader,  who  stands  holding 
a  button  between  his  hands,  the  palms 


BUTTONS 


122 


BUZZ 


of  which  are  pressed  together.  The 
others  hold  their  hands  in  the  same 
manner,  and  the  leader  goes  to  each 
in  turn,  saying,  "  Hold  fast  what  I 
give  you,"  passing  his  hands  between 
those  of  the  player  he  addresses,  and 
gives  the  button,  while  doing  this,  to 
any  one  of  the  players  he  chooses, 
but  without  showing  to  whom  he 
has  given  it.  When  he  has  made 
the  round  of  the  circle,  he  says  to 
each  player  in  turn,  "  Button,  But- 
ton, who  has  the  button  ?  "  and  each, 
as  he  is  asked,  must  guess.  Then  the 
leader  calls  out,  "  Button,  Button, 
arise,"  and  the  holder  of  the  button 
stands  up.  This  game  is  usually 
played  by  very  young  children,  an 
older  one  acting  as  leader,  In  some 
parts  of  the  United  States  a  ring  is 
used,  and  the  corresponding  verses 
are, 

"  Biddy.  Biddy,  hold  fast  my  gold  ring 
Till  I  go  to  London  and  back  again. 

Another  form  used  is,  "Fox,  Fox, 
who's  got  the  box  ?  " 

BUTTONS,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  children,  each  of  whom 
has  a  button.  The  players  stand  in 
line  and  toss  their  buttons  at  a  hole 
in  the  ground  about  twelve  feet  dis- 
tant. They  then  take  turns  in  play- 
ing, beginning  with  the  one  whose 
button  came  nearest  to  the  hole,  and 


Method  of  Holding  the  Hand  in  Button. 

try,  by  striking  the  buttons  with  the 
thumb  as  they  lie  on  the  ground  (see 
illustration),  to  drive  them  into  the 
hole.  When  any  one  succeeds,  the 


button  he  drives  in  becomes  his  prop- 
erty. When  he  misses,  the  next  one 
takes  his  turn.  The  hand  is  held 
stiffly  in  playing,  the  thumb  being 
extended,  and  the  motion  is  made 
with  the  whole  hand, 

Spans,  a  button  game  played  by 
two  persons.  The  buttons  are  thrown 
against  a  wall,  and  if  a  player's  but- 
ton falls  within  a  span  of  his  oppo- 
nent's he  may  aim  at  it  as  described 
above.  If  he  strike  it,  he  wins  it.  A 
span  is  the  distance  from  the  end  of 
the  thumb  to  that  of  the  little  finger 
when  the  hand  is  extended. 

BUZZ,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons.  The  players  sit 
in  a  circle,  and,  beginning  at  any 
point,  call  out  the  numbers,  one, 
two,  three,  etc.,  in  order.  Instead  of 
the  numbers  in  writing  which  the 
figure  7  is  used,  and  also  of  those 
that  are  multiples  of  seven,  the  word 
"  Buzz "  must  be  spoken.  Thus, 
Buzz  must  be  substituted  for  7,  14, 
21,  27,  28,  35,  37,  42,  47, 49,  and  so  on. 
For  the  seventies.  Buzz-one,  Buzz- 
two  are  used,  and  for  77,  Buzz-buzz. 
Any  one  that  mentions  such  a  num- 
ber by  name,  or  says  Buzz  in  the 
wrong  place,  or  calls  out  a  wrong 
number,  must  pay  a  forfeit,  and  then 
begin  the  game  anew  by  calling  out 
"  One  !  "  If  the  one  whose  turn  it 
is  waits  longer  than  while  any  one 
counts  five  he  must  pay  a  forfeit. 
Buzz  should  not  be  played  by  seven 
people,  for  then  one  of  them  would 
always  have  to  say  buzz  when  his 
turn  came. 

Buzz-Fizz,  the  game  of  Buzz,  with 
the  addition  that  every  multiple  of 
three  is  called  "  Fizz,"  of  five, 
"  Quack,"  and  of  eleven,  "  Cock-a- 
doodle-doo.  "  Where  a  number  con- 
tains two  or  more  of  these  as  a  fac- 
tor the  names  of  all  the  factors  are 
given,  the  smallest  first.  Thus,  15 
would  be  "  Fizz-Quack  ";  77,  "  Buzz- 
cock-a-doodle-doo  ";  and  105,  "  Fizz- 
Quack-Buzz." 


CALAERASELLA 


123 


CALABRASELLA 


C 


CACHINOLE.    See  SQUAILS. 
CALABRASELLA,     a     game     of 
cards  played  by  three  persons,  with 
a  pack  from  which  the  tens,  nines, 
and  eights  are  excluded.    Each  player 
is  dealt  twelve  cards,  two  at  a  time, 
and  the  four  remaining  in  the  stock 
are   placed    face  downward   on    the 
table.    After  the  deal,  the  eldest  hand 
has    the    choice     of   "  passing"    or 
"  playing."     If  he  say  "  I  pass,"  the 
player  at  his  left  has  the  same  op- 
tion, and  so  on.     If  all  pass,  the  hand 
is  abandoned  and  the  deal  passes  to 
the  left.     The  first  player  who  says 
"  I  play,"  must  play  against  the  two 
others  as  partners.     Before  he  plays 
he  may  ask  for  any  Three  he  chooses, 
and  the  holder  must  give  it  to  him, 
receiving  a  card  in  exchange.     If  no 
one   has   the   Three    asked   for,    he 
must  not  demand  another,  but  if  he 
have  all  the  Threes  in  his  own  hand 
at  the  beginning   of   the  game    he 
may  ask  for  a  Two.     He  then  dis- 
cards  from  one   to  four  cards  and 
selects  an  equal   number   from   the 
stock,  first  announcing   the  number 
of  cards  he  will  put  out.     He  must 
discard  at  least  one  card,  and  must 
show  to  the  other  players  the  cards 
he  takes  in.     The  playing  then  be- 
gins,  the   eldest    hand    having    the 
lead.    There    are   no    trumps,   and 
suit  must  be  followed  if  possible.     In 
playing,  the  cards  rank  as  follows : 
Three    (highest),    Two,  Ace,    King, 
Queen,    Knave,    Seven,    Six,    Five, 
Four  (lowest).     The  winner  of   the 
last  trick  takes  also  the  discard  (in- 
cluding any  cards  of  the  stock  that 
are  left).     Each  Ace  taken  counts  the 
winner  of  the   trick   3    points,   and 
each  Three,  Two,  King,  Queen,  or 
Knave,    i     point.     The     last     trick 
founts  3  points.     Either  side  scores 
what  it  has  made  in  excess  of  the 
other    side,  each    of    the    partners 
scoring  the  whole  number  of  points 
made   by   their  side.     Thus,  if   the 
partners    have  22    points    and   the 


single  player  13,  each  of  the  former 
scores  9  points.  The  number  of 
points  to  be  played  for  is  agreed  on 
aefore  the  game. 

The  eldest  hand  should  say,  "  I 
play,"  if  he  have  a  fair  hand. 
Try  to  win  as  many  counting  cards 
as  possible,  especially  Aces,  which  it 
must  be  remembered  may  be  taken 
in  play  by  either  Threes  or  Twos. 

RULES  OF   THE   GAME. 

1.  The   players   cut  for  deal,  and 
the  lowest  Calabrasella  card  deals. 

2.  In  case  of  a  misdeal,  the  same 
player  deals  again. 

3.  If  the  Discard  contain  too  few 
cards  the  partners  may  either  throw 
up  the  hand  or  require  the  single 
player  to  correct   the  mistake ;  if  it 
contain  too  many,  the  single  player 
loses  the  tricks  to  which  he  cannot 
play. 

4.  If  the  single  player  demand  a 
Two  when  he  has  not  all  the  Threes, 
the  partners  may  throw  up  the  hand 
if  they  choose. 

5.  If  a  card  is  asked  for  and  not 
obtained,  and  it  is  found  not  to  be  in 
the  stock,  the  single  player  may  ask 
for  it  again  and  then  alter  his  dis- 
card. 

6.  If  the  single   player  expose  a 
card,  or  lead   or  play   out   of  turn, 
there  is  no  penalty,  but  the  mistake 
must  be  corrected   unless  the  trick 
has  bern  completed.     If  one  of  the 
partners   expose  a  card,  the   single 
player  may  call  on  him  to  play  it  at 
any  time.     If  either  of  the  partners 
lead  out  of  turn,  and  the  error  is  dis- 
covered before  completing  the  trick, 
the  single   player  may  call   on   the 
right  leader  to  lead  a  particular  suit ; 
or,  if  it  is  his  own  lead,  he  may  thus 
call  a  suit  at  the  first  opportunity. 

13.  If  a   player  revoke,  he   must 
forfeit  nine  points. 

14.  No  trick  can  be  looked  at  after 
it  is  taken. 

CALIFORNIA   JACK.    See    ALL 
FOURS. 


CALL-BALL 


124 


CAMERA  OBSCURA 


CALISTHENICS.  See  GYMNAS- 
TICS. 

CALL-BALL,  CALLIE  BALL,  or 
BALLIE-CALLIE,  a  game  of  ball 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
with  a  hard  rubber  ball.  The  ball 
is  thrown  against  a  wall  by  one  of 
the  players,  who  at  the  same  time 
calls  out  the  name  of  one  of  the 
others.  The  player  named  must 
strike  the  ball  as  it  bounds  back, 
calling  another  name  as  he  does  so. 
If  he  miss  it  he  must  pick  it  up,  and 
call  "Stand!"  whereupon  the  other | 
players,  who  have  begun  to  run  as  j 
soon  as  he  makes  the  miss,  stand  [ 
still.  He  throws  the  ball  at  one, 
and  if  he  strikes  him  that  one  must 
throw  the  ball  at  the  wall,  as  before.  ! 
If  he  miss  the  player  at  whom  he 
throws,  he  must  place  himself  against 
the  wall  while  the  others  throw  the 
ball  at  his  back  in  turn,  as  in-  ROLY 
POLY. 

This  game  was  common  in  New 
England  many  years  ago,  and  is 
still  played  in  Austria.  The  English 
poet  Herrick  alludes  to  a  similar 
game  in  his  lines  : 

"  I  call,  I  call ;  who  doe  ye  call  ? 
The  maids  to  catch  this  Cowslip  ball. 

In  the  Middle  Ages  boys  and 
girls  played  a  kind  of  call-ball  where 
he  who  obtained  possession  of  it 
threw  it  to  the  one  he  loved  best. 

CAMERA  LUCIDA,  an  arrange- 
ment to  aid  in  drawing  the  outline 
of  small  objects.  There  are  several 
kinds,  but  the  simplest  is  made  as 
follows : 


paper  on  the  table  between  yourself 
and  the  object,  and  on  the  farther 
edge  of  the  paper  rest  the  edge  of  a 
pane  of  glass.  Incline  the  glass 
toward  you,  and  presently  you  will 
see  in  it  the  reflection  of  the  object  to 
be  drawn.  At  the  same  time  you 
will  see  the  paper  through  the  glass. 
The  glass  may  now  be  rested  against 
a  book  to  keep  it  in  position.  Hold 
your  pencil  on  the  paper  under  the 
glass  and  see  whether  you  can  see 
the  reflection  and  the  pencil  point 
plainly  at  the  same  time.  If  either 
of  them  looks  double  while  you  are 
fixing  your  eyes  on  the  other,  it 
shows  that  the  object  is  either  too 
far  away  or  too  near.  Move  the 
book  on  which  it  rests  backward  and 
forward  until  you  can  see  both 
the  reflection  and  the  pencil  point 
plainly.  Keeping  the  eye  perfectly 


Fig.  i. 


Sit  at  a  table  in  front  of  the  object, 
which  should  be  supported  on  a 
book  (Fig.  i).  Lay  a  sheet  of  white 


Fig.  2. 

still,  the  outline  of  the  reflection  can 
now  be  followed  on  the  paper  with 
the  pencil,  and  thus  a  very  exact 
picture  can  be  drawn.  The  picture 
will  be  of  the  same  size  as  the  object, 
hence  only  small  objects,  like  flowers, 
insects,  coins,  or  small  wood-cuts, 
can  be  used.  To  draw  large  objects 
or  landscapes  by  tracing  in  the  same 
way,  a  CAMERA  OBSCURA  may  be 
used,  as  in  PHOTOGRAPHY,  but  a 
large  Camera  Lucicla  is  sometimes 
arranged  as  in  Fig.  2.  The  words 
CAMERA  LUCIDA  are  Latin  for  Light 
Chamber. 

CAMERA  OBSCURA,     To  make 
a  rough  camera,  take  a  little  paste- 


CAMERA  OBSCURA 


125 


CAMERA   OBSCURA 


board    box   (Fig.    i),   like  those  in 

which  pens   are    sold,  and   make  a 

pinhole  in  the  middle  of  the  cover, 

working  the  pin  about        fit 

to  enlarge  the  hole  a 

a  little.     Remove  one 

end  of  the  cover,  and 

in  the  corresponding 

edge  of  the  box  cut 

a    notch    just    large 

enough  to  see  through 

into    the    box    when 

the  cover  is  on.     On 

a  sunny  day,  hold  the  box  with  the 

pinhole    toward    any  bright    object 

and  look  down  into  the  end  through 

the   notch,   holding   the   eye   close, 

so   that   no  light  can  get  in  except 

through    the    pinhole.       A    picture 

will    be  seen   on   the    back   of  the 

box,    inside,    in    which    the    bright 

parts  of  the  landscape  can  be  eas- 


ily  distinguished.  The  picture  will 
grow  clearer  as  the  eye  becomes 
accustomed  to  the  light.  By  moving 
the  box  so  that  the  pinhole  turns  in 
a  different  direction,  the  picture  will 
change.  The  smaller  the  pinhole 
is,  the  less  blurred  the  picture  will 
be,  but  it  will  be  also  less  bright. 
With  a  hole  about  TJff  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  the  picture  will  be  quite 
bright,  but  so  blurred  that  it  is  hard  to 
tell  different  objects  from  each  other. 
The  box  should  not  be  more  than 
an  inch  deep,  as  the  farther  the  back 
is  from  the  pinhole,  the  less  distinct 
the  picture  will  be.  In  the  evening, 
such  a  camera  will  give  an  excellent 
picture  of  a  lamp  or  candle,  and  even 
of  a  person's  face  held  very  near  a 
bright  light.  The  way  the  picture 
is  made  may  be  understood  by  look- 
ing at  Fig.  2,  where  the  lines  rep- 


Fig.  2. 


resent  rays  of  light  from  different 
parts  of  an  object  passing  through 
the  pinhole  and  striking  the  back  of 
the  box.  When  the  cover  is  taken 
from  the  box,  rays  from  all  parts  of 
the  object  strike  every  part  of  the 
box  at  once  and  are  mixed  together, 
hence  there  is  no  picture,  but  only  a 
white  blur. 

A  camera  which  will  make  the 
picture  bright  without  blurring  it  may 
be  made  by  using  a  glass  lens  (See 
LENSES,  EXPERIMENTS  WITH). 
These  experiments  show  how  a  lens 
will  throw  a  picture,  and  the  picture 
can  be  seen  to  better  advantage  if  the 
lens  be  fixed  in  a  hole  in  the  side  of 
a  box.  The  observer  may  work  at 
the  picture  through  a  hole  in  the  top 


of  the  box,  or  the  back  of  the  box 
may  be  made  of  thin  white  paper,  so 
that  the  picture  will  show  on  the 
other  side.  There  is  a  certain  dis- 
tance from  the  lens  for  every  object, 
where  its  image  will  be  plainest,  so 
it  is  a  good  plan  to  make  the  back 
of  the  box  so  that  it  can  be  slid  in 
and  out.  Find  the  distance  at  which 
the  lens  makes  the  plainest  picture  of 
near  objects  before  choosing  the  box, 
and  then  select  one  of  the  right 
depth.  Remove  the  back,  and  saw 
off  the  edges  so  that  it  can  be  made 
to  slip  in  as  far  as  desired.  Nail  a 
stick  to  it  to  serve  as  a  handle  by 
which  it  may  be  pulled  in  and  out. 

Hat  Camera.    A  camera  can   be 
made  also  from  a  stiff  felt  or  silk  hat, 


CAMPHOR 


126 


CAMPING  OUT 


if  it  have  a  ventilating  hole  in  the 
top  of  the  crown.  If  there  are  more 
than  one  of  these  holes,  all  but  the 
central  one  may  be  stopped  with 
paper.  A  piece  of  thin  paper  is  then 
pinned  over  the  bottom  of  the  hat, 
which  is  held  with  the  top  toward 
the  part  of  the  landscape  to  be  ob- 
served. A  black  shawl  is  thrown 
over  the  hat  and  the  observer's  head, 
but  care  must  be  taken  that  it  does 
not  hang  over  the  ventilating  hole. 

CAMPHOR.  Experiments  with, 
I.  Place  a  piece  of  gum  camphor  on 
water.  After  a  time  it  will  begin  to 
move  about  on  the  surface,  and  will 
continue  its  motion  till  it  is  dissolved. 
The  reason  is  that  it  dissolves  more 
rapidly  at  some  places  than  at  others, 
so  that  the  surface  of  the  water  pulls 
more  strongly  on-it  in  one  direction 
than  in  another.  The  bit  of  cam- 
phor may  be  set  on  fire,  and  will  then 
burn  as  it  moves  about. 

2.  Dust  lycopodium  powder  over 
the   surface  of   a  dish    of  water  by 
shaking   it   in  a   muslin    bag.     The 
water  should  be  covered  with  a  very 
faint  layer  of  the  powder.     Dip  into 
the  water  the  end  of  a  rod  or  stick 
of  gum  camphor.     The  lycopodium 
at  once  moves  back  from  the  cam- 
phor, and  begins  to  revolve  in  several 
wheel-shaped  figures. 

In  order  that  this  experiment  may 
succeed  the  vessel  and  water  must 
be  quite  clean,  and  the  day  should 
be  dry  and  fine,  so  that  the  camphor 
film  will  evaporate  soon  after  it  forms. 

3.  Dissolve  a  bit  of  camphor  the 
size  of  a  pea  in  a  drachm  of  benzine. 
Keep  the  solution  in  a  phial  in  whose 
cork  a  pin  is  stuck,  head  downward, 
so  that  it  protrudes  into  the  liquid. 
Fill  a  concave  microscope  slide  with 
clear  water,  and  touch    the   surface 
with  a  little  of  the  benzine-camphor 
liquid  on  the  head  of  the  pin.     The 
drop,  viewed  through  the  microscope, 
behaves  very  curiously,  little  drops 
detaching  themselves  from  its  sides 
and  moving  about  in  all  directions. 

4.  Pour  a  thin  layer  of  water  into 
flat-bottomed  shallow  dish.     Cut  a 


rod  of  gum  camphor  one-quarter 
inch  square,  following  the  grain  of 
the  gum,  which  can  be  seen  on  hold- 
ing it  up  to  the  light.  Touch  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel  with  this  stick, 
and  the  water  around  it  will  be 
thrown  into  waves  or  ripples,  which 
will  continue  till  the  end  of  the  stick 
is  dissolved  away.  The  reason  is 
that  the  water  is  first  drawn  up 
toward  the  stick  as  it  would  be 
toward  the  finger  or  a  glass  rod. 
But,  a  film  of  camphor  forming  on  its 
surface,  this  is  altered  so  as  to  act 
toward  the  stick  as  mercury  would 
toward  glass,  that  is,  the  water  is 
depressed.  It  recovers  itself,  and 
the  action  goes  on  very  rapidly. 

5.  Place  a  piece  of  gum  camphor 
in  a  tightly  stoppered  bottle,  and  let 
it  stand  awhile  in  a  warm  room. 
Then  set  it  close  to  a  window  and 
the  side  next  the  window  will  become 
covered  with  minute  camphor  crys- 
tals. This  is  because  the  camphor 
evaporates,  and  the  coolness  caused 
by  the  window  condenses  the  vapor 
again.  It  was  once  thought  that  the 
light  influenced  the  crystallization, 
but  it  will  take  place  at  night  in  the 
same  way.  Marks  on  the  glass,  invisi- 
ble before,  will  often  be  shown  by  the 
arrangement  of  the  camphor  crystals, 
just  as  those  on  window  panes  often 
are  by  frost  crystals.  Thus,  if  the 
interior  of  the  bottle  be  wiped  out 
roughly  with  a  moist  cloth,  and  then 
allowed  to  dry,  the  crystals  are  apt 
to  form  along  the  lines  made  in  wip- 
ing. (See  also  BREATH  FIGURES.) 

CAMPING  OUT.  One  kind  of 
camping  may  be  in  connection  with 
a  WALKING  TRIP,  the  campers 
spending  their  nights  in  a  tent  in- 
stead of  at  a  hotel  or  farm-house, 
and  preparing  their  own  meals. 
Each  person  may  carry  about  twenty 
pounds  of  luggage  in  a  knapsack  or 
haversack,  or  in  a  roll,  whose  ends  are 
joined  to  make  a  ring  which  is 
thrown  over  the  shoulder,  as  shown 
in  the  illustration.  Each  should 
take  a  rubber  blanket,  a  woolen 
blanket,  a  change  of  clothing,  towel, 


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127 


CAMPING   OUT 


soap,  comb,  and  toothbrush,  besides 
his  share  of  the  general  luggage, 
which  includes  the  tent,  cooking 
utensils,  hatchet,  and  food.  An 
easier  but  more  expensive  way  is  to 
have  all  the  luggage  carried  in  a 
wagon,  leaving  the  walkers  free.  A 
larger  tent  and  more  implements  can 
thus  be  carried,  and  the  expense  is 
usually  not  great  if  divided  among 
several.  It  is  often  a  good  plan  to 
buy  a  horse  and  cart  for  such  an 
expedition,  selling  both  at  the  end  of 
the  journey.  If  the  camp  is  not  to  be 
moved,  the  tent  may  be  still  larger, 
and  many  useful  fixtures,  such  as 


Fig.  i.— The  Camper— Loaded. 

tables,  a  stove,  an  oven,  bedsteads, 
etc.,  can  be  set  up  by  any  one  of 
ingenuity. 

Location.  A  camp  should  be  on 
dry  ground,  sloping  so  as  to  give 
drainage,  and  near  good  drinking 
water.  Favorite  sites  are  on  moun- 
tains, at  the  edge  of  woods,  on  the 
bank  of  a  lake,  or  on  the  seashore. 

Expenses.  These  vary  at  the  pleas- 
ure of  the  camper,  and  according  to 
the  number  in  the  party.  Mr.  John 
M.  Gould,  in  his  book  on  "  How  to 
Camp  Out,"  relates  that  three  boys, 


including  himself,  once  went  on  a 
twelve  days'  camping  trip  and  spent 
but  one  dollar  apiece  during  that 
time.  They  "  carried  coffee,  sugar, 
pork,  and  beef  from  home,  and  ate 
potatoes  three  times  a  day."  Frank 
E.  Clark,  in  an  account  of  three 
weeks'  camping  on  the  seashore, 
gives  the  following  list  of  expenses 
for  six  persons : 

Tent  for  three  weeks  .  .  $  9.00 
Provisions  taken  with  us  .  .  22.00 
Stove  and  cooking  utensils  .  15.00 
Fresh  provisions  bought  at  the 

beach 15.00 

Incidentals    .  20.00 


Total $81.00 

or  $4.50  per  week  for  each  camper. 

In  general,  the  expense  depends 
almost  entirely  on  the  way  in  which 
the  campers  are  willing  to  live. 

GIRLS'  CAMPS.  What  has  been 
said  above  applies  also  to  campers 
of  the  other  sex,  or  of  both  sexes, 
except  that  ladies  must  not  be  ex- 
pected to  bear  any  hardships.  A 
party  of  girls,  in  charge  of  an  older 
woman  may  camp  together  very 
pleasantly  in  not  too  wild  a  coun- 
try, hiring  a  man  to  do  the  hard 
work,  such  as  pitching  the  tent. 
When  the  campers  are  of  both 
sexes,  the  ladies  will  naturally  be 
allotted  the  cooking  and  other 
housework,  while  the  men  do  the 
rougher  work. 

Insects.  Campers  are  often  an- 
noyed by  mosquitos  and  black  flies, 
especially  in  the  woods,  and,  where 
these  pests  exist,  mosquito  netting 
must  be  taken  for  protection  at  night. 
Many  preparations  for  keeping  in- 
sects away  by  applications  to  the 
face  and  hands  are  to  be  bought,  but 
most  old  campers  prefer  to  drive 
them  away  by  making  what  is 
called  a  "  smudge."  A  fire  is  built 
to  windward  of  the  camp  and  smoth- 
ered with  wet  wood  and  damp  leaves, 
so  as  to  make  a  dense  smoke. 
The  "  smudge  "  is  disagreeable,  but 
is  a  welcome  relief  after  insects. 

Rainy  Days.  If  the  rain  is  a  cold 


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128 


CAMPING   OUT 


one,  it  is  often  necessary  to  build  a 
fire  just  outside  the  tent,  but  it 
is  difficult  to  keep  one  alive  in  a 
hard  storm.  If  there  is  a  stove 
in  the  camp,  it  may  be  brought 
inside  the  tent,  the  pipe  projecting 
through  the  door,  but  unless  this  is 
on  the  leeward  side  the  smoke  will 
be  blown  back  into  the  tent.  An- 
other way  is  to  build  a  fire  in  a  hole 
just  outside  the  tent  and  conduct  the 
smoke  through  a  trench  under  the 
tent,  covered  with  flat  stones,  the 
crevices  being  cemented  with  clay. 
It  is  difficult  to  make  this  smoke- 
tight,  but  when  it  is  so,  it  warms  the 
tent  well. 

Each  one  of  the  campers  should 
have  his  special  duties  assigned  him. 
This  may  be  done  on  trial  at  first,  till 
it  is  seen  for  what  work  each  is  best 
fitted.  Thus,  in  a  camp  of  three, 
one  may  do  the  cooking,  and  another 
the  dishwashing,  while  the  third  has 
general  charge  of  the  tent  and  its 
surroundings. 

Tents.  The  material  is  usually 
heavy  drilling  or  duck  for  large  tents. 
The  simplest  kind  is  a  Shelter-tent, 
which  consists  merely  of  pieces  of 
cloth  with  buttons  and  buttonholes 
at  the  edges,  by  which  several  can 
be  fastened  together.  The  button- 
holes are  near  the  edge,  and  the 
buttons  several  inches  nearer  the 
center.  The  pieces  carried  by  the 
soldiers  of  the  United  States  army 
in  the  Civil  War  were  about  five  feet 
square.  They  can  be  fastened  to- 


Fig.  2.— Shelter  Tent. 

gether,  and  put  up  in  various  ways  ; 
for  instance,  by  throwing  two  over  a 
ridge  pole  supported  on  two  forked 


uprights,  and  fastening  them  at  the 
bottom,  by  driving  pegs  through  the 
buttonholes,  or  through  loops  of  rope 
sewed  there  for  the  purpose.  If  two 
more  pieces  be  buttoned  across  the 
ends,  the  tent  is  entirely  inclosed. 
The  tent  poles  and  pegs  are  not  car- 
ried, but  cut  at  the  spot  where  the 
tent  is  pitched.  A  shelter-tent  (Fig.  2) 
is  the  best  to  use  where  the  campers 
walk  from  place  to  place  and  carry 
all  their  own  baggage.  An  end  piece 
may  be  made  to  fit  the  end  exactly, 
and  sewed  to  one  of  the  side  pieces 
instead  of  buttoning  it,  if  desired. 
The  tent  should  usually  be  pitched 
with  a  right  angle  at  the  roof,  but 
the  angle  must  be  sharper  in  rainy 
weather.  Shelter-tents  may  be  made 
also  of  rubber,  which  are  perfectly 
waterproof,  but  heavy  to  carry. 

An  A  tent,  or  Wedge-tent  (Fig.  4)  is 
pitched  overaridge pole  like  a  shelter- 
tent,  but  is  made  all  in  one  piece.     A 
common    size  is   about 
seven  feet  high,  seven  feet 
long,  and  eight  feet  wide. 
One  end  is  usually  closed, 
while    the    other  has    an 
opening    in    the    middle, 
closed  by  a  flap  hanging 
on    the    inside.       Around 
the  bottom  of  the  tent  is 
sometimes   hung    a    strip 
of  cloth  called  a  sod-cloth, 
to  keep  out  draughts  and 
prevent   the   edge    of  the 
tent    from    touching    the 
ground     and    rotting.     Fig;.  3. 
Around  the  edge  are  also  Tent  Pin< 
sewed  loops  of  rope  called  "  beck- 
ets,"   through   which   wooden    pins 
(Fig.  3)  are  driven  into  the  ground, 
when  the  tent  is  pitched. 

The  best  tent  for  a  permanent 
camp,  or  one  where  the  heavy  lug- 
gage is  carried  from  place  to  place 
on  a  wagon,  is  the  Wall-tent  (Fig.  5). 
This  is  shaped  like  a  house,  with  side 
walls  about  four  feet  high,  and  ridge 
pole  about  nine  feet  from  the 
ground.  At  the  corners  of  the  eaves 
and  at  every  seam  along  their  sides 
loops  of  rope  are  fastened,  and 


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129 


CAMPING  OUT 


through  each  of  these  is  passed  a 
rope  called  a  "  guy,"  about  ten  feet 
long,  knotted  at  one  end  so  that  it 
will  not  slip  through  the  loop.  The 
other  end  is  passed  around  a  peg 
driven  into  the  ground  at  such  a  dis- 
tance that  the  guy  will  have  the 
same  slope  as  the  roof,  and  so  keep 
the  roof  stretched.  That  the  guys 
may  be  tightened  easily,  pieces  of 
wood  called  "  fiddles "  are  used, 
about  five  inches  long,  two  inches 


wide,  and  an  inch  thick,  having  two 
holes  bored  through  them  three 
inches  apart,  just  large  enough  to 
admit  the  rope.  The  end  of  the  guy 
is  passed  through  one  of  these  holes 
and  back  through  the  other,  and 
then  knotted.  The  loop  thus  made 
is  passed  around  the  peg,  and  the 
guy  is  then  tightened  by  pulling  up 
the  fiddle  as  high  as  it  will  go. 
Around  the  bottom  of  the  tent, 
which  also  has  a  sod-cloth,  are  beck- 


Fig.  4. — "  A  "  Tent,  or  Wedge-tent. 


cts,  through  which  pegs  are  driven. 
A  second  roof  called  a  "  fly  "  is  used 
with  a  wall-tent  to  keep  out  the  rain, 
since  the  roof  is  not  sharp  enough  to 
shed  rain  by  itself.  It  passes  close 
over  the  ridge  pole,  but  is  lifted  seve- 
ral inches  above  the  inner  roof  at 
the  eaves,  and  projects  about  a  foot 
beyond  it.  It  is  kept  stretched  by 
guys  whose  pegs  are  driven  into  the 
ground  some  distance  beyond  those 
of  the  roof.  The  end  poles  of  an  A 


or  wall-tent  should  have  iron  pins  at 
the  top,  which  fit  into  holes  in  the 
ridge  pole,  and  the  latter  should 
have  ferrules  on  the  ends  to  prevent 
splitting.  The  end  poles  should  be 
made  too  high  for  the  tent  at  first,  as 
it  stretches  with  use.  At  first,  the 
poles  can  be  sunk  in  the  ground  a 
little  way  to  make  them  short 
enough.  Tent  pins  should  be  of 
tough  wood,  and  have  a  notch  near 
the  top  to  hold  the  rope. 


CAMPING  OUT 


'30 


CAMPING   OUT 


A  shallow  trench  must  be  dug 
completely  around  the  tent,  after  it 
is  pitched,  to  carry  off  the  water  in 
case  of  rain.  If  the  tent  is  on  a  hill- 
side, no  trench  need  be  dug  at  the 
lower  side.  In  a  permanent  camp,  a 
board  floor  may  be  laid  in  the  tent. 

Shelters.  In  the  woods,  shelters 
of  poles  and  boughs  are  often  used 
instead  of  tents.  The  simplest  is 
made  by  placing  a  ridge  pole  across 
two  forked  uprights  and  then  leaning 


poles  and  boughs  against  it  from  one 
or  both  sides.  A  rustic  cottage  (Fig. 
6)  may  be  made  by  trimming  the 
branches  from  four  trees  standing  as 
nearly  as  possible  at  the  corners  of 
a  square,  leaving  part  projeciing  as 
a  rest  for  cross  poles,  thus  forming  a 
framework.  These  cross  poles  are 
tied  to  the  uprights  with  willow 
withes,  and  then  branches  are  woven 
in  by  passing  them  inside  one  pole, 
outside  the  next,  and  so  on.  A  roof 


Fig.  5.— Wall-tent 


slanting  in  one  direction  is  made  in 
the  same  way  and  thatched  with 
grass  so  as  to  shed  water.  If  four 
trees  cannot  be  found  in  the  proper 
position,  upright  posts  set  in  the 
ground  may  be  substituted  for  one 
or  more  of  them. 

Sleeping.  The  simplest  way  to 
sleep  in  camp  is  on  the  ground,  laying 
on  it  first  a  rubber  blanket  and  then  a 
woolen  one.  Evergreen  boughs  or 
dried  leaves  may  be  placed  underneath 


the  rubber  blanket  to  make  a  bed, 
and  the  whole  may  be  raised  above 
theground  byabedstead  of  polessup- 
ported  on  forked  sticks.  One  of  the 
best  camp  beds  is  a  light  folding  cot 
(Fig.  7),  covered  with  canvas,  which 
may  be  bought  at  a  furniture  store.  In 
a  permanent  camp  a  double  mattress 
may  be  laid  on  the  floor  of  the  tent, 
over  a  rubbef  blanket,  making  room 
for  several  sleepers.  Each  camper 
must  have  one  rubber  blanket  and 


CAMPING   OUT 


CAMPING   OUT 


one  woolen  one.  A  pillow  adds 
greatly  to  comfort,  but  must  be  dis- 
pensed with  if  each  carries  his  own 
luggage.  In  any  case,  beds  and  bed- 


ding must  be  carried  out  of  the  tent 
and  thoroughly  aired  every  morning. 
Unless  a  mattress  is  used,  the  camp- 
er's bones  will  be  apt  to  ache  for  one 


Fig.  6. — Framework  of  Rustic  Cottage. 


or  two  nights,  but  he  will  soon  get 
accustomed  to  his  hard  bed.  The 
camper  may  also  sleep  in  a  hammock 
when  the  weather  admits  of  sleeping 
in  the  open  air.  There  is  usually 
hardly  room  for  one  inside  the  tent. 


Cooking.  The  simplest  way  to 
cook  is  over  a  wood-fire  in  the  open 
air.  A  kettle  may  be  hung  over  the 
fire  from  a  cross  bar  resting  on  two 
forked  uprights,  and  any  food  th?»t 
requires  boiling  can  thus  be  pre- 


Kig.  7. — Camp  Cot. 


pared.  Broiling  can  be  done  by 
holding  the  food  in  small  pieces  over 
the  coals  with  sharp  sticks  if  a  grid- 
iron has  riot  been  brought.  For 


frying,  the  fire  is  built  over  a  smooth 
stone,  and  scraped  away  from  it  when 
the  stone  is  sufficiently  heated.  The 
stone  is  then  carefully  wiped,  and  is 


CAMPING  OUT 


132 


CANDLE 


usually  hot  enough  to  fry  several 
fish,  or  the  flat  stone  may  be  placed 
on  the  top  of  a  fireplace  made  of 
stones,  and  used  for  cooking  while 
the  fire  is  under  it.  An  oven  for  bak- 
ing can  be  built  of  stones.  Where 


Fig.  8. — Stone  Stove. 

there  is  clay,  one  can  be  made  by 
covering  with  it  a  cask  or  barrel  em- 
bedded in  a  bank.  A  fire  is  built  in 
the  barrel,  which  both  burns  it  away 
and  bakes  the  clay  hard,  making  the 
oven.  Such  an  oven  is  used  by  first 
building  a  fire  in  it  and  then  scraping 
the  fire  away,  and  putting  in  the  food 
to  be  baked.  In  every  permanent 
camp,  an  ice  box  should  be  provided 
for  provisions.  This  may  be  made 
by  sinking  an  ordinary  dry  goods 
box  or  barrel  in  the  ground,  and  if 
the  box  is  sunk  deep  enough,  ice 
may  be  dispensed  with.  A  hole 
should  also  be  dug  at  some  distance 
from  the  tent  where  all  kinds  of  swill 
and  refuse  may  be  thrown  and  cov- 
ered with  earth  every  few  days.  The 
supply  of  food  to  be  taken  to  camp 
depends  largely  on  how  much  the 
campers  expect  to  provide  for  them- 
selves by  hunting  or  fishing.  Eggs 
and  milk  can  often  be  obtained  from 
a  neighboring  farm  house.  The 
necessaries  for  most  campers  are 
bread  or  crackers,  coffee  or  tea,  sugar 
and  salt.  Where  the  campers  walk 
from  place  to  place  carrying  their 
own  luggage,  food  must  generally 
be  bought  from  day  to  day  wher- 
ever it  can  be  obtained.  Where  the 
camp  is  permanent,  the  stock  of  pro- 
visions is  limited  in  size  and  variety 


only  by  the  purses  of  the  campers 
and  the  ability  of  the  one  who  does 
the  cooking.  A  small  stove  is  often 
necessary  in  a  large  camp,  and  many 
different  kinds  of  camp  stoves  are 
now  to  be  bought.  A  kerosene 
stove  is  always  useful  in  making  a 
cup  of  tea  or  coffee  at  short  notice, 
or  in  cooking  on  a  rainy  day. 

CANDLE-MAKING.  Very  good 
tapers  can  be  made  with  old  candle- 
ends,  a  little  tin  pan,  such  as  are 
used  for  baking  muffins,  a  lead-pen- 
cil, some  tin-foil  and  some  string. 
Make  a  mold  by  shaping  tin-foil 
around  the  pencil.  Melt  some  of 
the  candle-ends  in  the  pan  by  hold- 
ing it  over  a  lighted  candle-end, 
and  then  pour  the  wax  into  the 
mold,  into  which  a  piece  of  string 
has  been  put  for  a  wick.  Hold 
the  mold  upright  till  the  wax  has 
set  and  then  lay  it  aside  for  a  few 
moments,  after  which  the  tin-foil 
can  be  unwound,  leaving  a  little  wax 
taper.  Larger  ones  can  be  made 
by  using  something  larger  to  shape 
the  mold,  an  old  chair-rung  for  in- 
stance. 

A  mold  may  be  made  also  of  a 
rolled  sheet  of  note-paper  tied  with 
string,  and  stopped  at  one  end  with 
a  cork.  The  wick  should  be  fast- 
ened at  one  end  to  the  cork  with  a 
tack,  and  at  the  other  to  a  match  or 
bit  of  wood,  laid  across  the  roll.  If 
the  mold  be  made  thus,  of  paper, 
the  tallow  must  be  allowed  to 
thicken  a  little  before  it  is  poured  in, 
or  it  may  soak  through. 

If  a  large  candle  is  to  be  made, 
the  tallow  is  most  easily  obtained  by 
melting  beef  or  mutton  fat  cut  into 
bits,  and  skimming  out  the  pieces 
of  thin  skin  and  tissue  from  it.  If 
desired,  wax  may  be  melted  and 
used  in  the  same  way. 

CANDLE,  Experiments  with, 
The  candle  flame  is  described  in  the 
article  FlRE  (C.  C.  T.),  and  a  few 
experiments  with  it  are  given  there. 
Others  will  now  be  told  about. 

A  tallow  candle  about  an  inch 
and  a  quarter  in  diameter  is  the 


CANDLE 


133 


CANNONADE 


best  for  these  experiments,  though 
an  ordinary  one  will  answer.  Such 
a  tallow  candle  may  be  made  accord- 
ing to  the  directions  in  the  article  on 
CANDLE-MAKING. 

Experiment  I.  Take  a  piece  of 
wire  gauze  like  that  used  for  strainers 
or  window  screens,  and  press  it  down 
on  the  candle  flame.  The  flame  will 
not  pass  through  the  gauze,  but  will 
flatten  out  beneath  it,  so  that  one  can 
look  down  into  the  center  of  it.  The 
space  inside,  where  there  is  no  fire, 
will  thus  be  seen  plainly.  The 
reason  that  the  flame  cannot  pass 
through  the  gauze  is  that  the  wires 
conduct  the  heat  away  very  rapidly, 
cooling  the  flame  so  much  as  to  put 
it  out  before  it  can  get  through. 

Experiment  2.  Let  the  candle 
burn  till  the  wick  in  the  flame  is 
quite  long  and  then  blow  it  out  with 
a  quick  puff.  If  the  air  is  still,  a 
stream  of  smoke  will  rise  from  the 
wick.  Touch  a  lighted  match  to 
this  smoke  half  an  inch  or  so  from 
the  candle,  and  the  flame  will  run 
down  to  the  wick,  lighting  the  candle 
again.  Sometimes  the  smoke  can 
be  lighted  an  inch  or  more  from  the 
wick.  The  reason  why  this  smoke 
burns,  is  that  it  is  the  gas  which 
forms  the  candle  flame,  and  which 
continues  to  rise  from  the  wick  for 
a  few  seconds  after  the  flame  is  put 
out. 

Experiment  3.  Blow  out  the  can- 
dle as  in  Experiment  2,  and  hold  the 
gauze  so  that  the  stream  of  smoke 
will  rise  through  it.  Light  it  above 
the  gauze,  and  it  will  run  down  to 
the  gauze,  but  will  not  pass  through 
it.  (See  also  CARBONIC  ACID, 
Exp.  ii.) 

Experiment  4.  Bring  a  plate 
quickly  down  on  the  candle  flame 
and  raise  it  at  once  without  moving 
it  sidewise.  The  flame  will  leave  a 
ring  of  soot  on  the  plate.  This  is 
because  the  empty  space  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  flame  deposits  no  soot. 

Experiment  5.  Place  a  lighted 
candle-end  on  the  table  and  put  a 
glass  dish  or  goblet  over  it.  It  will 


burn  dim  and  finally  go  out.  This 
is  because  it  has  used  up  all  the 
oxygen  in  the  air  under  the  dish. 

Experiment  6.  Stick  a  lighted 
candle-end  on  a  bit  of  wood,  so  that 
it  will  float  upright  in  a  pail  of  water. 
Then  press  a  glass  tumbler  down 
over  it,  pushing  it  to  the  bottom  of 
the  pail.  The  candle  will  burn 
under  water  as  long  as  it  has  oxygen 
enough.  The  air  under  the  tumbler 
prevents  the  water  from  entering 
and  putting  out  the  candle.  Try 
the  same  experiment,  using,  instead 
of  a  tumbler,  a  lamp-chimney  with 
the  hand  held  tightly  over  the  top. 
After  pushing  it  down  to  the  bottom 
of  the  pail,  remove  the  hand  so  that 
the  water  can  push  the  air  out  at  the 
top.  The  water  will  rise  inside  the 
chimney,  carrying  the  candle  with  it. 

Experiment  7.  Thrust  the  head 
of  a  match  very  quickly  into  the  dark 
center  of  a  candle  flame.  It  will 
melt  but  not  burn.  This  is  because 
there  is  no  air  in  the  inside  of  the 
flame. 

CANNONADE,  a  game  played  on 
a  circular  board  with  marbles  and  a 
TEETOTUM,  which  can  be  spun  like 
a  humming  TOP.  Around  the  edge 
of  the  board  are  six  little  wooden 
towers  called  castles,  protected  by 
wires  on  all  sides  except  toward  the 
middle  of  the  board,  where  about 
15  marbles  are  placed.  One  of  the 
players  is  chosen  as  Gunner,  and 
each  of  the  others  selects  a  castle. 
Each  one  begins  the  game  with  an 
equal  number  of  counters,  and  each 
castle-owner  bets  as  many  as  he 
pleases  on  his  castle.  The  Gunner 
then  spins  the  teetotum  in  the  midst 
of  the  marbles,  and  the  teetotum 
and  marbles  dash  about  the  board 
knocking  down  some  of  the  castles. 
A  wire  screen  around  the  edge  of 
the  board  prevents  their  leaving  it. 
When  the  teetotum  has  stopped,  the 
owner  of  each  fallen  castle  pays  to 
the  Gunner  his  stake,  multiplied  by 
the  figure  which  came  uppermost  on 
the  teetotum,  or  twice  as  much  if  all 
the  castles  were  knocked  down. 


CANOEING 


134 


CANOEING 


The  owner  of  each  castle  that  re- 
mains standing  receives  twice  his 
stake  from  the  Gunner.  Each 
player  acts  as  Gunner  in  turn.  If 


Cannonade  Board. 

there  are  fewer  players  than  castles, 
each  in  succession  takes  two  or 
more.  Instead  of  the  method  of 
scoring  described  above,  any  other 
may  be  agreed  on  by  the  players,  be- 
fore the  game.  A  simple  method  is 
for  the  Gunner  to  score  one  for  each 
fallen  castle,  and  for  each  owner  of  a 
castle  left  standing  to  score  two. 
The  only  skill  shown  is  in  making 
the  teetotum  spin  as  long  as  pos- 
sible. 

In  another  form  of  the  game,  pins, 
like  Ten  pins,  are  placed  on  the 
board,  among  which  the  top  spins, 
knocking  down  some  of  them. 

CANOEING.  Canoes  are  light 
boats  sharp  at  both  ends,  and  pro- 
pelled by  a  paddle,  the  boatsman 
looking  toward  the  bow.  Pleasure 
canoes,  in  general,  are  of  two  kinds  : 
paddling  canoes  and  sailing  canoes. 
Canoes  may  be  built  of  bark,  skins, 
canvas,  paper,  wood,  or  metal. 
The  length  of  open  canoes  varies 
from  10  to  17  feet,  the  breadth  from 
2  to  3  feet,  and  the  depth  is  8  or  9 
inches.  The  paddler  kneels  on  a 
cushion  on  the  bottom  of  the  canoe. 
The  decked  canoe  usually  has  a  keel 


and  ribs  of  oak,  and  bulkheads  near 
either  end.  It  has  a  board  floor,  a 
seat  for  the  paddler,  and  movable 
back  and  foot  boards.  The  double 
bladed  paddle  is  of 
pine  or  spruce,  from 
six  to  twelve  feet 
long,  and  jointed  in 
the  center  for  con- 
venience of  stowage 
and  to  aid  in  feath- 
ering. 

To  enter  a  canoe 
without  upsetting  re- 
quires caution.  It  is 
best  to  place  one 
foot  on  the  bottom, 
then  one  hand  on 
either  gunwale,  then 
both  feet  on  the  bot- 
tom, and  sit  down  as 
soon  as  possible, 
bearing  most  of  the 
weight  on  the  hands 
until  seated.  The  paddle  is  held  in 
both  hands,  and  the  boatman  dips  the 


Canoe  :  Side  View,  Top  View,  and 
Cross  Section. 

blade  so  as  nearly  to  cover  it,  as  far 
forward  as  he  can  reach  on  one  side 


Canoe  Paddles. 

of  the  boat,  and  then  draws  it  steadily 
back,  thus  propelling  the  boat.    With 


CANOEING 


135 


CANOEING 


a  single  paddle  all  the  strokes  are  on 
the  same  side  of  the  boat  till  the  pad- 
dler  changes  for  rest,  and 
the  boat  is  steered  by  giv- 
ing the  paddle  a  twist  at 
the  end  of  the  stroke. 
With  the  double  paddle 
the  strokes  are  made  on 
alternate  sides,  thus  keep- 
ing the  course  straight. 
The  unused  blade  will  be 
in  position  to  make  the 
second  stroke  when  the 
first  is  finished.  The  blades 
of  a  double  paddle  are 
usually  set  at  right  angles 
so  that  the  one  not  in  the 
water  will  always  cut  edge- 
wise through  the  air,  and 
the  wrist  must  therefore  be  turned 
slightly  just  before  putting  the  blade 


to   swim.     In   canoe   races,   "upset 
races "   are    often    included,   where 


Canoeist  Using  Double-bladed  Paddle. 


Method  of  Holding  Double-bladed 
Paddle. 

into  the  water.  Short  paddles  must 
be  held  almost  perpendicularly  in  the 
water.  The  paddle 
can  be  managed  bet- 
ter by  sitting  high, 
but  there  is  more 
danger  of  upsetting. 
In  racing,  the  seat  is 
generally  placed  near- 
ly on  a  level  with  the 
deck.  In  order  to 
be  prepared  for  an 
upset,  the  canoeist 
should  practice  fall- 
ing out  and  getting 
into  his  place  again 
from  the  water.  He  must  dress 
lightly,  and  should  not  attempt  to 
paddle  a  canoe  without  knowing  how 


is    required,   at   a 
the   course  of   the 


each   contestant 

given   signal,  in 

race,  to  overturn  his  canoe,  scramble 

in  from  the  water,  and  go  on  to  the 

finish. 

The  sailing  canoe  has  either  a 
keel  or  a  center  board,  which  is  now 
often  made  to  fold  up  like  a  fan, 
when  not  in  use.  The  sail  may  be 
either  the  lug,  leg-of-mutton,  or 
lateen  (see  SAILING).  Two  or  three 
battens  (thin  strips  of  wood)  are 
sometimes  fastened  across  the  lower 
part  of  the  sail.  A  canoeist  has 
estimated  that  the  use  of  these  bat- 
tens enables  a  canoe  to  carry  more 
sail,  in  the  ratio  of  7  to  5.  Battens 
make  the  sail  set  flatter.  The  masts 


Sailing  Canoe. 

are  very  light,  and  can  be  taken  down 
in  a  moment.  The  yard  and  boom 
are  generally  of  some  light  wood. 


CANOEING 


136 


CANOEING 


The  rigging  is  as  simple  as  possible, 
and  so  arranged  that  the  canoeist 
need  not  leave  his  seat  to  work  it. 
There  is  usually  a  rudder,  managed 
with  foot  steering  gear  when  the 
canoeist  sits  or  lies  in  the  bottom,  as 
formerly  in  England  ;  but  in  this 
country  usually  by  a  tiller  fastened 
to  a  yoke  near  the  hatch,  where  it  is 
close  at  hand.  The  English  have 
now  generally  adopted  the  American 
plan.  The  rudder  should  be  hung 
so  that  it  will  extend  below  the  keel 
and  keep  its  hold  on  the  water,  even 
when  the  canoe  lifts  her  stern  clear 
at  every  wave. 

In  England  canoeists  generally  lie 
down  in  the  bottom  of  the  canoe, 
while  in  this  country  they  sit  on 
deck  except  when  sailing  before  the 
wind.  Canoe  sailing  differs  in  some 
respects  from  ordinary  boat  sailing. 
(See  SAILING.)  If  the  canoeist  can- 
not hold  his  boat  upright  by  his  own 
weight  he  should  "  luff "  so  as  to 
ease  her  a  little,  and  if  that  does  not 
answer  he  should  slack  the  main 
sheet.  If  it  blows  very  hard  he 
should  take  in  sail  altogether. 

Many  canoes  have  sliding  seats, 
made  in  two  pieces,  the  upper  slip- 
ping sidewise  over  the  lower  to 
either  side  so  that  the  crew  can  sit 


away  out  to  windward  and  balance 
the  boat  in  a  far  heavier  wind  than 
would  otherwise  be  possible.  In 
tacking,  the  canoeist  throws  his 
weight  forward  and  to  leeward, 
shifting  it  as  the  canoe  passes  the 
wind's  eye.  Jibing  is  more  danger- 
ous in  a  canoe  than  in  a  sailboat, 
the  canoeist  being  obliged  to  shift 
his  weight  suddenly  to  avoid  over- 


Camp-stove  for  Wood. 

turning.  More  than  one  hundred 
pounds  of  ballast  may  be  carried  in 
a  sailing  canoe  in  bags  of  about  25 
pounds  each.  As  much  as  175 
pounds  was  formerly  carried,  but  at 
present  the  most  expert  canoeists 
rarely  carry  ballast  when  racing. 

Unless  a  canoe  is  very  well  bal- 
lasted, sail  should  never  be  kept  on 
it  when  the  sea  is  high  enough  to 


Fig.  i. — Frame  of  Canoe  Tent. 


break  on  board.  The  canoe  should 
never  be  allowed  to  get  broadside  to 
the  wind,  except  when  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary,  as  in  turning.  In 
heavy  water,  the  course  should  be 
zig-zag,  and  heavy  seas  must  be 
dodged.  If  it  is  necessary  to  take  a 


wave,  it  must  be  done  with  the  end 
of  the  canoe  toward  it,  and  the  canoe 
should  be  allowed  to  slide  sidewise 
down  the  back  of  the  wave.  In  run- 
ning before  the  wind,  the  canoeist 
removes  the  back  board,  and,  when 
it  is  necessary,  stops  the  canoe's 


CANOEING 


137 


CAPACITY  FOR   HEAT 


headway  by  back  strokes  of  the  pad- 
dle. If  the  bows  run  under  water, 
the  halyards  must  be  let  go  at  once. 
The  paddle  should  always  be  ready 
for  use,  and  it  is  well  to  have  a  cork 
belt  at  hand.  If  the  canoe  should 
capsize,  the  canoeist  must  climb 
over  it,  let  go  the  main  halyard,  haul 
on  the  down-haul,  and  get  the  main- 


sail on  deck,  before  trying  to  right 
the  craft.  In  beaching  a  canoe,  the 
sail  must  first  be  taken  in,  the  rud- 
der triced  up  and  the  hatch  taken 
off.  The  canoeist  then  leaps  out  in- 
to shallow  water  with  the  painter, 
and  hauls  the  boat  on  shore.  Some 
special  forms  of  tents  for  use  by 
canoeists  on  their  excursions  are 


Fig.  2. — Canoe  Tent. 


shown  in  the  following  illustrations, 
of  which  Fig  i  shows  the  frame  of  a 
canoe  tent,  Fig.  2  a  canoe  tent  with 
its  canvas  cover,  and  Fig.  3  a  tent 
for  use  on  shore. 

History.  Canoes  were  used  by 
the  natives  of  all  parts  of  North 
America  before  its  discovery  by  Eu- 
ropeans. The  Indians  made  their 


canoes  either  of  birch  bark  or  of 
hollow  logs,  and  paddled  them  with 
great  speed.  In  British  America  on 
the  Pacific  coast  the  natives  use 
canoes  of  cedar  logs  with  extended 
prows,  and  with  curious  figures 
painted  on  the  sides.  Some  of  them 
are  very  large  ;  one  in  the  National 
Museum  at  Washington  being  59 


Fig.  3.— Shore  Canoe  Tent. 


feet  long,  8  feet  wide,  and  4  feet  8 
inches  deep.  In  Canada  canoe  clubs 
for  recreation  have  existed  since  the 
days  of  New  France.  About  1854 
the  improved  civilized  canoe  was 
introduced  into  England  by  John 
Macgregor,  Esq.,  of  London.  Then 
it  was  imported  to  this  country  by 
W.  L.  Alden,  who  founded 


York  Canoe  Club  in  1871,  and  since 
that  time  the  popularity  of  the  sport 
has  increased  rapidly  all  over  the 
Northern  United  States  and  Canada. 
CAPACITY  FOR  HEAT,  Experi- 
ments on.  i.  In  a  bullet-mold  make 
bullets  of  lead,  zinc,  tin, sulphur,  and 
antimony.  Prepare  a  cake  of  wax 
or  paraffine,  about  half  an  inch  thick, 


CAPPING  VERSES 


138 


CARBON 


by  melting  it  and  pouring  it  into  a 
pan,  and  then  lay  the  cake  across 
the  top  of  a  tumbler.  Put  the  bul- 
lets into  boiling  water  for  a  few  min- 
utes and  then  place  them  all  at  once 
on  the  cake  of  wax.  They  will  melt 
it  and  some  will  fall  through,  but 
some  much  more  quickly  than  others. 
Still  others  will  get  only  half-way  or 
quarter-way  through  the  wax.  This 
is  because  they  contained  different 
quantities  of  heat,  although  they  were 
all  at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water. 

2.  Weigh  out  the  same  amount  of 
lead,  sulphur,  and  copper  scraps,  and 
put  them  all  into  boiling  water,  or 
into  hot  oil,  so  that  they  will  have 
the  same  temperature.  Fill  three 
glasses  with  water  at  the  same  tem- 
perature, and  put  the  lead  into  one, 
the  sulphur  into  another,  and  the 
copper  into  the  third.  Stir  the  water 
in  each  continually,  and  test  from 
time  to  time  with  a  chemical  ther- 
mometer. The  water  containing 
the  sulphur  will  be  hottest,  and  that 
with  the  copper  next,  while  that  into 
which  the  zinc  was  put  will  be  the 
least  hot.  The  reason  is  the  same  as 
that  given  for  experiment  i. 

CAPPING  VERSES,  a  game 
where  one  player  quotes  a  line  of 
poetry,  and  the  next  a  line  in  the 
same  metre  rhyming  with  it,  which 
will  make  sense.  In  this  way  an  en- 
tire poem  is  made  of  separate  quota- 
tions by  the  company.  This  game 
can  be  played  in  this  form  only  by 
those  who  are  very  familiar  with  poe- 
try, but  almost  any  one  with  pencil 
and  paper  may  cap  verses,  if  allowed 
to  consult  all  the  volumes  he  desires. 
The  paper  may  be  passed  from  one 
player  to  another,  each  adding  a  line, 
or  each  may  make  an  entire  poem. 

CARBON,  Experiments  with. 
(Read  CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS.) 
Carbon  is  described  in  C.  C.  T.  To 
obtain  it,  the  gases  must  be  driven 
off  by  heat  from  some  substance  con- 
taining carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxy- 
gen. Such  things  are  called  hydro 
carbons,  and  include  most  vegetable 
substances. 


1.  Arrange  the  apparatus  as  if  to 
make  oxygen,  and  half  fill   the  igni- 
tion tube  with  powdered  bituminous 
coal.     On    heating   it  a  gas  will  be 
collected  over  water  which  is  ordi- 
nary illuminating  gas,  but  impure.   It 
may  be  lighted  in  the  jar  in  which  it  is 
collected,  but  the  jar  must  not  stand 
an  instant  mouth  upward,  cr  the  gas 
will  escape,   being  lighter  than  air. 
What  remains  after  all    the  gas  is 
driven  off  is  a  form  of  carbon  called 
coke. 

2.  If  the  tube  is  filled  with   shav- 
ings of  wood  instead  of  coal,  what 
remains  after  the  gas  is  driven  off  is 
the  form  of  carbon  called  charcoal. 

3.  Put  spirits  of  turpentine  into  an 
alcohol   lamp,   light    the   wick,  and 
cover  it  with  a  wide-mouthed  jar,  just 
raising  one  edge  of  the  jar  above  the 
table  by  placing  a  bit  of  wood  under 
it.      The   lamp    will   give   off   black 
smoke  in  volumes,  which  will  collect 
on  the  inside  of  the  jar.     This  is  the 
form  of  carbon  called  lampblack. 

4.  Hold  a  piece  of  charcoal  under 
water.     It  will  rise  to  the  surface  if 
allowed  to  do  so,  and  if  held  down 
will  give  bubbles  of  air.     Heat  an- 
other piece   red-hot  for  some  time 
and  then  put  it  quickly  under  water. 
Few  bubbles  will  rise  and  the  char- 
coal will  remain  under  of  itself.  The 
reason  is  that  charcoal  is  very  porous 
and  contains  much  air,  unless  this  is 
driven  off  by  heat. 

5.  Fill  an  inverted  glass  test  tube 
with  AMMONIA  and  hold  it  over  a 

saucer  of  mercury,  the 
mouth   of  the   tube  in 
the  mercury.      Heat  a 
L  I   piece  of   charcoal  red- 
Hi   hot,  and  hold  it  under 
I  the    mercury  till   it   is 
I  cool.     Then  put  it  up 
I  into  the  tube.      It  will 
I  absorb    the    ammonia, 
I  and  the  pressure  of  the 
air   outside    will    then 
force   the  mercury  up 
into  the  tube  to  take  its  place. 

6.  Put    some   powdered   charcoal 
into  a  bottle  filled  with   SULPHUR- 


CARBONIC    ACID 


139 


CARBONIC   ACID 


ETTED  HYDROGEN  and  shake  it 
about.  The  bad  odor  of  the  gas 
will  disappear. 

7.  Put   two    pieces   of   raw   meat 
about  an  inch  square  side  by  side  on 
the     ground,     covering     one    .with 
powdered  charcoal.     Place  a  heavy 
box  over  the  two,  so  that  no  animal 
can  get  at  them.     If  the  weather  be 
not  cold,   the   uncovered   piece   will 
spoil  in  a   few  days,  while   the  one 
covered  with  charcoal  will  give  off 
no  bad  odor. 

8.  Arrange  apparatus  as  if  to  make 
OXYGEN,  but  put  into  the   ignition 
tube   about    a   teaspoonful    of    red 
oxide  of  mercury  and  charcoal,  mixed 
together.      Heat,    and    collect   over 
water,  the  gas  which  is  formed.     On 
the  sides  of  the  tube  will  be  found 
little  drops  of  mercury.     The  reason 
is  that  the  charcoal  has  taken  away 
oxygen  from  the  oxide  of  mercury 
and  left  the  mercury  behind.     The 
charcoal  and  oxygen   form  carbonic 
acid  gas,  which  is  the   gas  that  was 
collected  over  water. 

CARBONIC  ACID,  Experiments 
with.  (Read  CHEMICAL  EXPERI- 
MENTS). Carbonic  acid  gas  is  de- 
scribed in  C.  C.T.  It  can  be  made 
by  burning  charcoal  or  wood, 
but  is  then  mixed  with  nitrogen 
from  the  air.  (See  C.  C.  T.)  It 
may  be  made  pure  as  shown  in  Ex- 
periment 8,  under  CARBON,  but  a 
better  way  is  to  arrange  apparatus  as 
for  making  HYDROGEN,  putting  in, 
instead  of  zinc,  a  handful  of  small 
lumps  of  marble,  as  big  as  peas. 
Either  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid 
may  be  used,  but  the  latter  is  better. 
Instead  of  marble,  old  mortar,  pieces 
of  oyster  shells,  or  limestone  will  j 
answer,  though  not  so  well.  The 
carbonic  acid  comes  from  the  marble, 
which  is  carbonate  of  lime. 

I.  Place  the  delivery  tube  in  a 
glass  of  lime  water  so  that  the  gas 
will  bubble  up  through  it.  The  lime 
water  will  soon  become  milky.  This 
is  caused  by  the  formation  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  in  minute  particles. 
If  the  current  be  continued  long 


enough  the  water  will  become  clear, 
but  if  it  is  boiled  it  will  grow  milky 
again. 

2.  Blow  into  a  glass  of  lime  water 
through  a  glass  tube  or  the  stem  of  a 
clay    pipe.      The    lime    water    will 
become    milky    from  the  cause  ex- 
plained above,    because  we  breathe 
out  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  lungs. 
A    stream   of  air   blown"  into   lime 
water  from  a  bellows  will   not  make 
it   milky,   unless   the   room  is  very 
close  and  a  good  many  people  have 
been  breathing  in  it. 

3.  Carbonic     acid     is     so    much 
heavier  than  air  that  it  will  remain  in 
an  uncovered  jar.     Into  a  jar  of  it 
dip  a  lighted  match,  bit  of  burning 
paper,  or  lighted  candle.     Each  will 
be  put  out,  as  if  by  water. 

4.  Place   a   lighted    candle  in   an 
empty  glass  and  put  it  out  by  pour- 
ing a  glass  of  carbonic  acid  over  it. 

5.  Pour  carbonic  acid  into  a  wide 
mouthed   jar  or  deep  preserve  dish, 
nearly  filling  it.     Blow  a  soap  bubble, 
throw  it  into  the  jar  or  dish  and  it 
will  float  on  the  gas. 

6.  Fasten    to   a  wire   a   piece    of 
MAGNESIUM  ribbon  about  six  inches 
long,  light  it,  and  put  it  into  a  jar  of 
carbonic  acid.     It  will  not  be  put  out 
but  will  burn,  leaving  a  quantity  of 
white  and  black    flakes   in  the  jar. 
The   white   are    magnesium    oxide. 
The  black  are  carbon  from  the  car- 
bonic acid. 

7.  Arrange  a  wire  stand  for  sev- 
eral candles,  one  above  the  other. 
Light  them  and  cover  them  with  a 
tall  jar.     The  candles  will  burn  dim 
and  then  go  out,  the  top  one  first, 
and  then  the   others,  one    by   one. 
Carbonic   acid    is   formed    by  their 
burning,  but  it  is  so  hot  that  instead 
of  being  heavier  than  air  as  when 
cold,  it  is  lighter,  and  rising  to  the 
top  puts  out  the  upper  candles  first. 

8.  Collect  the  breath  over  water 
by  blowing  through  a  tube,  into  a 
jar,  arranged    as    described    under 
CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS.     Place 
a  piece  of  glass  over  the  mouth  of 
the  jar  and  then,  turning  it  right  side 


CARBONIC   ACID 


CARDS,  AND  CARD-GAMES 


up,  set  it  on  a  table.  A  taper  may 
now  be  extinguished  by  lowering  it 
into  the  jar,  or  any  of  the  experi- 
ments performed  with  gas  made 
from  marble  and  sulphuric  acid  may 
be  repeated. 

9.  Pour  into  a  flask  or  large  bottle 
a  strong   solution   of  caustic   soda, 
filling  about  one  quarter  of  it.     On 
this  carefully  pour  pure  water,  letting 
it  run  down  the  inside  of  the  flask,  so 
that  it  will  float  in  a  thin  layer  on 
the  soda.     Instead  of  water  one  may 
use  kerosene  oil,  which  does  not  re- 
quire  care  in  pouring,  as  it  cannot 
help  floating.      Make  carbonic  acid 
gas,  as  described  above,  and  fill  the 
rest   of    the  bottle  with   it.     Have 
ready    a    cork,   pierced   by   a   tube 
having  an  empty  toy  balloon  attached 
to  the  lower  end.     When  the  bottle 
is  full  of  the  carbonic  acid,  insert  the 
cork  so  chat  the  balloon  is  within  the 
flask.     Then  shake  the  flask,  so  as 
to  disturb  the  layer  of  water  or  oil 
and  bring  the  gas  into  contact  with 
the  soda.     The  balloon  will  at  once 
become   distended    and    may    even 
burst,  if  the  bottle  is  large  enough. 
The  reason  is  that  caustic  soda  ab- 
sorbs carbonic  acid  very  readily,  and 
the  outside  air  rushes  into  the  bal- 
loon to  fill  the  place  of  the  absorbed 
gas. 

10.  Make  a  solution  of  carbonic 
acid  gas,  by  passing  it  into  water,  and 
put  some  freshly  gathered  leaves  into 
a  flask  of  it.     Stand  the  flask  upside 
down,  in  a  shallow   dish  of   water, 
and  set  it  in  bright  sunlight.     Little 
bubbles  will  be  seen  to  form  on  the 
leaves  and  rise  from  them  gradually 
until  they  collect  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  flask.     After  a  clay  or  so,  place  a 
piece  of    glass  under  the  mouth  of 
the  flask  and  turn  it  right  side  up. 
The  gas  collected  is  oxygen,  as  will 
be  seen  by  ligh'ing  a  splinter,  blow- 
ing it  out  so  as  to  leave  a  glowing 
coal,  and    then    dipping  it  into  the 
mouth   of    the   flask.     The  oxygen 
came  from  the  leaves,  which  take  in 
carbonic  acid  and  breathe  out  oxy- 
gen, just  as  we  take  in  oxygen  and 


breathe    out     carbonic     acid.    (See 
PLANTS  in  C.  C.  T.) 

ii.  On  some  bits  of  marble  in  the 
bottom  of  a  glass  jar,  pour  sulphuric 
or  hydrochloric  acid.  Carbonic  acid 
will  be  made  which  will  rise  and  fill 
the  jar,  driving  out  the  air  and  over- 
flowing gently  like  water.  The  room 
should  be  very  still.  Lower  a  candle 
which  has  been  lighted  for  some 
time  into  the  jar.  If  this  is  done 
carefully  the  vapor  from  the  wick 
will  continue  to  burn  for  a  few 
seconds  above  the  surface  of  the 
heavy  gas,  though  the  flame  on  the 
wick  itself  is  put  out.  By  quickly 
raising  the  candle  it  can  be  lighted 
again. 

CARDINAL'S  HAT,  THE.  A 
game  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons, who  take  the  names  of  Red- 
cap, Blue-cap,  Yellow-cap,  etc.  A 
player  who  takes  the  part  of  the  Car- 
dinal accuses  one  of  them  of  stealing 
his  cap,  when  the  following  dialogue 
ensues : 

Player.     "Not  I,  sir." 
Cardinal.     "  Yes,  you,  sir." 
Player.    "  Not  I,  sir." 
Cardinal.    "  Who  then,  sir  ?  " 
Player.     "  Yellow-cap,  sir," 
giving  the  assumed   name   of    any 
player  he  chooses,  who  is  then  in  turn 
accused  by  the  Cardinal.     If  any  one 
name   a  color  not   chosen   by   any 
player  he  must  pay  a  forfeit.     Some- 
times a  piece  of  wood,  representing 
the  hat,  is  actually  hidden,  and  the 
Cardinal  tries  to  find  where  it  is  by 
rapping  the  fingers  of  each  player 
with  his  cane. 

A  similar  game  to  this,  called 
"  The  Abbot  of  St.  Gall  has  lost  his 
nightcap,"  is  played  by  children  in 
Switzerland,  and  an  old  English 
game  called  "  The  Parson  has  lost 
his  fuddling  cap  "  was  also  probably 
like  it. 

CARDS  AND  CARD-GAMES, 
Cards  used  in  playing  card-games 
are  printed  on  sheets  of  cardboard, 
which  are  afterward  cut  apart.  Their 
manufacture  is  described  in  the  Cyclo* 
paedia  of  Common  Things.  They 


CARD-GAMES 


141 


CARDGAMES 


are  usually  made  rectangular,  though 
sometimes  with  rounded  corners, 
and  are  generally  3^  inches  long,  by 
2^  inches  wide.  They  are  put  up  in 
collections  of  fifty-two  cards  each, 
which,  taken  together,  are  commonly 
called  a  pack  (Italian  pacco,  a  packet) 
of  cards.  In  some  parts  of  the 
southern  United  States,  however,  a 
pack  is  still  called  a  deck  of  cards, 
the  term  used  in  England  two  or 
three  centuries  ago,  which  had  its 
origin  probably  from  the  fact  that 
the  cards  are  piled  regularly  one 
over  another  (the  word  deck  being 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon  decan,  to 
cover).  Shakespeare  uses  the  word 


in  King  Henry  VI.  (Part  in.,  Act  v., 
sc.  i),  where  he  says, 

"  The  king  was  slyly  finger'd  from  the  deck." 

While  a  full  pack  of  cards  al- 
ways consists,  in  America  and  in 
England,  of  fifty-two  cards,  smaller 
packs,  for  playing  special  games, 
are  sometimes  put  up.  Thus,  a 
Euchre,  Ecarte,  Piquet,  Bezique  or 
Pinocle  pack  contains  only  thirty- 
two  cards,  the  twos,  threes,  fours, 
fives,  and  sixes  of  each  suit  being 
left  out.  In  the  United  States  an 
extra  card,  sometimes  blank  and 
sometimes  printed  with  a  suitable 
device,  called  the  Joker  or  Imperial 


i.  The  Sun. 


2.  Time. 


3.  Tower  Struck  4.  Last  Judgment, 

by  Lightning. 


Cards  of  Charles  VI. 


Trump,  is  generally  put  into  each 
Euchre  pack,  making  thirty-three. 
It  is  frequently  added  also  to  each 
full  pack,  making  fifty-three  in  all ; 
but  as  this  card  is  used  only  occa- 
sionally, it  is  not  considered  as  be- 
longing to  a  pack,  and  in  this  book 
a  pack  of  cards  is  always  understood 
to  mean  fifty-two  cards. 

The  cards  in  every  pack  are  divided 
into  four  groups  of  thirteen,  called 
suits  (because  in  each  they  follow  in 
regular  order),  each  of  which  is  dis- 
tinguished by  a  special  mark  or  sym- 
bol. Two  of  these  suit-marks,  or 
symbols,  called  Hearts  and  Dia- 
monds, are  red ;  and  two,  Clubs  and 


Spades,  are  black.  The  origin  of 
their  names  will  be  explained  under 
the  history  of  cards.  In  each  suit, 
three  cards — the  King,  the  Queen, 
and  the  Knave,  or  Jack — are  picture 
cards,  called  face,  figure,  or  court 
cards,  and  sometimes  also  honors. 
The  other  ten  are  numeral  cards, 
called  pip,  point,  or  spot  cards,  be- 
cause they  are  marked  by  pips,  or 
spots,  numbering  from  one  up  to 
ten.  The  card  with  one  spot  or  pip 
is  called  the  Ace,  and  the  Two-spot 
and  the  Three-spot  are  sometimes 
called  respectively  the  Deuce  and  the 
Tray ;  but  ordinarily  the  cards  are 
named  as  in  the  following  table  : 


CARD-GAMES 


142 


CARD-GAMES 


RED   SUITS.        BLACK   SUITS. 
Hearts. Diamonds.  Clubs.    Spades. 


Ace  -  -  - 


Four 


Three  -  - 


Two 


The  Ace  of  Spades  has  generally 
on  it  the  name  and  address  of  the 
manufacturer,  and  in  England,  where 
the  government  taxes  cards,  a  stamp, 
showing  that  the  tax  has  been  paid, 
is  also  put  upon  it.  In  some 
countries  the  Ace  of  Diamonds  is  the 
stamp  card.  If  the  value  of  the 
cards  followed  their  natural  order, 
the  King  would  be  the  highest  card, 
and  the  Ace  the  lowest ;  but  in 
Whist  the  Ace  is  lowest  only  in  cut- 
ting, and  outranks  the  King  in  play- 
ing, and  in  other  games  it  has  differ- 
ent values.  In  Cribbage  only,  is  the 
Ace  the  lowest  card  in  playing.  In 
some  games  the  Tray  is  the  best 
card,  and  in  others,  the  Five-spot,  the 
Ten-spot,  etc.  These  variations  in 
the  value  of  cards  have  much  to  do 
with  the  differences  in  games. 

CUSTOMS  AND    TERMS. 

In  almost  all  card  games,  certain 
customs  and  terms  are  common. 
These  are  described  here  to  avoid 
repetition,  and  are  not  explained  in 
the  article  on  any  particular  game, 
unless  they  differ,  in  that  game,  from 
the  ordinary  rule. 

Shuffling,  the  mixing  of  the  cards 
before  playing  a  game.  This  is  usu- 
ally done  by  the  dealer,  who  holds 
part  of  the  pack  loosely  in  one  hand, 
and  slides  in  the  rest  of  the  cards 
with  the  other,  so  as  to  mix  them 
thoroughly.  Expert  players  have 
other  ways  of  shuffling,  which  may 
be  learned  by  practice.  Each 
player  has  a  right  to  shuffle,  if  he 
chooses,  before  the  dealer,  but  it  is 
generally  done  by  the  dealer  only. 
The  cards  should  be  shuffled  before 
each  deal. 

Cutting,  the  dividing  of  the  pack 
by  one  of  the  opposite  players,  so  as 
to  insure  a  fair  deal.  After  shuffling, 
the  dealer  lays  the  pack  near  his 
right-hand  neighbor,  who  lifts  off 
part  of  the  cards,  and  places  them 
on  the  table  beside  the  rest  of  the 
pack.  The  dealer  then  puts  the  re- 
mainder upon  the  part  lifted  off, 
and  takes  up  again  all  the  cards, 


CARD-GAMES 


CARD-GAMES 


which  are  then  ready  for  dealing. 
In  cutting,  at  least  as  many  cards  as 
there  are  players  must  be  lifted,  and 
at  least  that  number  must  be  left  in 
the  pack.  The  dealer  has  no  right 
to  shuffle  again  after  the  cards  have 
been  cut.  As  cutting  was  originally 
an  attempt  to  prevent  cheating,  it 
may  be  omitted  in  many  games, 
though  any  of  the  players  has  a 
right  to  demand  it.  Sometimes  the 
person  to  whom  the  pack  is  offered 
for  cutting,  taps  it  with  his  finger, 
meaning  that  he  is  willing  to  omit 
the  cut. 

Dealing.  The  distribution  of  the 
cards  to  the  players  is  called  dealing; 
and  he  who  distributes  them  is  called 
the  dealer.  The  dealer  must  be 


selected  before  either  shuffling  or 
cutting.  This  is  usually  done  by 
cutting  for  deal ;  that  is,  each  player 
lifts  part  of  the  pack,  showing  the 
bottom  card  of  what  he  has  lifted, 
and  he  whose  card  wins  has  the 
right  to  deal.  In  some  games  the 
lowest  and  in  others  the  highest  card 
cut  determines  the  deal,  and  in  some 
the  value  of  the  cards  in  cutting 
differs  from  that  in  playing.  In- 
stead of  cutting  for  deal  a  card  may 
be  given  to  each  player,  face  upward  ; 
he  that  has  the  winning  card  be- 
coming the  dealer.  In  some  games 
the  cards  are  dealt  one  by  one  till 
some  particular  one  appears,  and  the 
player  to  whom  that  card  falls  is 
dealer.  Any  one  of  these  methods 


5.  Emperor. 


6.  Empress. 


Naibis. 


7.  Pope. 


8.  Hermit. 


may  be  adopted    in   any  game,  by 
agreement. 

When  the  cards  have  been  shuffled 
and  cut,  the  dealer  takes  the  pack 
in  his  left  hand,  and  with  his  right 
gives  one  or  more  at  a  time  (accord- 
ing to  the  game)  to  each  player  in 
regular  order,  beginning  with  the 
one  at  his  left.  In  some  games  all 
the  cards  are  dealt,  in  others  part  of 
the  pack  is  left.  The  deal  is  an  ad- 
vantage in  games  where  the  trump 
card  is  part  of  the  dealer's  hand,  as 
will  be  explained  below,  and  in  some 
other  games  for  special  reasons. 
The  cards  are  usually  dealt  several 
times  in  the  course  of  a  game,  and 
each  player  deals  in  turn,  the  deal 


around    the    table   to    the 


passing 
left. 

Misdeal,  a  mistake  made  in  deal- 
ing. In  most  games  the  cards  are 
divided  equally,  so  that  the  dealer 
gives  the  last  one  to  himself.  If  the 
last  card  falls  to  any  one  else,  he  has 
made  a  misdeal.  When  any  player 
discovers  that  he  has  not  the  proper 
number  of  cards,  or  when  any  of  his 
cards  are  dealt  to  him  face  upward, 
he  may  demand  a  fresh  deal.  In 
games  where  the  deal  is  an  advan- 
tage the  dealer  is  usually  punished 
for  his  mistake  by  giving  it  to  his 
left-hand  neighbor,  but  in  other 
games  the  same  player  usually  deals 
after  a  misdeal. 


CARD-GAMES 


144 


CARD-GAMES 


Hand.  The  cards  that  are  dealt 
to  each  player  are  called  his  hand, 
and  those  that  are  left,  if  any,  are 
named  the  stock,  or  talon.  Where 
the  hands  are  large  it  is  better  for 
each  player  to  arrange  his  cards  by 
suits,  but  this  should  be  done  so  as 
to  avoid  giving  his  opponents  any 
information.  When  each  has  played 
all  his  cards,  a  hand  is  said  to  have 
been  played,  and  there  is  a  new  deal. 

Trump.  In  most  card  games, 
after  the  deal,  the  dealer  turns  face 
upward  a  card,  which  is  called  the 
trump-card,  or  trump.  Sometimes 
this  is  the  last  card  dealt,  in  which 


case  it  forms  part  of  the  dealer's  hand, 
and  may  be  taken  up  with  his  other 
cards,  after  one  round  has  been 
played.  Sometimes  it  is  the  top  card 
of  the  stock,  or  is  taken  from  the 
middle  of  the  stock,  and  in  some 
games  one  of  the  players,  usually  the 
dealer,  is  allowed  to  exchange  one 
of  his  cards  for  the  trump  card. 
Cards  of  the  same  suit  as  the  trump 
are  called  trumps,  and  usually  rank 
above  those  of  other  suits.  Thus, 
the  lowest  trump  is  a  higher  card 
than  an  Ace  or  King  of  any  other  suit. 
When  the  Joker  is  used,  it  is  always 
a  trump,  and  is  the  highest  card  in 


9.  Seven  of  Cups.          10.  Seven  of  Swords.       n.  Seven  of  Money.        12.  Seven  of  Clubs. 

Italian  Cards. 


the  pack.  In  some  games,  one  or 
more  cards  of  other  suits  are  re- 
garded as  belonging  to  the  trump 
suit,  as  is  explained  in  the  articles 
on  those  games.  All  but  the  trump 
suit  are  called  lay  suits,  and  a  card 
of  any  such  suit  a  lay  card. 

Playing.  After  the  trump  has 
been  turned  and  each  player  has 
arranged  his  cards,  the  one  on  the 
dealer's  left,  who  is  called  the  eldest 
hand,  plays  one  of  his  cards  face 
upward,  and  each  player  follows  in 
order,  to  the  left,  until  all  have 
played.  The  cards  so  played  are 


called  a  trick,  and  the  one  who  plays 
the  first  card  in  the  trick  is  said  to 
have  the  lead,  and  is  called  the 
leader.  In  most  games  each  must 
play,  if  he  can,  a  card  of  the  same  suit 
as  the  leader ;  this  is  called  follow- 
ing suit.  If  he  cannot  follow  suit 
he  may  play  what  he  pleases,  which 
is  often  called  renouncing,  and  if  he 
then  chooses  to  play  a  trump,  it  is 
called  trumping  or  ruffing.  If  he 
renounce  when  he  is  able  to  follow 
suit,  it  is  called  revoking.  The 
player  making  a  revoke  may  be  pun- 
ished for  his  offense  in  various  ways. 


CARD-GAMES 


145 


CARD-GAMES 


In  some  games  a  player  is  allowed  to 
trump  even  if  he  can  follow  suit. 
The  trick  is  the  property  of  the  one 
playing  the  highest  card  of  the  suit 
led,  unless  one  or  more  players 
trump,  in  which  case  the  highest 
trump  played  takes  the  trick.  The 
player  taking  the  trick  then  has  the 
lead  for  the  next  one.  Each  keeps 
his  tricks  in  a  pile  near  him,  face 
downward. 

Discarding.  In  some  games  a 
player  is  required  or  allowed  to  re- 
move one  or  more  cards  from  his 
hand.  This  is  called  discarding. 
The  discarded  cards  are  usually 


placed  either  in  or  under  the  stock, 
or  by  themselves,  face  downward. 

Score.  Each  player  must  keep 
count  of  the  number  of  points  he 
has  made,  which  is  called  keeping 
score.  The  points  are  determined 
differently  in  different  games.  Some- 
times they  are  so  few  and  so  easily 
remembered  that  each  can  keep 
score  mentally,  but  pencil  and  paper 
are  usually  required.  In  some 
games  score  is  kept  with  two  cards, 
by  placing  one  partly  over  the  other, 
so  as  to  show  a  number  of  pips  cor- 
responding to  the  points  won.  Score 
cards  of  several  different  kinds  can 


13.  Seven  of  Cups. 


14.  Seven  of  Swords.       15.  Seven  of  Money. 
Spanish  Cards. 


16.  Seven  of  Clubs. 


be  bought,  some  of  which  are  for 
use  in  one  particular  game,  and 
others  in  various  games.  In  some 
games  score  is  kept  by  means  of 
counters  or  "chips,"  which  are  usu- 
ally round  flat  pieces  of  ivory,  bone, 
or  celluloid. 

Four  counters,  or  chips,  are  some- 
times used  for  scoring  up  to  ten 
points,  being  arranged  as  shown 
below.  It  will  be  noted  that  a  single 
counter  placed  at  the  top  always 
counts  three,  but  at  the  bottom  five. 


o 

oo 
ooo 
o  o  o  o 

o 

O  0 

o 
ooo 


9 

10 


00 
0 

ooo 
o 
o 
o 
o 
o 

00 

o 


For   the    numbers    from    ten  to 


twenty  an  oblong  counter  is  some- 
times laid  above  the  others,  thus: 


000 

and  so  on. 

Partners.  In  many  card  games 
each  player  wins  or  loses  by  himself, 
but  in  many  others,  where  there  are 
four  players,  two  play  against  two, 
and  in  a  few  this  is  the  only  way  of 
playing.  Those  who  play  together 
are  called  partners,  and  sit  opposite 
each  other.  Only  one  score  is  kept 
for  the  two,  and  their  tricks  are 
placed  in  the  same  pile,  for  they  win 
or  lose  together. 

Partners  are  sometimes  decided 
on  by  cutting,  the  two  who  cut 


CARD-GAMES 


146 


CARD-GAMES 


the  highest  cards  playing   together 
against  the  other  two. 

HISTORY  OF  CARDS. 

Playing  cards  were  probably  first 
made  in  Italy  in  the  I4th  century. 
The  Chinese  say  that  they  were 
invented  in  the  reign  of  their  em- 
peror, Se-un-ho,  in  1120,  and  some 
European  writers  have  tried  to  prove 
that  they  were  first  brought  into 
Europe  from  India  by  the  Gipsies, 
while  others  have  asserted  that 
they  were  introduced  into  Spain  by 
the  Moors,  but  there  is  no  positive 
evidence  to  support  any  of  these 
theories.  The  common  story  that 
they  were  invented  in  1392  for  the 


amusement  of  the  French  king, 
Charles  VI.,  grew  out  of  a  record, 
found  among  the  royal  accounts,  of 
a  payment  made  to  a  painter  for 
"  three  packs  of  cards  in  gold  and 
various  colors,  and  ornamented  with 
several  devices,  to  carry  before  the 
lord  our  king  for  his  amusement." 
But  this  shows  that  cards  were  then 
well  known,  rather  than  that  they 
were  then  first  made,  and  that  these 
were  special  ones  painted  finer  than 
usual  for  the  personal  use  of  the  king. 
Some  cards,  said  to  be  part  of  one 
of  these  packs,  are  preserved  in  the 
Paris  Library  (see  I,  2,  3,  4),  but  the 
best  authorities  consider  them  Vene- 
tian cards  of  the  I5th  century. 


17.    Seven  of  Hearts.      18.     Seven  of  Leaves.        19.  Seven  of  Bells. 

German  Cards. 


20.  Seven  of  Acorns. 


It  is  now  generally  conceded  by 
the  latest  writers  on  the  subject,  that 
cards  originated  in  Italy  (probably  in 
Venice)  about  1350.  The  first  packs 
were  probably  wholly  of  figure  or 
picture  cards,  containing  no  numeral 
or  pip-cards,  and  were  purely  em- 
blematic— that  is,  representing  some 
person  or  symbol.  These  cards, 
called  Naibis  (a  term  supposed  by 
some  to  be  derived  from  the  Arabs, 
and  still  preserved  in  the  Spanish 
name  for  cards,  naypes),  had  noth- 
ing to  do  with  games  of  chance,  but 
were  intended  for  instructive  amuse- 
ment, like  the  game  of  Authors  and 
many  similar  games  played  by  young 
folks  to-day.  Some  of  the  writers  of 


that  century  prohibit  the  playing  by 
children  of  Dice  and  other  games  of 
hazard,  but  recommend  Naibis. 
These  Naibis,  or  emblematic  cards, 
differed  somewhat,  according  to  time 
and  country,  but  generally  were 
partly  of  full-length  figures,  illustra- 
tive of  some  corrdition  of  life,  such 
as  an  Emperor,  an  Empress,  a  Pope, 
a  Hermit  (5,  6,  7,  8),)  and  partly  of 
symbolic  designs,  such  as  the  World, 
the  Sun,  the  Moon,  a  Tower  struck 
by  Lightning,  the  Last  Judgment,  etc, 
as  in  those  of  Charles  VI.  Each 
one  had  at  the  top  a  number  in  Ro- 
man numerals,  and  at  the  bottom, 
below  the  design,  its  name,  generally 
in  French.  Exactly  how  many  Nai- 


CARD-GAMES 


147 


CARD-GAMES 


bis  were  in  a  pack  originally  is  not 
known,  but  the  number  probably 
differed  at  different  times. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  I4th  cen- 
tury it  is  supposed  that  these  instruc- 
tive cards  were  adapted,  by  certain 
changes,  to  the  use  of  older  persons, 
in  the  hope  of  restraining  them  from 
playing  Dice  and  other  games  of  haz- 
ard. Part  of  the  original  Naibis  be- 
ing selected,  certain  other  cards,  in- 
tended to  teach  a  moral  lesson,  such 
as  Death,  Temperance,  the  Devil, 
and  the  Last  Judgment,  were  added, 
making  the  whole  number  of  such 
cards  22.  To  these  were  added  56 
other  cards,  divided  into  four  suits 
of  fourteen  cards  each,  each  suit 
made  up  of  four  picture  or  coat-cards 
(corrupted  into  court-cards),  repre- 
senting a  King,  a  Queen,  a  Cavalier, 
and  a  Valet,  or  man-servant,  and  of 
ten  numeral,  or  pip-cards,'  numbered 
from  one  to  ten.  These  additions 
made  the  full  pack  consist  of  78 
cards,  divided  into  five  suits,  the  22 
Naibis  forming  a  suit  by  themselves, 
superior  to  the  other  four  suits.  For 
this  reason  they  were  sometimes 
called  also  atuttt  (French  atouts, 
above  all),  and  trionfi  (French  trz- 
omp/ie.i,  triumphs),  from  which  comes 
our  word  trumps.  The  pack  of  cards 
thus  made  was  called  by  the  Italians 
Tarocchi,  because  used  to  play  the 
game  of  that  name,  and  by  the 
French  Tarots. 

The  use  of  cards  spread  rapidly 
throughout  Europe,  but  different  peo- 
ple soon  began  to  alter  the  mode 
of  combining  them  and  their  sym- 
bols, according  to  their  own  notions. 
In  Florence,  the  number  of  emblem- 
atic cards  was  increased  to  41,  mak- 
ing 97  in  all.  In  Bologna,  the  pack 
was  reduced  to  62,  and  finally  the 
first  of  the  five  suits,  the  emblematic 
cards,  was  thrown  out  altogether  and 
one  coat-card,  or  honor,  was  dropped 
from  each  of  the  remaining  suits, 
making  the  pack  52,  the  number  now 
generally  in  use.  The  coat-card 
generally  omitted  was  the  Cavalier, 
but  the  Spaniards,  who  would  not 


allow  the  figure  of  a  lady  on  their 
cards,  dropped  the  Queen,  and  the 
Germans  sometimes  kept  an  upper 
and  a  lower  Knave  in  place  of  the 
Queen  and  Knave.  The  Spaniards 
also  threw  out  the  four  Ten-spots, 
making  the  pack  to  consist  of  but  48 
cards.  In  the  early  cards,  the  figures 
on  the  honors  bore  some  resemblance 
to  the  persons  they  were  intended  to 
represent,  but  about  the  reign  of 
Henry  VII.  of  England,  they  began  to 
take  the  grotesque  forms  which  have 
since  been  most  popular.  Most 
English  and  American  cards  still 
show  the  costumes  of  Henry  VII. 
and  Henry  VIII.,  though  the  full 
length  figures  have  mostly  given 
place  to  busts,  printed  double,  and 
in  reverse,  on  each  honor,  that  the 
card  may  be  the  more  easily  known, 
whichever  way  it  may  be  thrown  on 
the  table.  Attempts  to  produce  a 
better  type  of  figures  on  cards  have 
generally  met  with  failure,  as  most 
card  players  prefer  the  ancient  style. 
Toward  the  latter  part  of  the  I5th 
century,  the  French  began  to  name 
the  Kings,  Queens,  and  Knaves  on 
their  cards,  giving  them  historic  or 
legendary  titles,  such  as  La  Pucelle, 
(The  Maid,  that  is — Joan  of  Arc), 
the  Dukes  of  Burgundy  and  Nor- 
mandy, etc.,  and  Helen,  Venus,  La 
Sybille,  etc.  About  the  time  of 
Henri  IV.,  the  Kings  were  generally 
called  David,  Alexander,  Caesar,  and 
Charlemagne  ;  the  Queens,  Rachel, 
Argine,  Pallas,  and  Judith  ;  and  the 
Knaves,  Hector,  Lancelot,  Roland, 
and  Hogier ;  and  these  names  were 
afterward  generally  employed  until 
the  custom  ceased.  At  the  time  of 
the  French  Revolution,  when  royalty 
was  discarded,  the  signs  of  royalty 
were  removed  from  the  French 
cards  ;  the  Kings  were  replaced  by 
sages  and  philosophers,  the  Queens 
by  emblematic  figures  of  virtues  and 
liberties,  and  the  Knaves  by  warriors 
or  Roman  heroes.  Napoleon  had 
these  changed  for  artistic  designs 
by  the  painter  David,  but  after  the 
Emperor's  downfall  the  people  pre- 


CARD-GAMES 


148 


CARD-GAMES 


ferred  to  go  back  to  the  old  style. 
Other  attempts,  in  later  times,  to 
make  cards  vehicles  of  information, 
to  teach  arithmetic,  grammar,  geog- 
raphy, history,  mythology,  etc.,  have 
also  failed. 

The  signs  or  marks  of  the  four 
suits  of  cards  have  varied  in  different 
countries.  The  earliest  used  in 
Italy  were  coppe  (cups,  9),  spade 


(swords,  10),  denart  (money,  11), 
and  bastoni  (clubs,  12).  These  were 
called  by  the  Spaniards  copas  (cups, 
13),  espadas  (swords,  14),  oros  or 
dineros  (money,  15),  and  bastos 
(clubs,  16).  The  Germans  early 
employed  other  marks ;  herzen  or 
roth  (hearts,  17),  laub  or  griin 
(leaves,  18),  schellen  (bells,  19),  and 
eicheln  \acorns,  20).  The  French, 


23.  Oamel. 


Hindoo  Cards. 


24.  Horse. 


during  the  second  quarter  of  the 
1 5th  century,  adopted  the  signs 
of  cceurs  (hearts),  carreaux  (dia- 
monds), trtfles  (trefoils),  and  piques 
(pikes).  The  trtfles  were  taken 
probably  from  the  German  eicheln 
or  acorns,  which  they  somewhat 
resemble  ;  &&&  piques  from  the  Ger- 
man grun,  or  leaves,  though  they 


got  their  names  from  a  fancied  re- 
semblance to  a  pike  head.  These 
marks  have  since  been  generally 
adopted  by  all  other  nations,  except- 
ing the  Spaniards,  who  still  use  the 
old  Italian  marks.  Other  symbols 
have,  however,  been  in  vogue  at 
different  times,  the  Germans,  about 
the  beginning  of  the  I5th  century, 


CARD-GAMES 


H9 


CARD-GAMES 


using  animals,  flowers,  fruit,  etc. 
One  old  German  set  has  for  suit 
marks  dogs,  falcons,  stags,  and 
ducks  ;  another,  rabbits,  parroquets, 
pinks,  and  columbines ;  and  a  third, 
lions,  monkeys,  parrots,  and  pea- 
cocks. In  1862,  during  the  Civil 
War  in  the  United  States,  cards 
were  printed  in  New  York  with 
eagles,  shields,  flags,  and  stars  for 
suit  marks,  and  a  colonel,  the  God- 
dess of  Liberty,  and  a  major,  for 
King,  Queen,  and  Knave.  The 
English  seem  to  have  adopted  all  the 
French  suit  marks  together  with 
the  French  names  for  the  two  red 
suits,  but  to  have  taken  the  Italian  or 
Spanish  names  for  the  two  black 
suits,  calling  trefles  clubs,  a  transla- 
tion of  the  Italian  bastoni  or  the 
Spanish  bastos  ;  and  piques  spades, 
which  is  derived  from  spade  or  es- 
•padas,  the  Italian  and  Spanish  words 
for  swords. 

Cards  were  at  first  made  much 
larger  than  now,  some  of  the  early 
German  ones  being  seven  by  four 
inches.  They  were,  too,  sometimes 
made  square,  and  sometimes  circu- 
lar. Hindoo  and  Persian  cards  are 
often  circular,  about  2^  inches  in  di- 
ameter, though  those  used  in  Tehe- 
ran are  generally  of  the  European 
size  and  shape.  Hindoo  cards  are 
sometimes  of  eight  suits  of  twelve 
each  and  sometimes  of  ten  suits  of 
twelve  each.  The  suit  marks  are 
birds,  swords,  suns,  moons,  etc. 
(21,  22,  23,  34).  Persian  cards  have 
generally  96  in  the  pack,  with  suns, 
moons,  harps,  sabres,  etc.,  for  suit 
marks.  Chinese  cards  are  long  and 
narrow,  from  2^  to  2  inches  long  by 
I  to  \\  wide  (25,  26).  They  are 
printed  with  black  ink  on  thin  white 
cardboard,  and  the  backs  are  black, 
red,  or  plain  white.  Japanese  cards 
are  much  like  the  Chinese,  differing 
only  in  their  marks. 

The  earliest  card  game  played  is 
supposed  to  have  been  Tarocchi,  in- 
vented at  Venice,  played  with  78 
cards,  called  from  it  Tarocchi  cards, 
or.  in  French,  Tarots.  This  was 


followed  by  the  Florentine  game  of 
Minchtata,  played  with  97  cards; 
by  the  Bolognese  game  of  Taroc- 
chino,  with  62  cards,  and  by  the 
Venetian  game  of  Trappola,  with  40 
cards.  Frusso  (Flush),  Bassetta, 
and  Primtera,  were  also  other  early 
Italian  games.  Primiera,  called  in 
Spain  and  England  Primero,  and  in 
France  Prime  and  Ambtgu,  was  the 
ancestor  of  our  Brag  and  Poker.  In 
Germany,  one  of  the  earliest  games 
played  was  Landsknecht spiel  (Foot- 
soldiers'-game),  called  in  French 
Lansquenet.  The  oldest  Spanish 
game  is  probably  Ombre  (Hombre, 
man),  called  Omber  in  England, 
where,  as  well  as  in  France,  it  was 


25.  Court  Card.  26.  Pip  Card. 

Chinese  Cards. 

once  much  played.  There  were 
many  modifications  of  it,  among 
them  Quadrille  and  Solitaire.  Eng- 
land has  no  national  game  of  cards, 
unless  Whist  may  be  so  considered, 
the  games  played  there  being  de- 
rived from  Italy,  Spain,  or  France. 
Primero,  one  of  the  earliest,  was 
fashionable  from  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  to  that  of  James  I.  It  was  suc- 
ceeded by  a  game  called  Mauve ; 
then  came  Gleek,  Omber,  Quadrille, 
Reversis,  and  Bassett ;  and  finally 
Ruff,  and  Honors,  which,  about 
1650,  led  to  Whist.  The  card  games 


CASINO 


ISO 


CASINO 


usually  played  now  are  described  in 
special  articles  in  this  book. 

CASINO, or  Cassino,  a  game  of 
CARDS  played  best  by  four  persons, 
but  sometimes  by  two,  three,  five, 
six,  or  even  more.  The  players  may 
be  divided  into  two  sides,  or  play 
each  for  himself.  The  dealer  deals 
from  a  full  pack  four  cards,  one  at  a 
time,  to  each  player  and  lays  four 
more  face  upward  on  the  table,  either 
as  he  deals  or  all  at  once.  When 
the  players'  cards  are  gone,  four 
more  are  dealt  to  each  one  until  the 
pack  is  used  up,  but  none  are  put  on 
the  table  except  at  the  first  deal. 
The  leader  (or  elder  hand)  can  take 
not  only  all  cards  of  the  same  value, 
among  those  on  the  table,  but  also 
any  cards  the  number  of  whose 
spots,  added  together,  equals  his. 
Thus  a  Nine  will  take  not  only  all 
other  Nines  on  the  table,  but  at  the 
same  time  a  Five  and  a  Four  ;  a  Six 
and  a  Three ;  a  Seven  and  a  Two  : 
an  Eight  and  an  Ace ;  a  Four,  a 
Three,  and  a  Two ;  or  any  other 
cards  which  will  make  nine  when 
their  spots  are  added.  Face  cards 
can  take  only  corresponding  face 
cards.  If  the  leader  has  no  card  that 
will  take  anything,  he  must  lay  some 
card  on  the  table,  but  if  he  has  left 
in  his  hand  a  card  that  will  take  the 
card  laid  down,  in  connection  with 
others  on  the  table,  he  can  make  a 
pile  of  the  cards  he  is  able  to  take, 
at  the  same  time  announcing  to  the 
other  players  with  what  card  he 
means  to  take  them  at  a  subsequent 
time,  though  not  necessarily  his  next 
turn.  If  the  cards  so  piled  form  a 
single  group  it  is  called  "  building," 
if  several  groups,  it  is  "  calling,"  or 
duplicating.  Thus  if  a  player  com- 
bine a  Six  from  his  hand  with  a  Two 
and  an  Ace  on  the  table,  and  say 
"  Nine,"  it  is  only  a  "build,"  but  if 
he  include  in  the  pile  a  Nine-spot  on 
the  table  or  another  group  the  sum 
of  whose  spots  is  nine,  he  must  say 
"  Nines  "  (using  the  plural)  and  it  is 
a  "call."  The  cards  of  neither  a 
build  nor  a  call  can  be  taken  separ- 


ately by  pairing,  but  an  adversary 
may  raise  a  build  in  amount  by  the 
addition  of  another  card,  while  a  call 
cannot  be  raised.  A  call  must  be 
taken  by  the  card  it  represents,  either 
alone  or  with  other  similar  piles. 
The  second  player  may  likewise  take 
what  he  can  with  his  card,  or  build, 
or  call,  remembering  in  either  case 
that  a  build  can  always  be  treated 
like  a  single  card,  while  a  call  can- 
not. 

If  he  can  do  none  of  these  things 
he  must  lay  down  a  card  with  the 
others.  The  players  in  turn  have 
the  same  choice  till  the  pack  is  ex- 
hausted. When  the  pack  has  been 
played,  he  who  takes  the  last  trick 
takes  also  the  rest  of  the  cards  on 
the  table.  Each  player  then  counts 
his  points  according  to  the  table 
given  below : 
Big  Casino  (the  Ten  of  Diamonds) 

counts 2 

Little  Casino  (the  Two  of  Spades)     I 

Each  Ace I 

The  greatest  number  of  Cards  .  3 
The  greatest  number  of  Spades  .  i 

Besides  this,  when  a  player  has 
taken  all  the  cards  on  the  board  at 
once  (except  at  the  end  of  the  game) 
it  is  called  a  sweep,  and  counts  I. 
A  sweep  is  generally  marked  by 
facing  or  turning  over  one  of  the 
cards  in  the  pile  of  tricks  belonging 
to  the  player  who  makes  it,  so  that, 
when  the  points  are  counted  at  the 
end  of  the  hand,  there  is  no  trouble 
in  remembering  it. 

The  person  or  side  first  making 
ten  points  usually  wins  the  game ; 
but  when  only  two  persons  or  sides 
are  playing,  the  count  is  sometimes 
made  by  giving  to  him  who  makes 
the  greatest  number  of  points  in  a 
hand  only  the  difference  between  his 
points  and  those  of  his  opponent, 
while  the  latter  scores  nothing  ;  thus, 
if  A  has  8  and  B  has  5,  A  scores  3 
and  B  nothing;  while  if  they  are 
equal,  neither  scores.  If  three  play 
in  this  way,  the  two  lowest  add  their 
points  and  subtract  their  sum  from 
the  highest,  and  no  one  scores  when 


CAT 


CAT 


this  sum  equals  or  exceeds  the 
highest.  The  game  is  made  longer 
by  counting  thus,  but  it  can  hardly 
be  done  when  more  than  three  are 
playing  separately,  as  usually  no  one 
could  score. 

In  playing  Casino,  when  no  card 
on  the  table  can  be  taken  it  is  best  to 
lay  down  face  cards.  These  are  of 
the  least  use  in  one's  own  hand  and 
the  hardest  to  take  on  the  table, 
since  no  combinations  can  be  made 
with  them.  Care  should  be  taken  in 
laying  down  an  ace,  for  in  taking  it 
with  another  ace  your  opponent  wins 
two  points  for  the  final  count  at 
once,  and  it  is  also  the  easiest  card 
to  combine.  It  would  be  better  even 
to  lay  down  Big  Casino,  for  that  can 
be  taken  only  by  a  ten.  After  the 
learner  has  played  the  game  once  or 
twice  other  suggestions  will  soon 
offer  themselves. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  The  tricks  must  not  be  examined 
nor  counted  before  all  the  cards  are 
played. 

2.  If  the  dealer  show  a  card  before 
any  of  the  four  in  the   middle  are 
dealt,  or  if  he  dealt  too  many  or  too 
few  cards  to  any  one,  he  must  deal 
again. 

History.  The  word  casino  is 
Italian  and  means  little  house.  Club 
houses  where  people  meet  for  amuse- 
ment are  often  called  casinos,  and 
this  game  may  have  been  so  named 
because  it  was  a  favorite  at  such 
places. 

Kapak,  or  Russian  Casino.  In 
this  form  of  the  game  the  Knave 
counts  ii,  the  Queen  12  and  the 
King  13.  There  is  no  "building." 
Sweeps  are  called  "  Kapaks,"  and 
Big  Casino  and  Little  Casino  are 
called  respectively  the  "  Good  Ten  " 
and  "  Good  Two."  Clubs  count 
instead  of  Spades,  as  in  ordinary 
Casino,  and  the  "  Good  Two  "  (Little 
Casino)  is  the  Two  of  Clubs.  In  all 
other  respects  Kapak  is  played  like 
ordinary  Casino. 

CAT,  a  game  played  by  any  num- 
ber of  persons  with  a  piece  of  wood 


called  a  Cat.  The  Cat  is  a  piece  of 
wood  about  six  inches  long  and  \yz 
or  2  inches  thick,  sharpened  at  both 
ends.  If  it  is  laid  either  on  level  ground 
or  with  one  end  projecting  over  a 
hole,  and  the  end  be  struck  down 
quickly  with  a  bat,  it  will  rise  in  the 
air,  twirling, 
and  may  then 
be  struck  away 
The  Cat.  with  the  bat. 

The  game  may 

be  played  in  various  ways.  In  the 
simplest,  a  large  ring  is  made  and 
one  player,  standing  within  it,  strikes 
the  cat  as  described  above.  If  it  fall 
within  the  ring,  he  is  out  and  another 
player  takes  his  place.  If  it  fall  out- 
side he  guesses  how  many  lengths  of 
the  stick  it  is  from  the  center  of  the 
ring.  The  distance  is  then  measured, 
and  if  it  is  less  than  his  guess,  he  is  out; 
but  if  not,  he  scores  that  number  of 
points  and  has  another  turn.  After 
as  many  rounds  as  have  been  agreed 
upon,  the  player  scoring  the  most 
points  wins. 

Another  way  of  playing  is  to  make 
as  many  holes  in  the  ground  as  there 
are  players  on  a  side ;  the  holes  are 
made  as  nearly  as  possible  in  a  circle 
and  at  equal  distances.  A  player,  with 
a  bat,  stands  at  each  hole,  and  all 
the  players  on  the  other  side  stand 
ouside  the  circle.  One  of  the  bats- 
men strikes  the  Cat,  and  then  all  run 
around  the  circle.  Every  time  they 
reach  new  holes  the  side  scores  one 
run.  The  next  player  in  order  then 
strikes  the  Cat,  and  so  on.  But  if  a 
player  on  the  other  side  can  throw 
the  Cat  between  any  two  holes  be- 
fore the  player  who  has  left  one  of 
them  reaches  the  other,  the  runner 
is  out,  and  when  one  or  more  play- 
ers are  out  (whichever  has  been 
agreed)  the  sides  change  places. 
When  each  side  has  been  at  the  bat 
the  number  of  times  previously  agreed 
upon,  the  game  is  ended,  and  the  side 
that  has  made  most  runs  wins. 

This  game  is  very  old.  It  was 
known  to  the  Venetians  in  the  i6th 
century.  It  is  a  common  sport  also 


CAT'S  CRADLE 


152 


CAT'S  CRADLE 


in  Hindostan,  where  it  is  called 
Gulli  Danda.  It  may  have  been 
taken  to  India  by  Venetian  traders. 
CAT'S  CRADLE,  a  game  played 
by  two  persons  with  a  string,  four  or 
five  feet  long,  whose  ends  are  tied 
together.  The  string,  which  is  held 


Fig.  i. 


on  the  hands  of  one  of  the  players,  is 
removed  by  the  other,  and  so  on  al- 
ternately ;  it  assuming  a  different  form 
each  time.  Some  of  the  variations,  of 
which  there  are  many,  are  shown  in 


Fig.  2. 

the  illustrations.  The  player  who 
begins  holds  his  hands  in  front  of  him 
with  the  palms  toward  each  other,  and 
the  string  passing  around  the  backs. 
He  then  takes  a  turn  around  the 


Fig.  3- 

string  with  each  hand  so  that  it  also 
passes  across  each  palm.  He  then 
passes  the  middle  finger  of  his  right 


hand  under  the  part  that  crosses  the 
opposite  palm,  and  pulls  it  back  as 
represented  in  Fig.  I.  After  he  has 
done  the  same  thing  with  the  left 
middle  finger,  the  string  appears  as 


Fig.  4- 

in  Fig.  2.  The  second  player  now 
seizes  the  upper  strings,  with  the  fin- 
ger and  thumb  of  each  hand,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  3,  pulls  them  over  the 
outside  string,  and  pushing  them  up 


Fig.  5- 

inside,  takes  the  strings  off  in  the 
shape  shown  in  Fig  4.  Other  varia- 
tions are  shown  in  the  illustrations 
which  follow.  Each  is  made  from 
some  previous  arrangement  by  one 


Fig.  6. 


player's  taking  the  string  from  the 
hands  of  the  other.  The  proper 
way  of  doing  this  may  be  studied 
out  by  the  learner,  who  may  also 


CATCH  THE  TEN 


153 


CAYENNE 


invent  many  of  new  figures  to  suit 
himself.  The  different  arrangements 
are  often  called  by  special  names. 
In  Germany  some  of  them  are  "  The 
Single  Cross."  "  The  Double  Cross." 
"  The  Water  "  and  "  The  Violin." 
History.  This  game,  which  is 


Fig.  7. 

probably  of  great  antiquity,  is  found 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world. 
The  Dyaks,  or  natives  of  Borneo,  are 
very  skillful  at  it,  making  many  kinds 
of  puzzling  figures,  and  the  Maoris 
of  New  Zealand  are  also  fond  of  it. 
The  latter  call  it  Mam',  the  name  of 


Fig.  8. 

their  national  hero,  by  whom  they 
say  it  was  invented.  Its  various  pat- 
terns represent  incidents  in  Mani's 
life,  and  other  events,  forming  a  kind 
of  pictorial  history  of  the  country. 

CATCH  THE  TEN,  or  Scotch 
Whist,  a  game  of  CARDS  played  by 
two  to  eight  persons  with  a  pack 
from  which  the  Twos,  Threes,  Fours, 
and  Fives  are  omitted.  If  it  is  nec- 
essary, one  or  more  of  the  Sixes  may 
also  be  left  out,  that  the  cards  may 
be  equally  divided.  The  cards  rank 
as  in  Whist,  except  in  the  trump 
suit,  where  the  Knave  is  higher  than 
the  Ace.  When  two  persons  play, 
three  hands  of  six  cards  are  dealt  to 
each,  which  must  be  kept  separate 
and  played  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  dealt.  When  three  play, 
two  hands  are  dealt  to  each  in  like 


manner.  When  more  than  this  num- 
ber play,  each  is  dealt  one  hand,  the 
cards  being  divided  evenly.  In  all 
cases  the  last  card  is  turned  for 
trump.  Six  persons  may  play  in  two 
partnerships  of  three  each  or  three  of 
two  each  ;  and  eight  may  form  two 
sides  of  four  each  or  four  of  two 
each.  The  players  must  sit  so  that 
no  two  on  the  same  side  are  together. 
The  cards  are  played  as  in  WHIST. 
Each  card  above  the  party's  share  in 
the  tricks  taken  scores  one  toward 
game.  Thus,  if  three  are  playing 
each  one's  share  of  cards  is  12,  and 
if  one  of  them  takes  5  tricks  (15  cards) 
he  scores  three  points.  In  like  man- 
ner, if  four  are  playing,  two  against 
two,  and  one  side  take  6  tricks  (24 
cards)  they  score  6,  the  share  of  the 
party  being  18.  In  addition,  the  five 
highest  trumps  count  for  those  who 
take  them  as  follows : 

Knave, n 

Ace, 4 

King 3 

Queen, 2 

Ten, 10 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  prin- 
cipal object  of  the  game,  aside  from 
making  tricks,  is  to  take  the  one  con- 
taining the  Ten  of  Trumps,  for  the 
Knave,  being  the  highest  card,  can- 
not be  taken  from  its  owner. 

Hence  the  name  "  Catch  the  Ten." 
He  who  has  the  Ten  should  try  to 
save  it  by  playing  it  on  a  trick  already 
taken  by  his  partner,  or  by  trumping 
with  it.  If  a  player  have  the  two 
highest  trumps,  he  should  lead  them, 
in  hope  of  catching  the  Ten,  or  of 
enabling  his  partner  to  save  it.  In 
other  respects  the  rules  for  playing 
are  similar  to  those  of  Whist.  If  a 
player  revoke,  his  side  loses  the  game. 
CAYENNE,  a  game  of  CARDS, 
played  by  four  persons,  two  against 
two,  with  a  full  pack.  The  cards 
are  dealt  as  in  WHIST,  and  the  dealer, 
after  turning  the  last  as  trump,  de- 
cides which  of  four  games  shall  be 
played.  These  are  called  respec- 
tively, "  In  Suits,"  "Grandissimo," 
"  Cayenne,"  and  "  Nullissimo."  The 


THE  CENTAUR 


154 


CENTRIFUGAL  FORCE 


game  In  Suits  is  like  WHIST  except 
that  the  dealer  turns  clown  the  trump 
card  and  makes  a  new  trump,  and 
every  trick  more  than  six  counts  2 
points.  In  the  Cayenne  game  the 
turned  trump  is  retained  and  the  odd 
tricks  count  4  each.  In  the  Grand- 
issimo  game  there  is  no  trump,  and 
the  odd  tricks  count  6  each. 

Nullissimo  is  like  Grandissimo  ex- 
cept that  the  object  is  not  to  take 
tricks,  and  the  odd  tricks  count  4 
apiece  to  the  opposite  side.  The 
Ace,  King,  Queen,  Knave,  and  Ten 
are  called  Honors.  Three  Honors 
count  2,  Four  Honors  4,  and  Two 
Honors  6.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
more  difficult  the  game  the  more 
valuable  are  the  tricks.  If  the  dealer 
has  a  long  suit  and  knows  he  can 
get  the  lead,  he  will  probably  choose 
to  play  Grandissimo.  If  he  has  a 
very  poor  hand  he  will  choose  Nul- 
lissimo. 

CENTAUR,  THE,  a  diversion  in 
which  two  boys  or  men  personate  a 
Centaur,  a  creature  of  Greek  mythol- 


Fig.  i. — The  Centaur. 


ogy,  half  man  and  half  horse.  One 
player  stands  erect,  and  the  other, 
behind  him,  bends  his  body  so  that 
his  back  is  horizontal,  and  holds 
the  first  player's  hips  with  his  hands, 
as  in  Fig.  i.  A  table-cover  or  shawl 
is  thrown  over  the  second  player  and 
pinned  around  the  waist  of  the  first, 


and  a  tail,  like  a  horse's,  is  made  of 
strips  of  cloth  or  paper  and  pinned 
to  the  shawl  in  the  rear.  The  Cen- 
taur should  hold  a  bow  and  arrow  in 
his  hand,  and  have  a  cloak  thrown 
loosely  over  his  shoulder  and  over 
one  arm,  while  the  other  is  bare  (See 
Fig.  2).  Two  Centaurs  may  engage 


Fig.  2. — The  Centaur. 

in  a  combat,  but  this  requires  some 
practice.  There  should  be  signals 
arranged  between  the  front  and  rear 
performer,  so  that  the  latter  will 
know  what  to  do,  and  the  two  should 
also  practise  the  ordinary  paces  of 
the  horse,  such  as  walking,  trotting, 
and  galloping.  Imitation  hoofs  of 
pasteboard  may  be  made  and  fast- 
ened over  the  shoes. 

CENTRIFUGAL  FORCE,  Experi- 
ments on^  i.  Tie  a  stone  or  any 
other  heavy  object  to  the  end  of  an 
elastic  cord  and  swing  it  around  in  a 
circle  by  the  other  end  of  the  cord. 
The  cord  will  be  stretched.  The 
reason  is  that  the  stone  strives  to 
move  in  a  straight  line ;  the  cord 
confines  it  to  a  circle,  hence  the  stone 
stretches  the  cord  in  its  effort  to  get 
away.  This  outward  pull  exerted 
by  the  stone  is  generally  called  cen- 
trifugal force  (Latin  centriim,  centre, 
and  fitgo,  to  fly).  Let  go  the  cord 
and  the  stone  will  fly  off  as  if  it  had 
been  thrown  in  the  direction  in  which 
it  was  moving  when  it  was  released. 


CHARACTERS 


155 


CHARACTERS 


2.  Half  fill  a  quart  pail  with  water, 
tie  a  cord  about  two  feet  long  to  the 
handle,  and  swing  the  pail  in  a  circle. 
The   water   will   not   fall   out,  even 
when  the  pail  is  upside  down.     The 
reason  is  that  its   centrifugal  force 
makes  it  press  against  the  bottom  of 
the  pail. 

3.  Take  the  same  pail,  and  after 
twisting  the  string  tightly,  allow  it 
to  untwist,  spinning  the  pail  horizon- 
tally, or  use  a  TWIRLER  to  make  it 
spin.     The  water  will  heap  itself  up 
against  the  sides  of  the  pail,  leaving 
a  hollow  in  the  centre.     The  faster 
the  pail  spins,  the  higher  the  water 
will  be  at  the  edge,  and  as  it  stops 
spinning  the  water  surface  will  grow 
level  again. 

4.  Put  into  the  pail  equal  quantities 
of  water  and  some  kind  of  oil  that 
will  float  on  it.     Spin  as  before,  and 
the  water  will  seek  the  edge  of  the 
pail,  leaving  the  oil  within.     It  is  on 
this  principle  that  machines  are  made 
to  separate  the  cream  from  milk  in  a 
few  minutes. 

5.  Suspend  a  small  fish-globe  by 
tying  a  string  around  the  top,  which 
should   have  a  groove.     Spin  it  as 
before,  and  then  pour  into  it  about  a 
tumblerful    of    water.      The    water 
will  leave  the  bottom  entirely,  and 
form  a  ring  around  the  middle  of  the 
globe. 

6.  Wet  a  TOP  and  then  spin  it. 
The  water  will  be  thrown  off  in  spray 
from  all  sides. 

CHARACTERS.  The  name  of  two 
different  games.  I.  A  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  one  of 
whom  leaves  the  room  while  the 
others  agree  on  some  historical  char- 
acter he  is  to  represent.  He  is  then 
called  back  and  each  player  asks 
him  a  question  or  makes  a  remark 
to  him  as  if  he  were  the  character 
agreed  upon.  From  these  questions 
he  must  try  to  guess  what  character 
he  is  supposed  to  represent,  and  if 
he  succeeds,  the  person  whose  ques- 
tion enabled  him  to  do  so  must 
represent  the  next  character.  'The 
questions  are  usually  put  so  as  to 


puzzle  the  guesser  as  much  as  possi- 
ble. For  instance,  if  Washington  be 
the  character  agreed  upon,  one  player 
may  ask,  "  Do  rifle  balls  bound  from 
you  as  if  you  were  made  of  rubber?  " 
(referring  to  his  remarkable  escape 
in  the  French  and  Indian  war) ; 
another,  "  Do  you  think  mid-winter 
the  best  time  for  crossing  rivers  ? " 
(referring  to  the  passage  of  the  Dela- 
ware) ;  and  another,  "  Have  you 
outgrown  your  early  fondness  for 
destroying  fruit  trees?"  Instead  of 
historical  characters,  persons  well 
known  to  all  the  company  are  some- 
times selected,  which  often  makes  the 
game  more  amusing. 

II.  A  game  in  which  each  player  is 
given  one  letterof  the  name  of  an  his- 
torical character,  the  players  seating 
themselves  in  the  order  in  which  the 
letters  occur  in  the  name.  Each  one 
then  selects  another  character  whose 
name  begins  with  the  particular  let- 
ter assigned  to  him,  and  the  player 
sent  out,  being  re-called,  tries  to 
guess  each  of  these  by  questioning 
the  others  one  by  one,  in  any  order 
he  pleases.  He  is  not  to  be  told 
whether  or  not  he  has  guessed  aright, 
but  when  he  thinks  he  has  found  out 
several  he  may  guess  the  name  of  the 
character  agreed  on  by  the  company 
and  must  be  told  whether  this  guess 
is  correct.  If  it  is  not,  he  must  find 
out  more  initial  letters  and  try  again. 
The  player  whose  letter  enables  him 
to  guess  correctly  must  take  his 
place  as  guesser  for  the  next  game. 
If  the  name  selected  has  more  let- 
ters than  the  number  of  players, 
several  of  them  may  take  two  or 
more,  and  if  there  are  more  players 
than  letters,  part  or  all  of  the  name 
may  be  repeated ;  but  the  guesser 
must  be  told,  in  the  first  case,  which 
players  have  more  than  one  letter, 
and  the  order  of  those  letters,  and, 
in  the  second  case,  which  player  has 
the  last  letter  of  the  name. 

Century  Court,  a  kind  of  Charac- 
ters, in  which  the  person  who  leaves 
the  room  is  given  the  name  of  a 
whole  century  instead  of  a  single 


ACTING  CHARADE 


I56 


CHECKERS 


character.  On  his  return  he  is 
charged  with  all  the  crimes  of  the 
century  and  praised  for  all  its  good 
men  or  events.  As  in  the  game  just 
described,  this  goes  on  till  the  person 
guesses  the  century  he  is  supposed 
to  represent. 

ACTING  CHARADE,  a  play,  the 
scenes  of  which  represent  respect- 
ively the  syllables  of  some  word  and 
the  whole  of  that  word.  Thus,  the 
word  may  be  carpet,  when  there 
would  be  three  scenes,  representing 
the  words  Car,  Pet,  and  Carpet.  The 
different  scenes  may  be  parts  of  the 
same  play,  or  each  may  be  complete 
in  itself.  Acting  charades  may  be 
learned  from  printed  books,  like  other 
plays,  but  usually  the  performers 
merely  agree  on  the  plot  and  fill  in 
the  dialogue  to  suit  themselves,  as 
the  play  goes  on. 

For  an  evening's  amusement,  the 
company  may  be  divided  into  two 
parties,  each  with  a  leader.  One  of 
the  parties  acts  a  charade  while  the 
other  forms  the  audience  and  tries  to 
guess  the  word  represented,  and 
then  the  parties  change  places. 

A  word  or  syllable  may  be  acted 
by  being  actually  represented,  or  by 
being  mentioned  frequently.  Thus, 
the  syllable  "  car,"  in  the  above  exam- 
ple may  be  acted  by  representing  the 
interior  of  a  car,  with  passengers 
and  conductor,  though  the  word 
itself  is  not  once  spoken,  or  any  other 
scene  may  be  given  in  which  a  car  is 
a  subject  of  conversation.  Of  these 
two  methods,  the  former  is  the  best 
where  it  is  possible.  Charades  are 
most  enjoyable  when  there  has  been 
least  preparation.  Scenery  and  cos- 
tumes should  be  made  from  the 
materials  nearest  at  hand.  The 
leader  should  act  as  stage  manager 
and  the  other  players  should  obey 
him  exactly.  He  should  tell  each 
what  to  do,  taking  advice  and  sug- 
gestions from  the  others,  but  always 
deciding  himself  on  the  course  to  be 
followed.  It  is  better  merely  to  in- 
dicate the  general  plot,  leaving  the 
players  tp  use  what  words  occur  to 


them  at  the  moment.  Two  persons 
can  thus  often  make  a  very  comical 
dialogue  without  any  previous  re- 
hearsals, and,  as  all  are  equally  with- 
out preparation,  a  failure  is  not  dis- 
graceful. 

CHECKERED  GAME  OF  LIFE, 
a  game  played  by  two  persons  on  a 
checkered  board,  with  counters  and 
a  TEETOTUM.  The  squares  bear 
numbers  and  also  pictures  descrip- 
tive of  different  events  in  a  man's 
life,  beginning  with  his  birth  and 
ending  in  various  ways,  some  success- 
ful, others  not,  the  object  being  to 
reach  the  Temple  of  Fame  at  the  top 
of  the  board.  The  players  each 
enter  in  turn  a  counter  in  the  first 
square,  and  their  course  of  play  is 
determined  entirely  by  twirling  the 
teetotum,  there  being  no  skill  in  the 
game.  He  who  first  reaches  the 
Temple  of  Fame  wins. 

This  is  the  type  of  a  great  number 
of  games,  all  probably  derived  from 
Backgammon  or  Patches!,  and  many 
having  for  an  object  the  combination 
of  instruction  with  amusement.  The 
oldest  of  such  games  was  probably 
the  Game  of  Goose,  which  was  play- 
ed as  long  ago  as  1800.  This  was 
called  in  France  Jeu  de  I'Oie  (Game 
of  Goose),  and  in  an  old  French  col- 
lection many  similar  games  are  de- 
scribed, among  them  those  of  "  His- 
tory," "  The  Revolution,"  "  The 
Atlas,"  "The  Navy,"  and  "The 
Monuments  of  Paris." 

CHECKERS  (called  Draughts  in 
England),  a  game  played  by  two 
persons,  each  of  whom  has  12  pieces 
or  men,  on  a  checkered  board  divided 
into  64  squares  of  two  colors,  gener- 
ally black  and  white.  It  may  be 
played  either  on  the  black  squares, 
as  it  usually  is  in  America,  or  on  the 
white  squares,  as  it  always  is  in 
England,  but  on  whichever  color  it 
is  played,  the  board  must  be  so  placed 
that  a  square  of  the  same  color  shall 
be  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner.  In 
the  accompanying  diagrams,  for  con- 
venience of  illustration,  the  game  is 
supposed  to  be  played  on  the  white 


CHECKERS 


157 


CHECKERS 


squares.  The  checkers,  or  men, 
which  are  also  of  two  colors,  and 
are  all  equal,  are  arranged  at  the 
beginning  of  the  game  in  three  lines 
on  each  side,  as  shown  in  Fig.  I  : 

The  players  take  turns  in  moving, 
and  each  has  but  one  move  at  a 
time.  The  men  are  moved  diagon- 
ally (corner-wise),  one  square  at  a 
time,  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left, 
but  always  forward.  If,  however, 
a  man  reaches  the  last  line  of  squares 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  board,  it 
becomes  a  King,  is  covered  by  having 
another  one  put  upon  top  of  it  (or 
sometimes  by  turning  it  over,  if  it  is 
made  with  a  crown  on  the 
under  side),  and  it  may  then 
move  either  backward  or 
forward,  but  still  only  one 
square  at  a  time.  When 
two  hostile  men  meet  each 
other,  the  one  having  the 
move  can  capture  the  other, 
if  there  is  a  vacant  square 
next  beyond  it,  by  jumping 
over  it  into  that  square.  The 
man  thus  jumped  is  removed 
from  the  board.  If  several 
men  are  exposed  with  a  va- 
cant square  behind  each, 
they  may  all  be  jumped  at 
once  and  all  removed  from 
the  board,  the  capturing  man 
being  left  on  the  last  square 
occupied.  If  a  man  be  in  a 
position  to  be  taken,  the 
player  having  the  move  must 
capture  it.  If  he  neglect  to 
capture  it  and  make  some 
other  move,  the  opponent  may  let 
the  move  stand  and  remove  from 
the  board  the  man  which  ought  to 
have  made  the  capture.  The  man 
thus  forfeited  is  said  to  be  huffed, 
or  "  blowed,"  sometimes  accom- 
panied with  the  gesture,  and  the 
player  who  thus  huffs  has  then  the 
right  to  make  his  own  move,  for  the 
act  of  huffing  does  not  count  as  a 
move.  If,  however,  the  player  having 
the  right  to  huff  prefers  not  to  do  so, 
he  may  insist  on  his  opponent's 
capturing  the  piece,  and  then  the 


man  improperly  moved  must  first  be 
replaced  on  the  square  from  which 
he  was  moved.  As  two  or  three 
men  may  sometimes  be  captured  at 
once,  the  player  neglecting  to  take 
all  of  them  may  be  huffed  by  his 
opponent.  This  often  happens  to 
young  players,  who  do  not  readily 
see  all  the  men  which  may  be  jumped. 
The  object  of  the  game  is  to  capture 
all  the  men  of  the  opposite  player, 
or  to  block  them  so  that  they  cannot 
move.  If,  towards  the  close  of  a 
!  game  the  two  players  are  so  evenly 
I  balanced  that  neither  can  win 
I — as,  for  example,  when  each  has 


m  v  m  "°  m  -=•  mm. 


Checker  Board. 
Fig.  i. — Arrangement  of  Men. 

one  king — the  game  is  said  to  be 
drawn. 

The  Move.  The  player  who  occu- 
pies such  a  position  on  the  board  that 
in  the  ordinary  course  of  play  he  can 
force  his  opponent's  men  into  a  con- 
fineH  position  is  said  to  "  have  the 
move."  There  are  several  ways  of 
finding  out  who  has  the  move, 
which  will  be  learned  easiest  by 
playing  with  some  one  who  under- 
stands the  game,  or  by  playing 
through  the  games  given  below. 
When  one  has  not  the  move,  one  can 


CHECKERS 


I58 


CHECKERS 


often  win  it  by  skillful  playing.  Hav- 
ing the  move  does  not  mean  having 
the  first  move,  for  the  first  player 
has  no  advantage  over  his  oppo- 
nent. The  second  player  really  has 
the  move,  but  it  is  of  no  advantage 
to  him  so  early  in  the  game.  Dur- 
ing the  game  the  move  is  sometimes 

with  one  and  sometimes  with    

the  other  side,  but  the  skillful 
player  will  generally  keep  it 
at  the  close  of  the  game. 
It  is  customary  to  number 
the  squares  of  the  board  in 
the  way  shown  in  Fig.  2, 
as  the  moves  of  the  game 
are  always  given  by  num- 
bers, as  in  the  columns  be- 
low. By  playing  through 
these  games,  the  beginner 
will  easily  learn  what  are  the 
best  moves  on  each  side. 

Openings.  There  are  a 
great  many  ways  of  begin- 
ning the  game  of  Checkers. 
These,  which  are  called 
"  openings,"  have  generally 
received  special  names. 
Some  of  them  are  given 
below : 
The  Ayrshire  Lassie : 

ii — 15  24—20 

8— ii  28—24 

The  Bristol : 

1 1 — 1 6  24 — 20 

1 6 — 19 

Sometimes  any  game  begun  by 
the  move  ii — 16  is  called  Bristol. 
The  Cross : 

ii — 15  23—18 

The  Defiance : 

11—15  23—  *9 

9—14  27—23 

The  Dyke : 

ii — 15  22 — 17 

15—19 
The  Fife : 

ii — 15  23 — 19 

9—14  22 — I/ 

5—9 
The  Glasgow : 

ii — 15  23 — 19 

8— II  22 — 17 

ii — 16 


The  Laird  and  Lady : 

11—15  23—19 

8 — II  22 — 17 

9—13 

The  Maid  of  the  Mill : 

II  — 15  22 — 17 

8— ii  17—13 

15—18 


Checker  Board. 
Fig.  2. — Method  of  Numbering. 

The  Old  Fourteenth  : 

11—15  23—19 

8 — ii  22 — 17 

4-8 
The  Invincible : 

11—15  24 — 19 

The  Single  Corner : 

11—15  22—18 

The  Souter : 

11—15  23—19 

9 — 14  22 — 17 

6-9 
The  Whilter  : 

11—15  23—19 

9 — 14  22 — 17 

7— ii 

The  Will  o'  the  Wisp : 
11—15  23—19 

9—13 

The  "  Bristol  "  was  so  named  by 
the  player  Anderson  in  compliment 
to  the  checker  players  of  Bristol, 
England.  The  "  Defiance "  is  so 


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159 


CHECKERS 


named     because    it     prevents    the 

GAME  II. 

formation    of     the    "  Fife  "    game. 

BLACK.                                      WHITE. 

The  "  Dyke  "   is  so  called   because 

9  to  14                22  to  18 

in  many  of  its  positions  the  men  are 

ii  "  15               18  "    9 

formed   in   lines.     The  "  Fife  "  was 

5    "    14                     25   "   22 

named  in  1847  after  Wylie,  a  player 

15  "  19               23  "  16 

from      Fifeshire,      Scotland.      The 

12   "    19                     24   "    15 

"  Glasgow  "  was  named  in  like  man- 

10 "    19                     22   "    17 

ner  from  Sinclair  of  that  city  in  1828. 
The  "  Laird  and  Lady,"  "  Maid  of 

6  "  10                27  "  24 
16  "  15                17  "  10 

the  Mill,"  and  "  Souter  "  (shoemaker) 

7  "  14               29  "  25 

were  named  from  people  whose  favor- 
ite openings  they  were.     The  "  Old 

8  "    II                     2$   "  22 
14  "    l8                     22   "    17 

Fourteenth  "    was    the    fourteenth 

l8   "   22                      17     '    14 

game  in  Sturges's  work  on  checkers. 

22   "   25                      21     '    17 

The   "  Whilter  "   (a   Scotch    word, 

25   "    29                      17     «    13 

meaning  a  confusing  change),  and 

4  "    8               32   '  27 

the  "  Will  o'  the  Wisp  "  are  named 

3  "    7               24   '  20 

from     the  unexpected    plays    they 

15  "  18               14   •    9 

often  introduce. 

19  "  23               26   '  19 

Sample  Games.     In  these  games 
Black  is  supposed  to  be  at  the  top 

l8   "   22                     27     '   24 

White  wins. 

and   White  at    the   bottom   of  the 

GAME  III. 

board.     Care   should   be    taken    to 

WHITE.                                       BLACK. 

crown   each   man   that  reaches  the 

22  tO  1  8                      II  tO  l6 

king-row.         GAME  T> 

2$   "    22                      10  "    14 

24  "  20                i  6  "  19 

BLACK.                                       WHITE. 

II  tO  15                     22  tO  1  8 

23 

'    ID                    12   "    19 

15    "   22                     25    "    l8 

18 

'15                 7  "  10 

8  "  n                29  "  25 

20 

'  16               14   '  18 

4  "     8                25  "  22 

29 

'25                 9   '  14 

12  "  16               24  "  20 

27 

'24                 5   '    9 

10  "  15               27  "  24 

24 

'20                        8     «    12 

16  "  19               23  "  16 

31 

'27                 i    •    5 

15  •••  19           24  "  15 

15 

'    II                      10  "    1$ 

9  "  14               18  "    9 

22 

1   17                    l8  "  22 

ii  "25               32  "  27 

17 

«      I                      22   "   31 

5  "  14               27  "  23 

II 

'8                  4  "  ii 

6  "  10               16  "  12 

16 

•    7                 3  •«  10 

8  "  ii                28  "  24 

i 

'6               31  '   24 

25   '  29               30  "  25 

6 

'13                 5  '     9 

29    '   22                     26   "    17 

13 

'6                 2  '     9 

II     '    15                     20   "    l6 

3° 

'26                 9  •    14 

15    '  18                24  "  20 

26 

'22                14  '    18 

18   '  27               31  "  24 

22 

'  17               19  "  23 

14   '  18               16  "  ii 

28 

'  19               15  "  24 

7   '  16               20   '  ii 

17 

'  14 

18   '  23               ii    '    8 

Drawn. 

23-27                 8   '    4 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

27    '  31                  4   '     8 

I.  The  choice  of  men  and  the  first 

31     '27                     24     '   20 

move  in  the  first  game  must  be  de- 

27   '  23                  8    '  ii 

cided  by  lot  ;  the  most  common  way 

23    '  18                ii    '     8 

is  for  one  of  the  players  to  hold  one 

1  8    '15   Black  wins. 

of  the  men  in  his  hand,  and  let  the 

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160 


CHECKERS 


other  guess  whether  it  is  black  or 
white.  The  winner  of  the  choice 
has  the  right  either  to  play  first  or  to 
call  upon  his  opponent  to  do  so. 
After  the  first  game,  the  men  should 
be  changed  each  game,  so  that  each 
player  shall  use  the  black  and  the 
white  by  turns,  and  not  become  so 
accustomed  to  either  as  to  be  unable 
to  use  the  other,  and  the  first  move 
is  to  be  taken  by  turns,  whether  the 
game  be  won  or  drawn. 

2.  Neither  player  must  touch  the 
squares  of  the  board  nor  point  at  the 
board  with    his    finger,  and   never 
touch  a  piece  unless    he   means   to 
move  it. 

3.  If  the   men  get  out  of     

place,  a  player  may  first  tell 

his  opponent  that  he  intends 
to  replace  them  and  then  do 
so ;  but  if,  after  they  are  set 
right,  a  player  touches  a 
piece,  it  being  his  turn  to 
play,  he  must  move  it,  if 
possible. 

4.  When   a  man   is   in  a 
position    to    be    taken,    the 
player  having  the  move  must 
capture  it ;  and  the  opposite 
player  may  insist  on  his  do- 
ing so,  or  may  huff  the  man 
having  the  right  to  capture, 
as  he  chooses.     After  huff- 
ing,  the    player    may    then 
make  his  own  move. 

5.  No  matter  how  long  a 
man  has  been  liable  to  cap- 
ture, it  may  at  any  time  be 
huffed,  or  the  opponent  may  at  any 
time  be  obliged  to  capture  it. 

6.  When   two   or  more  men   are 
liable  to  capture,  the  player  having 
the   move   may   take   whichever  he 
chooses  ;  for  example,  if  one  can  be 
captured    in   one   way  and   two   in 
another  way,  he  may  take  either  the 
one  or  the  two. 

7.  If  a  player  delays  moving  more 
than  three  minutes,  his  opponent  may 
request  him  to  play  ;  and  if  he  does 
not  move  within  five  minutes  after 
being  requested  to,  he  loses  the  game. 

8.  When,  n^ar   the  close   of   the 


game,  only  a  few  men  are  left,  the 
player  having  the  stronger  force  may 
be  compelled  at  the  pleasure  of  the 
referee  to  finish  within  a  certain  num- 
ber of  moves  ;  and,  if  he  cannot  do 
this,  the  game  is  declared  drawn. 
[For  example,  if  two  kings  remain 
against  one  king,  the  referee  might 
require  the  former  to  win  in  twenty 
moves — that  is,  twenty  on  each  side.] 
Give-Away,  or  the  Losing  Game, 
a  game  having  the  same  moves  and 
rules  as  checkers,  in  which  the  player 
who  first  gets  rid  of  all  his  men  wins. 
The  object  of  each  player  is  to  force 
his  opponent  to  capture  as  many  men 
as  possible,  and,  by  opening  his  own 


Fig.  3. — Polish  Checkers. 

game  freely,  especially  the  squares  in 
his  king-row,  to  compel  him  to  make 
kings.  It  is  thus  the  opposite  of 
checkers.  Although  not  so  difficult 
to  play  as  the  latter,  it  requires  con- 
siderable skill  and  attention  to  play 
well.  Great  care  is  necessary  to 
keep  the  move,  for  the  player  who 
has  it  ought  to  win. 

Polish  Checkers,  The  board  and 
the  men  are  arranged  as  in  common 
checkers  and  the  moves  of  the  men 
are  the  same — that  is,  always  for- 
ward diagonally,  and  one  square  at 
a  time ;  but  in  capturing,  the  men 


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161 


CHECKERS 


have  the  privilege  of  jumping  either 
forward  or  backward.  When  a  man 
reaches  the  opposite  King-row,  it  is 
crowned  a  king  as  in  the  other  game, 
but  it  has  far  greater  powers,  similar 
to  those  of  a  bishop  in  chess.  It 
may  move  not  only  one  square  at  a 
time,  backward  or  forward,  but  it 
has  also  the  privilege  of  passing  over 
several  squares,  and  even  the  whole 
length  of  the  diagonal,  when  the 
passage  is  free,  at  one  move.  The 
method  of  capture,  both  of  the  men 
and  of  the  kings,  may  be  explained 
easiest  by  Fig.  3,  the  game  being 
supposed  to  be  played  on  the  white 
squares,  as  it  generally  is  in  Europe. 
If  White  has  a  man  at  20, 
and  Black  has  unsupported 
men  at  16,  7,  6,  14,  23,  and 
24,  White,  having  the  move, 
may  capture  them  all  and 
finish  at  square  20  again. 
In  this  long  jump  or  succes- 
sion of  jumps,  White,  it  will 
be  noticed,  enters  the  oppo- 
site King-row  at  2,  but  does 
not  stay  there,  for  he  is 
obliged  to  keep  on  jumping 
until  he  has  captured  all  the 
men  which  can  be  taken ; 
and  he  does  not  thus  win  the 
right  to  be  made  a  king,  as 
that  can  be  only  when  the 
man  remains  in  the  King- 
row.  Good  players  will  take 
advantage  of  this,  when  they 
cannot  keep  thei1"  opponent 
from  getting  into  their  King- 
row,  and  by  putting  a  man  or  two 
in  the  way  of  capture,  lead  him  out 
of  it  again  into  the  middle  of  the 
board.  It  is  sometimes  good  play  to 
throw  away  even  three  men,  espec- 
ially toward  the  end  of  a  game,  to 
keep  the  enemy  from  getting  a  King. 
The  men  jumped  must  not  be  re- 
moved from  the  board  until  the  cap- 
turing man  has  finished  and  is  at 
rest,  because  the  latter  cannot  pass 
twice  over  any  square  with  a  man  on 
it,  but  must  stop  behind  that  man 
which,  but  for  this  rule,  it  might 
jump.  But  a  vacant  square  may  be 


passed  or  repassed  several  times  in 
the  course  of  one  move,  provided 
that  no  man  is  leaped  a  second  time. 
The  king  has  even  more  power  than 
the  bishop  in  chess,  for  in  moving 
he  may  not  only  pass  from  one  end 
of  the  board  to  the  other,  but  in 
capturing  he  may  also  make  angles. 
For  instance  (Fig.  4),  if  a  king  stand 
at  1 8,  he  may  move  to  any  square  on 
the  line  from  4  to  29,  or  from  5  to 
32.  Again,  if  a  White  king  stands 
at  31  and  Black  men  or  kings  are  at 
22,  6,  16,  and  24,  the  former  captures 
them  all  by  jumping  to  the  squares 
13,  2,  20,  and  27,  where  he  rests. 
From  this  it  will  be  seen  that 


Fig.  4. — Polish  Checkers. 

though  the  common  man  can  jump 
a  piece  only  when  there  is  a  vacant 
space  next  beyond  it,  the  king  can 
pass  to  any  empty  square  on  the 
diagonal.  The  king  having  so  great 
power  can  keep  out  of  his  opponent's 
way  much  more  easily  than  in  com- 
mon checkers,  and  with  skillful 
players  many  games  are  drawn.  If, 
at  the  end  of  a  game,  White  has  only 
one  king  while  Black  has  three, 
White  can  draw  the  game  if  he  can 
get  on  the  central  line  between  4  and 
29,  and  know  how  to  play  properly. 
If  he  cannot  get  on  the  central  line. 


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162 


CHECKERS 


Black  may  win  in  several  ways,  but 
the  game  is  drawn  if  he  does  not  do  it 
in  fifteen  moves.  When  a  player  who 
has  only  one  king,  while  his  oppo- 
nent has  a  king  and  two  men,  offers 
to  crown  the  two  men  so  as  to  oblige 
him  to  win  in  fifteen  moves,  the 
opponent  must  accept  the  offer  or 
the  game  is  drawn.  When  at  the 
end  of  a  game,  one  party  has  a  king 
and  a  man  against  three  kings,  it  is 
best  to  sacrifice  the  man  as  soon  as 
possible,  as  the  game  is  more  easily 
defended  by  a  king  alone.  When 
two  men  of  one  color  are  so  situated 
that  an  opponent  can  move  between 


Fig.  5. — Pyramid. 

them,  and  thus  be  in  a  position  to 
leap  either  way,  it  is  called  a  lunette. 
This  situation  happens  much  oftener 
in  the  Polish  than  in  the  common 
game,  and  it  is  frequently  a  snare 
laid  by  good  players  to  catch  the 
unskillful  ;  for  by  moving  into  the 
lunette  in  hope  of  catching  one  of  his 
opponent's  men  the  poor  player  often 
finds  himself  entrapped  and  forced  to 
lose  several  of  his  own.  With  these 
few  exceptions  the  rules  of  Polish 
checkers  are  the  same  as  those  for 
common  checkers.  This  game  is 
usually  played  on  the  continent  of 
Europe  on  a  board  with  100  squares, 


each  player  having  20  men  arranged 
in  four  rows ;  but  in  Germany  it  is 
often  played  as  in  America — on  a 
common  checker-board  of  64  squares, 
with  the  usual  number  of  men. 

Pyramid,  a  game  in  which  the  men 
are  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  pyra- 
mid, as  in  Fig.  5.  The  moves  are 
always  diagonally  forward,  and  hos- 
tile men  must  be  jumped  as  in  check- 
ers, but  the  man  jumped  is  not 
removed  from  the  board.  The 
player's  object  is  to  form  his  men  in 
the  same  pyramid  that  was  occupied 
at  first  by  his  enemy,  and  he  who 
does  this  soonest  wins.  This  is  the 
simplest  game  that  is  played 
on  a  checker-board,  though 
considerable  skill  may  be 
shown  in  moving  the  men 
and  getting  threm  in  position. 
Hal  ma,  or  Hoppity,  a  kind 
of  PYRAMID  played  on  a 
checker-board  of  256  squares 
by  two  or  four  persons  with 
men  shaped  like  the  Pawns 
in  CHESS,  though  common 
checkers  may  be  used,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  6.  In  the  two 
handed  game  each  player 
has  19  men  which  are  placed 
closely  together  in  opposite 
corners  of  the  board,  as  in 
Fig.  6,  occupying  both  dark 
and  light  squares.  The  play- 
er's object,  as  in  Pyramid,  is 
to  move  his  own  men  into 
the  places  of  their  opponents, 
but  either  friends  or  enemies  can  be 
jumped,  and  in  any  of  the  possible 
eight  directions,  which  increases  the 
interest.  The  simple  move  can  also 
be  made  in  any  direction.  In  play- 
ing, an  arrangement  of  the  pieces  in 
a  row  with  an  empty  space  between 
each  two,  into  which  a  man  may 
jump,  is  called  a  ladder,  because  a 
piece  can  sometimes  go  from  one 
end  to  the  other  in  a  single  move, 
by  a  series  of  leaps.  Ladders  should 
be  arranged  as  much  as  possible 
where  they  will  aid  the  player's  own 
men,  and  avoided  where  they  will 
help  his  opponent.  The  game  may 


CHECKERS 


I63 


CHECKERS 


be  divided  into  three  parts,  the  first 
part  called  the  Gambit,  which  con- 
sists in  getting  all  the  men  outside 
the  squares  originally  occupied  ;  the 
second  or  Melee,  when  the  opposing 
men  are  mingled  ;  and  the  third  or 
Packing,  getting  the  pieces  into  order 
on  the  opposite  side.  When  four 


persons  play,  each  has  but  13  men, 
arranged  in  the  same  kind  of  a 
figure  as  in  the  two-handed  game. 
Each  may  play  for  himself,  or  the 
opposite  players  may  be  partners,  in 
which  case  each  tries  to  help  the 
other  as  much  as  possible,  instead 
of  hindering  him. 


Fig.  6. — Halma. 


Japanese  Checkers.  This  is 
played  on  a  board  like  the  one  in  the 
figure  made  from  one  of  100  squares 
by  joining  alternate  pairs,  forming 
oblong  figures,  which  are  the  only 
ones  used  in  playing  (See  Fig.  7.) 

Each  of  the  players,  who  sit  oppo- 
site, has  9  men  like  Pawns  in  chess, 
though  ordinary  checkers  may  be 
used,  as  in  the  illustration,  and  also 


a  Mikado,  and  a  Daimio.  The  Mi- 
kados  and  Daimios  are  like  the  men 
in  shape,  but  of  different  size,  the 
former  being  the  larger.  Each 
player  places  five  men  in  the  row 
nearest  him,  and  four  men  with  the 
Mikado  in  the  second  row,  the 
Mikado  being  in  the  middle,  as 
at  M  in  the  diagram.  No  man 
can  jump  the  Mikado,  but  for  the 


CHECKERS 


164 


CHECKERS 


first  one  that  reaches  the  King-row 
a  Daimio  is  substituted,  who  is  al- 
lowed to  jump  the  Mikado.  In  all 


Fig.  7. — Japanese  Checkers. 


other  respects  the  game  is  precisely 
like  ordinary  checkers. 

History.  The  game  of  checkers 
is  supposed  to  be  older  than  chess. 
A  game  somewhat  like  it  was  known 
in  Egypt  more  than  four  thousand 
years  ago,  and  pictures  representing 
King  Rameses  II,  called  Sesostris 
by  the  Greeks,  who  lived  about  1400 
B.C.,  playing  it  with  some  of  the 
women  of  his  household  are  still  to 
be  seen  on  the  walls  of  his  palace  at 
Thebes.  One  of  these  is  shown  in 
the  accompanying  illustration,  in 
which  only  the  edge  of  the  board  is 
seen,  but  the  checkers  are  like  little 
ten-pins. 

Other  forms  of  Egyptian  checkers 
are  shown  in  the  following,  taken 
from  pictures  on  temples  or  from  real 
pieces  found  in  the  tombs.  Some 
of  these  are  made  of  ivory  and 
some  are  earthenware  ;  and  some  of 
them  have  heads  of  cats,  dogs,  and 


other  animals.  How  the  Egyptians 
played  the  game  is  not  known,  but 
the  modern  Egyptians  play  it  just  as 
we  do.  It  was  not 
known  in  Europe 
until  about  the 
sixteenth  century, 
when  it  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been 
brought  from  the 
East.  The  word 
checkers  is  derived 
from  the  squares 
of  the  board. 
Draughts  me;  ns 
simply  moves.  In 
Italy  the  game* is 
called  dama,  and 
in  Germany  Da- 
men, both  of  which 
mean  ladies;  and 
in  France  it  is 
called  Le  jeu  de 
dames,  the  Ladies' 
Game.  In  all  these 
countries,  where 
the  Polish  game  is 
mostly  played,  the 
king  is  called  the 
queen.  The  prin- 


cipal draught-games  played  by  the 
ancients  were  the  Ludus  Latrun- 
culorum  (Soldiers'  Game)  of  the 
Romans,  and  the  Plinthion  or  Poll's 


Rameses  II.  playing  Checkers. 

(noTug)  of  the  Greeks.  In  both  of 
these  a  man  could  be  captured  only 
by  placing  an  opponent's  man  on 


CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS         165         CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS 


each  side  of  him.  The  Greeks  called 
the  men  Dogs.  The  donkey  boys 
in  Cairo,  Egypt,  play  a  game  like 
this,  and  some  think  Alexander  the 
Great  carried  it  to  Egypt.  The  Chi- 
nese have  a  Checker  game  called 
Wei-Chi  (Game  of  Circumvention), 
in  which  a  man  is  taken  by  being 
surrounded  with  four  hostile  men. 
Captain  Cook  found  the  Sandwich 
Islanders  playing  a  Checker  game 
with  black  and  white  pebbles  on  a 
board  of  14  by  17  squares.  Some 
writers  think  that  our  Checkers  is 


Egyptian  Checkers. 

not  derived  directly  from  any  of  the 
ancient  games,  but  is  a  lower  form 
of  CHESS,  which  in  its  turn  was  de- 
veloped from  an  old  Hindoo  Draught 
game. 

CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 
These  should  be  tried  if  possible  in 
a  room  used  for  nothing  else,  in  the 
attic,  the  cellar,  or  an  outbuilding. 
Old  clothes  must  be  worn,  or,  better 
still,  an  apron  with  sleeves,  made  to 
cover  the  whole  body.  A  plentiful 
supply  of  water  should  be  at  hand. 
An  old  table  or  a  large  packing  box 
may  be  used  to  try  the  experiments 
on.  The  different  experiments  are 
told  about  in  separate  articles,  but 
processes  used  in  all  or  several  of 
them  are  described  here  to  avoid 
repetition. 

Heating.  This  may  be  done  by  an 
ordinary  alcohol  lamp,  or,  where  there 
is  gas,  with  a  Bunsen  burner  (Fig.  i), 


Fig.  i. — Bunsen 
Burner. 


to  be  bought  at  a  chemical  ware- 
house, which  gives  a  hot  flame  with- 
out much  light.  An  ordinary  lamp 
or  gas  flame  would 
deposit  soot  on  the 
vessel  heated.  A 
home-made  Bunsen 
burner  can  be  ob- 
tained by  inverting  a 
glass  funnel  over  a 
gas  jet  as  shown  in 
Fig.  2.  The  gas 
mixes  with  air  and 
burns  without  smoke. 
When  gas  is  used  the 
burner  is  connected  with  an  ordinary 
gas  burner  by  rubber  tubing.  When 
a  glass  vessel  is  to  be  heated  it 
should  be  placed  on  a  piece  of  wire 
gauze,  shaped  to 
receive  the  bot- 
tom. The  gauze 
is  laid  on  an  iron 
ring  with  three 
legs  by  which  it 
is  held  over  the 
lamp.  These 
rings,  called 
tripod  stands, 
(Fig.  3)  can  be 

bought,  but  four    „. 

c    .  Fig.  2. — Home-made 

pieces  of  strong       gBunsen  Burner> 

wire  laid  cross- 
wise, their  ends  resting  on  blocks  of 
wood,  will  do.     To  heat  the  contents 
of  a  vessel  slightly,  it  is  placed  over 
a  water  bath,  which  can  be  made  of 


Fig.  3.— Tripod  Stand. 

a  tin  patty-pan  with  a  cover  of  tin 
in  which  a  hole  has  been  cut  with 
strong  scissors.  The  hole  must  be 
the  same  size  as  the  bottom  of  the 


CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS          166        CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS 


flask  or  bottle  to  be  heated.  Partly 
fill  the  pan  with  water,  put  the  flask 
in  the  hole,  and  then  boil  the  water. 
Class  working.  To  bend  glass- 
tubing  hold  it  in  the  tip  of  the  lamp 
flame  as  shown  in  the  picture,  turn- 


Fig.  4.— Bending  Glass  Tube. 

ing  it  slowly  around  and  moving  it 
forward  and  backward  to  heat  a  con- 
siderable length  of  it.  The  sense  of 
feeling  will  tell  when  it  can  be  bent. 
Bend  it  slowly  and  carefully,  remov- 
ing it  from  the  flame,  and  putting  it 
back  when  it  needs  to  be  softened 
more.  Practice  will  enable  any  one 
to  make  a  good  bend.  Do  not  bend 
at  a  right  angle  but  make  a  succession 
of  gradual  bends,  carrying  the  tube 
around  in  a  curve.  To  make  a  glass 
jet,  heat  as  before,  draw  the  ends  of 
the  tube  straight  apart  till  the  heated 
part  is  about  as  large  as  the  lead  in  a 
pencil.  When  cool,  scratch  this  neck 
with  a  file,  when  it  will  easily  break. 
Two  pieces  of  glass  tubing  may  be 
united  by  melting  the  ends  and  press- 
ing them  together,  but  a  better  way 
is  to  use  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing, 
which  makes  a  flexible  joint.  Ordi- 
nary tubing  can  be  broken  squarely 
off  by  first  making  a  scratch  with  a 
three-cornered  file,  and  then  break- 
ing it.  If  the  glass  and  the  working 
tool  be  kept  wet  with  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, tubes  can  be  filed  completely 
apart  or  a  hole  can  be  bored  through 
a  sheet  of  glass  with  a  rat-tail  file. 


Collecting  Cases  under  Water. 
Fill  a  pan  with  water  deep  enough  to 
cover  entirely  the  jar  in  which  the  gas 
is  to  be  collected,  when  laid  on  its  side. 
Lay  the  jar  on  its  side  till  it  is  full  of 
water,  and  then  turn  it  mouth  down- 
ward, the  opening  being  kept 
under  water.  The  water  will  not 
run  out  of  the  jar.  If  there  is 
the  least  bubble  of  air  in  it  the 
filling  must  be  done  over  again. 
Support  the  jar  on  two  strips  of 
wood,  so  that  its  mouth  will  still 
be  under  water,  or  stand  it  on  a 
tin  saucer,  turned  upside  down, 
having  a  hole  cut  in  its  side  and 
one  in  its  bottom,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  5.  Fasten  to  the  end  of  the 
glass  tube  leading  from  the  bottle 
in  which  the  gas  is  made,  a  piece 
of  rubber  tubing  about  two  feet 
long.  Push  the  end  under  the 
saucer  through  the  hole  in  the 
rim,  and  up  in  into  the  jar  through 
the  hole  in  the  top.  As  the  gas  is 
made,  it  will  bubble  through  the  wa- 
ter to  the  top  of  the  jar,  where  it 
collects,  pushing  the  water  gradually 
out  at  the  bottom. 

Filtering.  To  separate  a  powder 
from  a  liquid  it  is  necessary  to  use 
filter  paper  which  may  be  bought  in 
small  circular  pieces.  Fold  one  of 
the  pieces,  A,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6  at 
B,  expand  it  as  at  C,  and  placing  it  in 
a  glass  funnel,  as  at  D,  pour  upon 
it  the  mixed  liquid  and  powder.  The 


Fig.  5. — Collecting  Gases  under  Water. 

liquid  will  slowly  pass  through  the 
paper,  leaving  the  powder  behind. 

Gas-holder.  Where  gases  are  to 
be  kept  in  any  considerable  quan- 
tity, a  gas-holder  is  needed.  It  may 
be  bought  of  a  dealer  in  chemist's 


CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS 


167 


CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS 


materials,  or  made  as  follows.  Take 
two  tin  pails,  one  about  two  inches 
less  in  diameter  than  the  other,  and 
several  inches  shorter.  Remove  the 
handles  of  both,  and  have  a  tinman 
cut  a  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the 
smaller  pail,  soldering  to  it  a  tube 
about  an  inch  long,  and  just  large 
enough  to  fit  tightly  the  size  of 
rubber  tubing  you  wish  to  use.  Fill 
the  larger  pail  with  water,  and  press 
the  other  down  into  it,  letting  the 
air  escape  through  the  tube.  When 
all  the  air  is  replaced  with  water, 
slip  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing  over  the 
tin  tube  and  connect  it  with  the  bottle 


Fig.  6. — Filtering. 

where  the  gas  is  making.  As  the 
gas  enters  the  upper  pail,  the  pail 
will  rise  in  the  water.  When  enough 
has  been  collected,  close  the  rubber 
tube  with  a  pinch  cock,  to  prevent 
the  gas  from  escaping  till  it  is  wanted. 
When  gas  is  wanted,  remove  the 
pinch  cock  and  place  a  slight  weight 
on  the  upper  pail.  Another  kind  of 
gas-holder  which  can  be  bought,  is 
made  of  rubber,  like  a  bag. 

Corks.  Choose  corks  that  are  cut 
across  the  grain  rather  than  with  it, 
as  they  are  tighter.  Corks  may  also 
be  made  tighter  by  dipping  them  in 
melted  paraffine.  To  fit  a  glass  tube 
in  a  cork,  bore  a  hole  in  the  cork  a 
little  smaller  than  the  tube,  using  a 


sharp  knife  or,  better,  a  cork-borer 
(see  list  below).  Moisten  the  tube, 
and  work  it  through  the  hole.  Rub- 
ber stoppers  with  one  or  more  holes 
may  be  bought,  and  the  holes  not  in 
use  may  be  plugged  with  pieces  of 
glass  rod.  When  they  get  hard  they 
may  be  softened  by  soaking  them  in 
turpentine.  Ordinary  corks  may  be 
softened  and  made  easier  to  bore  by 
rolling  them  under  foot. 

The  chief  things  needed  to  perform 
the  experiments  described  in  this 
book,  besides  those  mentioned  above, 
are  given  below  in  an  alphabetical 
list,  with  the  prices  for  which  they 
can  usually  be  obtained,  though  these 
vary  a  good  deal. 

A  R  TICLES  FOR  CHE  MIC  A  L  EXPERI- 
MENTS. 

Alcohol.  Price,  about  60  cents  a 
quart. 

Alcohol  Lamp.  Price,  30  to  50 
cents. 

Ammonia  Water.  Strong.  Price 
about  40  cents  a  quart. 

Antimony.  Price,  20  cents  a 
pound. 

Balance.  Useful  for  weighing, 
but  not  necessary,  as  the  druggist 
will  weigh  substances  in  the  desired 
amounts  when  they  are  bought. 

Bismuth.  Ask  for  metallic  bis- 
muth. Price,  about  20  cents  an 
ounce. 

Bisulphide  of  Carbon.  Be  care- 
ful not  to  bring  it  near  a  flame,  as  its 
vapor  is  very  inflammable.  Price,  20 
cents  a  pound. 

Bituminous  Coal.  This  can  be 
obtained  of  a  blacksmith,  if  no  dealer 
is  near. 

Blue  Vitriol  or  Copper  Sulphate. 
Price,  8  cents  a  pound. 

Caustic  Soda.  Price,  15  cents  a 
pound. 

Chalk.  Ask  for  carpenter's  chalk, 
Blackboard  crayons  are  not  made 
of  real  chalk.  Price  3  cents  a 
pound. 

Chlorate  of  Potash.  Price,  25  cents 
a  pound. 

Copper.  Scraps  can  be  obtained 
of  a  plumber.  Old  cartridge  shells 


CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS 


1 68 


CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS 


Fig.  7. 
Deflagra- 
tion 
Spoon. 


may  be  used.     Price  of  clippings  at 
a  chemist's,  40  cents  a  pound. 

Cork  Borers.  In  sets  of  6 ;  price, 
about  $i. 

Deflagration   or    Co m  bus t i on 
Spoon.     Price,  15   cents.     One  can 
be  made  by  attaching  to  a 
wire  a  piece  of  chalk  with 
a  hollow  scooped  in  it. 

Drying  Bottle,  a  bottle 
to  dry  gases.  The  stopper 
must  have  in  it  two  tubes. 
The  one  by  which  the  gas 
enters  reaches  nearly  to 
the  bottom,  the  other  by 
which  it  leaves  is  short. 
Fill  the  bottle  with  lumps 
of  unslaked  lime,  or  with 
pumice  stone  soaked  in 
strong  sulphuric  acid. 

Dutch  Leaf.  In  "books"; 
price,  15  cents. 

Files.  About  6  inches  long; 
price,  30  cents. 

Filter    Paper.      Price,    from     8 
cents    to    82     cents     per    hundred 
sheets,  according  to  size. 
Fish  Globe.     Price,  about  $r. 
Flasks.     Half-pint   size,    15   cents 
apiece.     The   flasks  in  which   olive 

oil  sometimes  is  sold  can        , , 

be  used. 

Fluor  Spar.  Price,  ^o 
cents  a  pound. 

Funnels.  Price,  about 
10  cents  apiece. 

Glass  Tubing  and  rods 
(ask  for  soft  glass). 
Price,  35  cents  a  pound, 
j'j  inch  inside  diameter 
is  about  the  size  needed 
for  tubes,  but  if  rubber 
stoppers  are  used  the 
tubes  should  be  bought 
to  fit  the  holes  in  the 
stoppers. 

Gold  Leaf.  In  "books"; 
price,  40  cents. 

Graduated  Tube  or  "graduate." 
Price  about  50  cents.  One  good 
enough  for  the  experiments  in  this 
book  can  be  made  by  scratching  lines 
on  a  test  tube  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
apart. 


c.c. 

62' F. 

ioe=H> 


70^30 
60-||-40 


Hydrochloric  Acid  (ask  for  it 
"chemically  pure").  20  cents  a 
pound. 

Ignition  Tubes,  for  making  oxy- 
gen. Price,  20  cents. 

Iodine.     Price,  35  cents  an  ounce. 

Iron  Sulphide.  Price,  15  cents  a 
pound. 

Jars,  or  wide-rnouthed  bottles. 
Fruit  jars  or  pickle  bottles  can  be 
used.  "  Bell  jars  "  or  receivers  cost 
from  45  cents  to  $5,  according  to 
size. 

Jets  of  glass  ;  directions  for  mak- 
ing given  above. 

Lamp  Black  ;  directions  for  mak- 
ing in  article  CARBON. 

Lead,  Sugar  of,  or  Acetate  of 
Lead.  Deadly  poison.  Price,  chemi- 
cally pure,  10  cents  an  ounce. 

Lime,  unslacked  (caustic  lime). 
Price,  5  cents  a  pound. 

Lime  Water.  Made  by  dissolv- 
ing a  little  unslacked  lime  in  water 
and  letting  it  stand  till  clear. 

Lime,  Chloride  of,  or  "  bleach- 
ing powder."  Price,  10  cents  a 
pound. 

Litmus.     Price,  10  cents  an  ounce. 

Magnesium  Ribbon.  Price,  75 
cents  an  ounce. 

Manganese  Dioxide,  or  black  ox- 
ide.    Price,    15   cents 
an  ounce. 

Marble,  lumps  of, 
can  be  obtained  at  a 
marble  cutter's  for  lit- 
tle or  nothing. 

Mercury.  Price,  60 
cents  a  pound. 

Mercury,  Red  Ox- 
ide of.  Price,  10 
cents  an  ounce. 

Nitric  Acid,  chem- 
ically pure.     Price,  17  Fig  9  _ 
cents  a  pound.  Cock. 

Phosphorus.   Price, 
15  cents  an  ounce.     Keep  in  a  bot- 
tle of  water,  and  never  touch  with 
the  naked  hand. 

Pinch  Cock,  for  closing  rubber 
tubing.  Price,  30  cents. 

Potassium.  Price,  50  cents  a 
drachm. 


CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS 


169 


CHESS 


Rubber  Stoppers.  Price,  $2.25  per 
pound.  Get  them  to  fit  the  flasks 
and  bottles  you  intend  to  use. 

Sal  Ammoniac,  Price,  10  cents  a 
pound. 

Sugar  of  Lead.     See  Lead. 

Sulphur.  Price,  5  cents  a  pound. 
Comes  in  two  forms :  roll  or  stick 
sulphur,  called  also  brimstone,  and 
flowers  of  sulphur,  or  powdered 
sulphur. 

Test  Tiibes.  Size  5  X  f  inches. 
Price,  35  cents  a  dozen.  Old  medi- 
cine phials  will  sometimes  serve  the 
purpose. 


Fig.  io.— Test  Tube  and  Holder. 


Thistle  Tube.  Price,  about  1 6 
cents. 

Test  Tube  Holders.  (A  folded 
strip  of  paper,  passed  around  the 
tube,  is  a  good  substitute). 

Tin.  Pure  tin-foil.  Price,  io 
cents  an  ounce.  Common  tin-foil 
often  has  lead  in  it. 


Fig.  it.— Thistle  Tube. 

Tripod.  Small  size.  Price,  20 
cents. 

Turmeric  Paper.  Price,  80  cents 
a  quire.  A  few  cents  worth  is  all 
that  is  needed. 

Turpentine,  Spirits  of.  Price,  20 
cents  per  pint. 

U-shaped  l^ubes.  Price,  about  io 
cents  each. 

Universal  Support  (see  Fig.  12.) 
Price,  $2. 

Watch  Spring,  old,  to  be  obtained 
of  any  watchmaker. 

Wax,  yellow.  Price,  45  cents  a 
pound. 


Wire.  All  kinds  to  be  bought  at 
a  hardware  store. 

Wire  Gauze.  Price,  a  few  cents 
a  foot. 


Fig.  12. — Universal  Support. 

Yeast.  Small  yeast  cake,  costs  2 
cents  at  a  grocery. 

Zinc,  granulated,  for  making  hy- 
drogen. Price,  30  cents  a  pound. 
Clippings  of  old  zinc  will  do. 

CHESS,  a  game  played  by  two 
persons  on  a  board  containing  64 
squares,  of  two  colors  arranged  al- 
ternately, generally  black  and  white 
or  red  and  white.  Each  player  has 
1 6  chess-men,  of  a  different  color, 
each  consisting  of  eight  "  Pieces  "  and 
eight  "  Pawns."  The  Pieces  are 
King,  Queen,  two  Rooks  or  Castles, 
two  Bishops,  and  two  Knights,  and 
each  of  these  has  a  Pawn,  or  soldier. 
The  men  are  generally  carved  figures, 
but  sometimes  round,  flat  pieces,  with 
the  figures  of  the  men  on  the  top. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  game  the 
board  should  be  so  placed  as  to 
have  a  white  square  at  each  player's 
right.  The  lines  of  squares  running 
up  and  down  the  board  are  usually 
called  "  files,"  those  from  right  to 
left  "  ranks "  or  lines,  and  those 
cornerwise  "  diagonals. "  By  a  simple 
system,  each  square  on  the  board 
has  a  name  taken  from  the  piece 
commanding  it  at  the  beginning  of 
the  game.  This  is  most  easily  shown 
in  the  following  diagram,  Fig.  I ; 


CHESS 


170 


CHESS 


•  It  will  be  seen  that  the  square  on 
which  the  King  stands  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  game  is  named  the  King's 
square,  the  one  in  front  the  King's 
2d,  next  the  King's  3d,  4th,  5th,  6th, 
7th,  and  8th.  These  count  the  same 
from  the  other  side  of  the  board,  so 
that  one  player's  King's  8th  square 
is  the  other  player's  King's  square. 
The  Queen's  squares  are  named  in 


the  same  way ;  and  the  Bishops, 
Knights,  and  Rooks  are  named 
King's  Bishop,  Knight,  or  Rook,  or 
Queen's  Bishop,  Knight,  or  Rook, 
according  as  they  stand  on  the  King's 
or  the  Queen's  side.  The  Pawns 
are  named  after  the  pieces  in  front 
of  which  they  stand,  thus:  King's 
Pawn,  Queen's  Pawn,  King's  Bish- 
op's Pawn,  Queen's  Rook's  Pawn,  etc. 


•bS-a-& 

•bS-*H-& 

•bs-a-b 

•bS'5 

•bg'X 

•bS'3'X 

•bg'lX'X 

•bS'H'X 

Q.R.8. 

Q.Kt.8. 

Q.B.8. 

Q.8. 

K.8. 

K.B.8. 

K.Kt.8. 

K.R.8. 

Q.R.7. 

Q.Kt.7. 

Q.B.7. 

Q.7. 

K.7. 

K.B.  7. 

K.Kt.7. 

K.R.?. 

•E-H-& 

•E-ix-6 

•E-3-& 

•E-b 

•E'X 

•E-a-x 

•E'iX'X 

•£-a-x 

Q.R.6. 

Q.Kt.6. 

Q.B.6. 

Q.6. 

K.6. 

K.B.6. 

K.Kt.  6. 

K.R.  6. 

Q.R.5. 

Q.Kt.s. 

Q.B.S. 

Q.s. 

K.5. 

K.B.5. 

K.Kt.s. 

K.R.s. 

•s-H-b 

•s-ix-0 

•s-a-0 

•s-5 

•s-x 

•S'3'X 

•S'lX'X 

•S-H-X 

Q.R.4- 

Q.Kt.4. 

Q.B.4. 

Q-4. 

K.4. 

K.B.  4. 

K.Kt.4. 

K.R.  4. 

•9-H-& 

•9-«r& 

•9-a-e> 

•9-5 

'9'X 

'9'a'X 

•9-»X'X 

'9'H'X 

Q.R.3. 

Q.Kt.3. 

Q.B.3. 

Q-3. 

K.3. 

K.B.3. 

K.Kt.s. 

K.R.3. 

M'H-5 

•^x-0 

•z-a-5 

•^•5 

•^•a 

•4-a-x 

•^x-x 

'^'H'X 

Q.R.3. 

Q.Kt.s. 

Q.B.s. 

Q.s. 

K.3. 

K.B.  2. 

K.Kt.s. 

K.R.s. 

•8-H-5 

•8'lX-fc 

•8-a-& 

'•8-5 

'8'X 

•8'a'x 

•8-WTX 

'8'H'X 

Q.R.Sq. 

Q.Kt.Sq. 

Q.B.Sq. 

Q.Sq. 

K.Sq. 

K.B.Sq. 

K.Kt.Sq. 

K.R.Sq. 

Fig.  i. — Method  of  Notation. 


The  following  are  the  abbrevia- 
tions used : 

K  ------  King 

Q     .....     Queen 

B Bishop 

Kt.  -    -    -    -    «      Knight 

R Rook 

P      .....     Pawn 

Sq.      .....  Square 

Ch.  or  4-,  •    -    -     Check 


Dis.  Ch.  -    -  Discovered  Check 

J  -      -      -      Checkmate 

X  -    -    -    -   takes 

A  move  is  described  by  giving 
the  name  of  the  piece  and  the 
square  to  which  it  is  moved. 
Thus,  Q  to  K.B.  4,  or  simply  Q— 
K.B.  4,  means  that  the  Queen  is 
moved  to  King's  Bishop's  fourth 
square. 


CHESS 


171 


CHESS 


In  the  diagrams  in  this  article  the 
pieces  will  be  designated  thus  : 

King,      ....  <£& 


Queen,  .  . 

Bishop,  .  . 

Knight,  .  . 

Rook,.  .  . 


J. 


Pawn, 


At  the  beginning  of  a  game  the 
men  are  set  as  in  Fig.  2. 

By  means  of  this  simple  notation 
games  not  only  can  be  completely 
described  on  paper  in  a  brief  space, 
but  they  can  be  played  by  telegraph 
or  post,  the  contestants  be- 
ing hundreds  or  thousands 
of  miles  apart.  Very  skillful 
players  are  also  thus  enabled 
to  play  games  blindfolded, 
the  moves  being  described  to 
them  as  they  are  made.  Paul 
Morphy,  a  celebrated  Ameri- 
can player,  could  carry  on 
eight  games  at  once  in  this 
way,  without  seeing  any  of 
the  boards. 

The  first  move  being  de- 
cided, the  players  take  turns, 
each  moving  one  man  at  a 
time.     The  men  are  moved 
each    in  a  different  way,  as 
described  below,  but  no  piece 
except  the  Knight  can  pass 
over  another   man  in  mov- 
ing.    When   a  man  can  be 
moved  to  a  square  occupied 
by  a  hostile  man,  the  move 
can  be  made,  and  the  hostile 
man,   which    is    said   to   be   taken, 
or  captured,   is  removed    from   the 
board.     A    man    is  said   to  "  com- 
mand "  any  square  to  which   it  can 
move,  and  a  man  that  can   be  cap- 
tured   is    said    to    be    "  en  prise " 
(French    for    "in    position    to    be 


taken  ").  Each  player's  object  is  to 
"checkmate"  his  opponent's  King, 
and  to  effect  this  he  endeavors  to 
weaken  his  enemy's  force  by  captur- 
ing as  many  of  his  men  as  possible. 
How  the  King  is  checkmated  will  be 
described  below. 

MOVEMENTS  OF  THE  MEN. 

King.  The  King  can  move  but 
one  square  at  a  time  (except  in  cast- 
ling), but  this  move  may  be  forward, 
backward,  sidewise,  or  diagonally  in 
either  direction.  Unless  he  is  on  the 
edge  of  the  board  he  thus  commands 
eight  squares.  The  King  is  the  only 
piece  that  cannot  be  taken.  When 
the  square  on  which  he  stands  is 
commanded  by  an  enemy's  piece 
he  is  said  to  be  "  in  check."  He 
is  not  allowed  to  move  into  check, 
even  to  take  a  man,  and  a  square  on 
which  he  would  be  in  check  is  there- 
fore said  to  be  "  guarded."  When 


WHITE. 

Fig.  2. — Method  of  Setting  the  Men. 

either  player  moves  any  of  his  men 
so  as  to  put  his  opponent's  King  in 
check  he  must  cry  "  check  !  "  as  a 
warning,  and  the  King  is  then  said 
to  be  "  attacked."  If  a  player  checks 
by  moving  out  of  the  way  a  piece 
that  was  between  the  King  and  the 


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172 


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checking  piece,  it  is  called  a  "  dis- 
covered check."  If,  at  the  same 
time,  the  moved  piece  also  gives 
check,  it  is  called  a  "  double  check." 
The  player  whose  King  is  in  check 
must  either  move  him  out  of  check, 
move  a  man  between  him  and  the 
checking  piece,  or  capture  the  latter. 
When  none  of  these  things  is  possi- 
ble, the  King  is  checkmated,  and  his 
side  has  lost  the  game.  As  stated 
above,  the  object  of  each  player  is  to 
checkmate  his  opponent,  and  all  the 
moves  are  made  with  this  end  in 
view.  When  the  King,  though  not  in 
check,  cannot  move  without  going 


Fig.  3. — Moves  of  the  Knight. 

into  check,  and  his  owner  can  move 
no  other  man,  there  is  said  to  be  a 
"  stalemate,"  and  the  game  is  consid- 
ered drawn. 

Once  only,  in  the  game,  the  King 
has  the  privilege  of  making,  with  one 
of  the  Rooks,  under  certain  condi- 
tions, a  double  move  called  "  castling." 
Castling  may  be  performed  on  either 
the  King's  or  the  Queen's  side  of  the 
board.  If  on  the  King's  side,  it  is 
done  by  moving  the  King  to  K.Kt's 
square  and  then  placing  the  King's 
Rook  on  K.B's  square ;  if  on  the 
Queen's  side,  by  moving  the  King  to 
Q.B's  square,  and  then  placing  the 


Queen's  Rook  on  Queen's  square. 
This  move  has  a  double  object  :  to 
remove  the  King  from  danger  and  to 
bring  the  Rook  into  play.  The  condi- 
tions under  which  the  move  may  be 
made  are  as  follows  :  The  King  must 
not  have  moved  ;  must  not  be  in 
check  ;  and  must  not  pass,  in  making 
the  move,  over  or  on  to  any  square 
attacked  by  any  man  of  the  enemy  ; 
the  Rook  must  not  have  moved  ;  and 
there  must  be  no  piece  between  the 
King  and  the  Rook  with  which  he 
castles. 

Queen.  The  Queen,  the  most 
powerful  of  the  pieces,  can  move  in 
a  straight  line  in  any  direc- 
tion, forward,  backward,  side- 
wise  or  diagonally  over  as 
many  squares  as  are  unoccu- 
pied. Thus,  if  she  is  in  the 
middle  of  the  board,  and  the 
way  is  clear,  she  commands 
27  squares,  as  will  be  seen  by 
trial. 

Rook.  The  Rook,  or  Castle, 
which  is  next  in  power  to  the 
Queen,  can  move  backward, 
forward,  or  sideways,  but  not 
diagonally,  as  many  squares 
as  the  way  is  clear.  He  thus 
commands  14  squares,  and  is 
the  only  piece  whose  range  is 
not  lessened  by  being  placed 
on  a  corner  square. 

Bishop.  The  Bishop  can 
move  diagonally  forward  or 
backward,  but  only  on  squares 
of  the  same  color  on  which  he  stood 
when  the  game  began.  One  of  a 
player's  Bishops  is  therefore  always 
on  white  squares,  and  the  other  al- 
ways on  black  squares. 

Knight.  The  Knight  can  move 
one  square  either  backward,  forward, 
or  sidewise,  and  then  one  diagonally. 
Thus  the  Knight  in  the  middle  of 
the  diagram  (Fig.  3),  can  move  to 
any  of  the  squares  marked  with  a 
Knight.  It  is  possible  for  the 
Knight  to  move  thus  in  succession 
to  every  square  of  the  board,  occu- 
pying each  square  only  once.  This 
is  called  the  Knight's  Tour.  One 


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173 


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way  of  performing  it   is   shown  in 
Fig.  4. 

The  Knight  can  move  whether  the 
squares  he  passes  over  are  clear  or 
not,  and  he  is  the  only  piece  which 
can  thus  leap  over  another  man  when 
moving.  When  a  Knight  gives  check 
therefore,  it  is  useless  for  his  oppo- 
nent to  move  another  piece  between 
him  and  the  King.  The  Knight  is 
too  the  only  piece  which  can  be 
moved  at  the  opening  of  the  game, 
as  it  can  leap  over  the  Pawns  which 
close  the  whole  of  the  second  rank. 
Unless  the  Knight  can  be  captured, 
his  check  always  forces  the  attacked 
King  to  move,  as  the  Knight  can 
leap  over  any  blocking  man. 


6    SB    §8 

a  la  SB  a 

E  JK    «    K 

K,  a  s  a 
H  a  E  w 

a  x  a  a 


Fig.  4.— Knight's  Tour. 

Pawn.  The  Pawn  moves  straight 
forward  in  the  file  on  which  it  stands ; 
its  first  move  may  be  either  one  or 
two  squares,  but  after  that  it  moves 
only  one  square  at  a  time.  When  a 
Pawn  while  being  moved  two  squares 
passes  over  a  square  commanded  by 
a  hostile  Pawn,  the  latter  is  not  de- 
prived of  its  privilege  of  capture  and 
may  take  it  just  the  same  as  if  the 
Pawn  had  remained  in  the  attacked 
square.  This  is  called  taking  en 
passant  (Fr.,  in  passing).  In  cap- 
turing, the  Pawn  takes  one  step 
diagonally,  to  the  right  or  the  left,  to 
the  square  occupied  by  the  man 
taken,  and  after  that  continues  on 
that  file  until  it  makes  another  cap- 


ture. When  a  Pawn  reaches  the  last 
square  of  the  file  on  which  it  is  mov- 
ing, it  is  said  to  be  "Queened,"  and 
receives  the  power  and  name  of  a 
Queen  or  of  any  other  piece  the 
owner  chooses,  except  the  King. 

The  player  must  at  once  notify  his 
opponent  as  to  whether  the  Pawn  has 
become  a  Queen,  Knight,  Bishop, 
or  Rook,  as  it  sometimes  happens 
that  the  making  of  a  Knight  would 
win  a  game  which  a  Queen  would 
only  lose  or  draw.  A  player  may, 
therefore,  toward  the  end  of  a  game, 
have  two  or  more  Queens,  two 
Bishops  on  the  same  color,  etc.  A 
second  Queen  is  often  indicated  by 
replacing  the  Queened  Pawn  by  a 
Rook  turned  bottom  upwards 

When  two  of  the  player's  Pawns 
are  on  the  same  file,  they  are  said  to 
be  "  doubled,"  and  when  one  stands 
alone,  and  unprotected  by  other 
Pawns,  it  is  called  an  "  Isolated 
Pawn."  A  Pawn  which  is  obstructed 
by  no  hostile  Pawn,  either  on  the 
same  file  or  on  those  to  the  right  and 
left,  is  said  to  be  a  "  Passed  Pawn." 

The  Exchange.  When  a  player 
by  taking  an  opponent's  piece  exposes 
one  of  his  own  to  capture,  he  is  said 
to  "  make  the  exchange."  In  mak- 
ing exchanges  the  relative  value  of 
the  pieces  and  Pawns  must  be  care- 
fully considered.  Aside  from  the 
added  values  which  certain  positions 
give  to  the  men  as  the  game  advan- 
ces, the  following  rule  gives  the 
average  value  of  each  class  of  men  : 

The  Queen  is  equal  in  value  to  two 
Rooks;  to  two  Bishops  and  a  Knight ; 
to  two  Knights  and  a  Bishop ;  or, 
nearly  to  eight  Pawns. 

A  Rook  is  equal  to  a  Bishop  and 
one  or  two  Pawns,  or  to  a  Knight 
and  one  or  two  Pawns. 

Bishops  and  Knights  are  of  nearly 
equal  value  ;  each  is  equal  in  value 
to  three  Pawns.  The  relative  value 
of  Bishops  and  Knights  depends 
greatly  on  the  more  or  less  crowded 
condition  of  the  board.  When  the 
lines  are  open  the  long  stride  of  the 
Bishop  gives  him  an  advantage,  but 


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174 


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in  a  close  position,  the  leap  of  the 
Knight,  together  with  the  greater 
difficulty  of  calculating  on  his  move- 
ments, increases  his  value  beyond 
that  of  the  Bishop. 

The  value  of  the  Pawns  is  greatly 
increased  as  they  approach  the  Queen 
row. 

Drawn  Games,  It  has  already 
been  explained  that  a  stalemate  is  a 
drawn  game.  Other  ways  in  which 
the  game  may  be  drawn  will  now  be 
described. 

i.  When  a  player  with  an  infe- 
rior force  finds  an  opportunity  to 

BLACK. 


9,  in 


-  5- — White  to  play  and  mate  in  two  moves. 


give  such  a  check  that  his  opponent, 
either  upon  moving  his  King  or  in- 
terposing a  piece,  subjects  himself  to 
a  continued  series  of  checks,  it  is 
called  "perpetual  check." 

2.  Where  there  is  not  force  enough 
to  effect  a  mate. 

3.  Where    one    player   has   force 
enough  to  mate,  but  is   not  skillful 
enough  to  do  so  in  the  required  fifty 
moves  (see  Rule  21). 

4.  Where  both  players  continue  to 
repeat    the    same    series   of    moves 
through  fear  of  each  other. 

The  moves  and  general  character 


of  the  game  have  now  been  told,  but 
it  can  be  learned  only  by  actual  play. 
It  is  advisable  to  castle  early  in  the 
game,  and  on  that  side  upon  which 
the  King  can  be  best  protected  from 
attack.  The  King's  side  is  usually 
adopted  for  the  reason  that  there  are 
fewer  pieces  on  that  side  to  get  out 
of  the  way. 

General  Observations.  The  King 
becomes  specially  valuable  when  the 
other  principal  pieces  have  been 
taken.  It  is  good  play  to  check  early 
in  the  game  if  by  so  doing  castling 
is  prevented,  but  it  is  bad  play  ever 
to  check  without  an  object. 

,     When    a    player's    King    is 

checked,  he  should  interpose, 
if  possible,  some  piece  that  at- 
tacks the  checking  piece,  but 
never  one  of  greater  value. 

The  Queen  being  the  most 
valuable  of  the  pieces,  care 
must  be  taken  that  she  is  not 
placed  on  an  open  file  or  di- 
agonal in  line  with  the  King, 
permitting  the  enemy  to  pin 
her  with  a  Bishop  or  Rook. 
The  Queen  not  being  able  to 
move  from  the  line,  since  the 
King  would  be  left  in  check, 
has  to  exchange.  This  is 
called  "losing  the  exchange." 
The  same  term  is  used  also 
when  a  Rook  is  exchanged 
for  a  Bishop  or  Knight. 

The  Rook  can  do  little  at 
the  opening  of  the  game,  but 
later,  especially  after  the 


Queens  have  been  exchanged,  it  is  a 
very  important  piece. 

The  Bishop  is  of  especial  value  in 
attacking  a  Knight  or  Rook.  The 
King's  Bishop  being  of  special  value 
by  reason  of  his  power  of  attacking 
the  opposing  King  at  the  beginning 
of  the  game,  should,  if  possible,  be 
retained,  whilst,  it  would  be  well  to 
endeavor  to  exchange  a  Queen's 
Bishop  for  the  opponent's  King's 
Bishop. 

The  Knight  should  not  be  allowed 
to  get  to  the  side  of  the  board,  as  his 
power  is  much  lessened  there.  The 


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175 


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Knight  often  opens  the  game,  and  a 
skillful  player  can  make  him  a  very 
powerful  piece. 

In  playing  the  Pawns  the  player 
should  try  to  obstruct  the  way  of  the 
enemy  and  keep  his  own  clear.  The 
Pawns  united  have  great  power,  but 
separated  very  little.  The  player 
who  has  Pawns  at  the  end  of  a 
game,  while  his  enemy  has  none, 
generally  wins.  The  most  important 
parts  of  a  game  are  the  beginning 
and  ending,  and  a  few  special  cases 
of  these  will  be  described. 

The  following  are  illustrations  of 
the  use  of  the  names  and  ab- 
breviations, and   also  of  the 
check  and  checkmate  : 

First :  Suppose  the  men  to 
be  as  in  Fig.  5. 

If  it  be  White's  turn  to  play 
he  can  mate  in  two  moves,  as 
follows  : 


2.  ±5.  to  a.  5  ais. 

3.  R.  frQ.  sq.  tal 

4.  R.-K.  6  + 
5-  R.-K.  4  + 


shown  in  Fig.  6,  called  the  Tread- 
mill : 

WHITE.  BLACK. 

1.  Kt.  to  B.  3  4-  P.  takes  Kt.  (forced). 

2.  B.  to  B.  5  dis.  +  K.  to  K.  4. 

sq.  takes  B.+  R.  takes  R. 
K.-Q.  5. 
K.— B.  4. 

6.  R.— B.  4  -f  K.— Q.  3. 

7.  R.-B.  6  -f  K.-K.  4. 

8.  R.— K.  6  etc. 

and  draws  by  Perpetual  Check,  the 
Rook  going  '  round  like  a  wheel, 
while  the  King  steps  from  one  rung 
of  the  ladder  to  the  other. 

GAME  FOR  PRACTICE. 

The  beginner  who  has  no  experi- 


WHITE. 

1.  Q.— K.R.  sq. 

2.  Q.XR.  mate. 

1.  Q.-K.R.  sq. 

2.  R.XR.  mate. 


BLACK. 

i.  Either  R.XR, 


i.  R.  moves  else- 
where. 


White  plays  for  his  best 
move — i,  Q. — K.R.sq.  Now, 
if  Black  with  one  of  his  Rooks 
takes  one  of  the  white  Rooks, 
White  plays  2,  Q.  XR.,  and 
can  now  say  "  check,"  for  his 
Queen  commands  the  square 
on  which  the  black  King  is, 
and  would  take  him,  were  he 
any  other  piece.  The  black 
King  having  now  no  piece 
which  can  be  interposed,  and  two  of 
the  three  adjacent  squares  being 
occupied  by  his  own  pieces  and  the 
third  being  likewise  attacked  by  the 
hostile  Queen,  the  King  is  check- 
mated. If,  instead  of  moving  a 
Rook  to  the  end  of  square,  Black 
plays  one  of  his  Rooks  but  one,  two, 
or  even  five  squares,  then  one  of  the 
white  Rooks  captures  it  and  mate  is 
given  in  the  same  manner.  It  is 
evident  that  the  black  Pawn  cannot 
be  moved,  because  the  King  would 
then  be  in  check  of  the  white  Queen. 

An  example  of  Perpetual  Check  is 


a 


WHITE. 

Fig.  6.— The  Treadmill. 

enced  player  for  a  teacher  will  learn 
much  about  the  moves  and  the  dif- 
ferent situations  by  playing,  on  the 
board,  the  following  practice  game, 
making  each  move  slowly  and  care- 
fully, and  trying  thoroughly  to  under- 
stand the  reasons  given  for  it. 

The  game,  with  the  comments  on 
the  different  moves,  is  from  the  trea- 
tise on  Chess  by  Howard  Staunton. 

WHITE.  BLACK. 

1.  P.  to  K.  4.          i.  P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  B.  to  Q.B.  4.      2.  B.  to  Q.B.  4. 
This  constitutes  the  King's  Bish- 
op's opening  (see  following). 


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3.  Q.toK.R.  5. 

This  threatens  to  checkmate  Black 
by  taking  the  K.B.  Pawn  with  the 
Queen,  and  also  threatens  K.'s  Pawn, 
but  it  is  rarely  right  to  play  the 
Queen  so  soon.  Black  easily  protects 
himself  by  the  following  move  : 
3.  Q.  to  Q.  2. 

4.  Kt.  to  K.B.  3.  4.  P.  to  Q.  3. 
Here,   White   attacks    Black's   K. 

Pawn  again,  but  Black  again  defends 
it  by  bringing  up  another  man. 

5.  Kt.  to  K.Kt.  5. 

This  brings  three  pieces  to  attack 
Black's  K.B.P.,  which  is  defended  by 
only  two. 

5.  Kt.  to  K.R.  3. 

Black  here  defends  by  bringing  up 
a  third  piece.  A  skillful  player  would 
probably  make  instead  an  attack  in 
another  place,  for  instance  by  threat- 
ening White's  Queen  with  Kt.  to 
K.  B.  3. 

6.  Kt.  to  Q.B.  3. 

This  move  threatens  to  attack  the 
Queen  at  Q.  5. 

6.  P.  to  Q.B.  3. 
Black  guards  against  the  attack. 

7.  Castles.  7.  Castles. 
(Moving  the  K.     (In  the  same  way.) 

to  K.Kt.'s  sq. 
and  the  R.  to 
K.B.'s  sq.) 

As  a  rule,  beginners  should  castle 
early  in  the  game. 

8.  P.  to  Q.'s  3.     8.  Kt.  to  Q.  2. 

Black  acts  wisely  here  in  not  at- 
tacking the  Queen  at  once  by  playing 
Q.B.  to  K.Kt.  5. 

9.  K.  to  K.R.  sq. 

The  object  of  this  move  is  to 
strengthen  White's  attack  on  the 
opposite  King.  He  wishes  to  throw 
forward  his  K.B.  Pawn,  but  while 
the  King  stands  on  Kt.'s  sq.  moving 
the  Pawn  would  expose  the  King  to 
check  from  the  opposing  Bishop. 
Therefore,  he  moves  his  King  as 
above. 

9.  Kt.  to  K.B.  3. 

This  forces  White  to  move  his 
Queen,  and  makes  Black's  King 
secure,  for  a  time. 

10.  Q.toK.R.  4.    10.  P.  to  Q.  4. 


Very  well  played,  for  if  White 
does  not  take  this  Pawn  with  Pawn 
his  Bishop  is  driven  back  ;  while,  if  he 
does  take  it,  he  gives  Black  a  chance 
to  attack  the  white  Queen  with  K.Kt. 
ii.  P.  takes  Q. P.  u.  Kt.  to  K.  B.  4. 

This  forces  White  to  move  his 
Queen,  and  there  is  but  one  square 
to  which  he  can  move  her,  all  the 
others  being  attacked. 

12.  Q.toK.R.  3.    12.  Kt.toK.6. 
Black   thus   attacks  at  the  same 

time  White's  Q.  with  his  B.,  and  R. 
with  his  Kt. 

13.  Q.  to  K.R.  4. 

Instead  of  this  he  might  have 
moved  his  foremost  Pawn  to  Q.'s 
6th,  threatening  the  black  Queen, 
but  the  Queen  might  then  have  re- 
treated to  her  own  square,  where  she 
would  be  safe. 

13.  Kt.  takes  R. 

14.  Q.Kt.  to  K.'s  4. 

Black  exposes  his  Kt.  to  capture 
(see  move  17),  and  White  therefore 
simply  exchanges  his  Rook  for  his 
enemy's  Knight.  This  is  called  "  the 
exchange."  White  loses  the  ex- 
change in  this  instance  because  a 
Rook  ranks  above  a  Knight.  But 
in  return  for  this  loss  he  is  enabled 
to  attack  the  black  King  again. 

14.  P.  to  K.R.  3. 

If  Black  had  taken  Kt.  with  Kt., 
White  would  have  checkmated  by 
taking  K.R. P.  with  Q.  If  he  had 
taken  Q.P.  with  P.,  White  would 
have  checkmated  in  two  moves  by 
taking  Kt.  with  Kt.,  checking,  and 
then  K.R. P.  with  Q.,  checkmating. 

15.  P.  to  Q.  6. 

White  defends  himself  by  keeping 

up  the  attack.     This  is  better  than 

to  move  back  the  threatened  Knight. 

15.  B.  takes  P.  at  Q.  6. 

If  Black  had  taken  the  Knight 
with  Pawn  instead,  he  would  have 
lost  the  game.  White  would  have 
taken  P.  with  his  Q.'s  B.,  and  check- 
mate would  follow,  as  the  learner 
can  discover  in  a  few  minutes'  study. 

16.  Kt.  to  K.B.  3.      16.  Kt.  takes  Kt. 

17.  Q.  takes  Kt.       17.  K.  to  R.'ssq. 

1 8.  K.  to  Kt.'s  sq. 


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177 


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White  loses  time  here.  His  ob- 
ject is  to  take  the  Knight,  but  the 
Knight  cannot  escape  and  it  would 
have  been  better  to  try  to  prevent  the 
advance  of  Black's  K.B.  Pawn. 

18.  P.  to  K.B.  4. 

19.  Q.  to  K.  2. 

It  wou  d  have  been  better  to  play 
Q.  to  K.R.  4,  for  now  Black  is  likely 
either  to  release  his  Knight,  or  gain 
another  piece  in  return  for  him. 

19.  P.  to  K.  5. 

20.  Kt.  to  K.Kt.'s  5. 

If  Black  should  now  try  to  take 

the  Knight,  he  would  lose  the  game. 

20.  Kt.  takes  K.R. P. 

Black  has  now  contrived  to  free 
the  Knight. 

21.  P.  takes  P.     21.  P.  takes  P. 

22.  Q.to  K.R.  5. 

Having  lost  a  Rook,  White  can- 
not afford  to  take  the  Pawn  with 
his  Queen  and  exchange  Queens. 
He  prefers  to  try  and  gain  a  Rook 
for  his  Knight. 

22.  Kt.  toK.Kt.  5. 
Black  does  not  attempt  to  prevent 

him. 

23.  Q.  to  K.Kt.  6. 

White  had  better  have  checked 
with  his  Kt.  at  K.B.  7,  as  he  in- 
tended. 

23.  B.  to  K.B.  4. 
Black  might  safely  have  taken  the 

Kt.  with  his  K.R.P.' 

24.  Q.  to  K.  R.  5. 

White  could  have  gained  the 
Rook  for  his  Knight  by  giving  check 
with  the  Knight,  but  then  he  would 
have  had  to  exchange  Queens,  and  a 
Queen  would  be  a  greater  loss  to 
him  than  to  Black,  since  White's 
force  is  smaller. 

24.  P.  to  K.Kt.  3. 
This    prevents    White    from    ex- 
changing the  Knight  for  the  Rook, 
and  he  retires. 

25.  Q.  to  K.R.  4.  25.  B.  to  Q.B.  4. 
The     Black     threatens     to    take 

White's  Q.  by  first  taking  K.B. P., 
and  to  prevent  it  White  must  move 
his  Queen  or  interpose  his  Q. 
Bishop. 

26.  B.  to  K.  3. 


This  costs  White  two  pieces  for 
one  (see  next  three  moves),  but  the 
other  course  would  have  been  as  bad. 

26.  B.  takes  B. 

27.  P.  takes  B.     27.  Q.  takes  Kt. 
White  can  now  be  beaten  by  any 

experienced  chess  player. 

28.  Q.  to  K.'s  sq.  28.  Kt.  takes  P. 

29.  Q.  toQ.B.  3(ch.)  29.  K.  to  R.  2. 

30.  Q.  to  Q.  2.  30.  Q.R.  to  Q.'s  sq. 

31.  Q.  to  K.  2.  31.  B.  to  K.Kt.  5. 

32.  Q.  to  K.'s  sq.  32.  Kt.  takes  KKt.'s  F 

33.  K.  takes  Kt.  33.  B.  to  K.R.  6. 

Black  thus  gives  a  double  check. 

34.  K.  takes  B.  34.  R.  to  B.  6  (ch.) 

35.  K.  to  R.  2.  35.  Q   to  R.  4.  (ch.) 

36.  K.  to  Kt.  2.  36.  Q.  to  Kt.  5  (ch.) 

37.  K.  to  R.  2.  37.  R.  to  R.  6. 

Checkmate. 

Black  thus  wins  the  game  in  37 
moves. 

OPENINGS  OF  GAMES. 

Some  of  the  different  ways  of 
beginning  the  game  have  received 
special  names,  and  a  few  of  these  will 
now  be  given.  It  will  be  noted  that 
in  most  of  them  the  King's  Pawn  is 
moved  first.  This  is  because  it  clears 
the  way  not  only  for  the  King,  but 
for  the  Queen  and  the  King's  Bishop. 
The  Knight's  Opening. 

WHITE.  BLACK. 

1.  P.  to  K.  4         P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  Kt.  to  K.B.  3. 

The  King's  Bishop's  Opening. 

1.  P.  to  K.  4.          P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  B.  to  Q.B.  4. 

The      Queens      Bishop's    Pawn's 
Opening. 

1.  P.  to  K.  4.         P.  to  K.  4 

2.  P.  to  Q.B.3 

The  King's  Gambit. 

1.  P.  to  K.  4.          P.  to  K.  4. 

2.  P.  to  K.B.  4.       P.  takes  P. 
The  word  Gambit  is  derived  from 

an  Italian  term  used  in  wrestling, 
meaning  a  tripping  up.  In  the  above 
opening,  and  similar  ones,  a  Pawn 
is  placed  where  it  may  be  taken,  so 
that  the  player  losing  the  Pawn  will, 
by  reason  of  the  loss  of  time  caused 
to  his  opponent,  be  able  to  bring  his 
strong  pieces  into  position  and  will 
regain  the  Pawn,  perhaps  with  in- 
terest, at  a  later  stage  of  the  game. 


CHESS 


178 


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If  the  opponent  take  the  offered 
Pawn,  that  constitutes  the  Gambit, 
but  he  often  refuses  so  to  do.  There 
are  many  Gambits,  known  generally 
by  the  names  of  the  players  who 
devised  them.  The  King's  Gambit, 
given  above,  is  considered  one  of  the 
safest  openings  for  beginners.  There 
are  numerous  variations  of  all  these 
different  openings,  and  numerous 
methods  of  defense.  For  instance, 
in  the  Knight's  opening,  Black  may 
make  any  of  the  following  for  his 


§1    r  w/m.y  if  wffi/?,.    ^  mm. 


HI  *  m. 


7. — White  to  play  and  mate  in  four  moves. 


second  move.   Each  has  been  favored 
by  skilled  players. 

Q.Kt.  toQ.B.  3. 

P.  to  Q.  3. 

K.Kt.  to  B.  3. 

or  Q.Kt.  to  B.  3. 
If  this  last  move  is  followed  by 

WHITE.  BLACK. 

3.  B.  to  Q.B.  4.       3.  B.  to  Q.B.  4. 
the  opening    is    called    the    Giuoco 
Piano  (Italian  for  Plain  Game). 

ENDINGS  OF  GAMES. 

A  game  may  end  in  various  ways. 
If  a  player  have  a  Queen  and  King 
against  a  King,  he  should  win  easily. 
With  a  Rook  and  King  against  a 
King,  he  should  win  in  not  more 


than  20  moves.  With  a  King, 
Bishop,  and  Knight  only  against  a 
King  the  game  can  be  won  also,  but 
it  requires  some  skill  to  do  it,  and 
the  checkmate  can  be  given  only  in 
a  corner  of  the  color  on  which  the 
Bishop  is  running.  With  a  King 
and  one  or  two  Knights  only,  or 
with  a  King  and  one  Bishop  only, 
checkmate  cannot  be  given,  and  the 
game  is  drawn.  The  method  in 
each  case  is  to  drive  the  opposing 
King  to  the  edge  of  the  board.  With 
a  King  and  two  Bishops 
against  a  King  this  is  much 
harder  to  do,  but  it  can  be 
done  in  about  30  moves.  He 
who  desires  to  become  a  skill- 
ful player  should  study  the 
different  cases  that  occur  at 
the  end  of  a  game,  examples 
of  which  can  be  found  in 
any  handbook  or  treatise  on 
Chess. 

PLA  YING  WITH  ODDS. 

In  a  game  between  a  skilled 
player  and  a  beginner,  the 
former  often  gives  the  latter 
odds,  that  is,  does,  or  agrees 
to  do,  something  to  his  own 
disadvantage  so  that  the  con- 
test may  be  more  nearly  even. 
Sometimes  he  plays  with  a 
"  Ringed  Pawn,"  that  is,  he 
marks  one  of  his  Pawns  by 
putting  a  ring  over  it,  or  in 
some  other  way,  and  agrees 
to  checkmate  with  that  particular 
Pawn.  If  he  cannot  do  so,  he  loses 
the  game.  Sometimes  the  experi- 
enced player  "  gives  the  Pawn  and 
move,"  that  is,  he  takes  his  King's 
Bishop's  Pawn  from  the  board,  and 
allows  his  opponent  to  move  first. 
In  like  manner  he  sometimes  gives 
Pawn  and  two  moves,  two  Pawns 
and  a  move,  a  piece  and  one  or  more 
moves,  or  any  of  these  without  the 
move  (see  Rule  5). 

CHESS  PROBLEMS. 

Chess  Problems  consist  of  certain 

arrangements  of  pieces,  with  which 

it   is   required    to    checkmate   in   a 

given  number  of  moves.    The  study 


CHESS 


179 


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of  these  problems  is  a  great  aid  to 
the  Chess  player,  and  books  have 
been  published  which  contain  noth- 
ing else.  To  show  what  they  are 
like  three  problems  are  given  below. 
The  learner  should  try  hard  to  solve 
them  before  looking  at  the  answers. 

First  Problem  (Fig.  7). 
I.  White.     K.  to  Q.B.  5. 

It  will  be   seen  by  a  little  study 
that  the  only  piece  Black  can  move 
is  his  King,  and  the  only  move  the 
King  can  make  without  go- 
ing into  check  is  K.  to  K.  5. 

2.  White  now  moves  B.  to 
K.Kt.  2  (check). 

Black's  only  move  is  K.  to 
K.  4  (retiring  to  his  former 
post). 

3.  R.  to  Q.B.  2.    P.  takes  .R. 
(Black's  only  move.) 

4.  White    moves    Queen's 
Pawn  two  squares  (as  he  is 
allowed   to  do,  since   it   has 
not  yet  moved),  and  check- 
mates. 

Second  Problem  (Fig.  8). 
White.  Q.  — Q.B.  8.  Now 
if  Black  moves  his  Queen  or 
the  Knight  at  -  Q.R.  4,  to 
Q.B.  5,  White  plays  his 
Knight  to  Queen's  sq., 
checkmating,  because  the 
black  piece  just  played 
blocks  the  square  previously  Fig.  8, 
guarded  by  the  Knight. 

If  Black  move  the  Knight  at 
K.  4  anywhere,  he  leaves  the 
Pawn  at  Q.  6  unguarded  and 
White  plays  2,  R.  takes  P.,  mate. 
If  Black  move  his  Queen  in  any 
other  way  than  to  Q.  B.  5,  or  if  he 
move  his  Bishop  anywhere,  then 
White  plays  the  Kt.  at  B.  7  to 
Q.  5.,  or  Q.Kt.  5,  giving  check- 
mate, as  the  Kt.  cannot  be  taken  on 
account  of  discovering  a  check  from 
the  Queen. 

Third  Problem  (Fig.  9).  The 
following  ingenious  position,  by  the 
great  chess  master  Petroff,  aptly  il- 
lustrates the  moves  of  the  Knight  in  a 
crowded  board.  The  disastrous  re- 
treat of  Napoleon  (the  Black  King) 


from  Moscow,  in  1812,  the  harass- 
ing of  his  troops  by  the  Cossack 
cavalry  (the  white  Knights),  the 
crossing  of  the  river  Berezina  (the 
white  diagonal  tunning  from  K.R. 
sq.  to  Q.R.  8),  and  the  final  blow  de- 
livered by  the  Russian  emperor  in 
person,  are  graphically  depicted. 
The  White  K.R.'s  sq.,  K.R.  8  sq., 
and  Q.R.  sq.,  represent  St.  Peters- 
burg, Paris,  and  Moscow  respect- 
ively. 


— White  to  play  and  mate  in  two  moves. 
SOLUTION. 

WHITE.  BLACK. 

i  Kt.  to  Q.  2,  giving  double  check  and  forcing 


the  Black  K.  to  go  to  his  Rook' 


3  Kt   trom  y.  2  to  Kt.  sq.  -J- 

4  Kt     o  R.  2  4-  K.  o  Kt.  4. 

5  Kt     o  R.  3  4-  K.  o  R.  3. 

6  Kt     o  Kt.  4  4-  K.  o  R.  2. 

7  Kt     o  Kt.   5  4-  K.  o  Kt.  sq. 

8  Kt     o  R.  6  4-  K.  o  B.  sq. 
o  Kt     o  R.  7  4-  K.  o  Q.  2. 

10  Kt     o  Kt.  8  +  K.  o  K.  2, 

11  Kt     o  B.  8  4-  K.  o  B.  sq. 

12  Kt     o  Q.  7  4-  K.  o  Kt.  sq. 

13  Kt     o  K.  7  -j-  K.  o  R.  sq. 

14  K.Kt.  3,  discovering  check  and  ma  e. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

The  following  rules,  in  substance, 
are  used  by  all  Chess  players  in  the 
United  States,  being  condensed  from 
those  adopted  by  the  FiftK  American 
Chess  Congress. 


oR.  6. 
o  Kt.  5. 


CHESS 


i  So 


CHESS 


1.  The  Chess  board  must   be  so 
placed  that  each  player  has  a  white 
corner  square  nearest  his  right  hand. 

2.  A  deficiency   in    number,   or  a 
misplacement  of  the  men,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  game,  when  discov- 
ered, annuls  the  game. 

3.  If  a  player,  undertaking  to  give 
odds  of  a  Piece  or  Pawn,  neglect  to 
remove  it  from  the  board,  his  adver- 
sary, after  four  moves,  has  the  choice 
of  going  on  with  the  game,  or  begin- 
ning it  again. 

4.  When  no   odds  are  given,  the 
players  must  take  the  first  move  of 


WHITE. 

Fig.  9. — Retreat  of  Napoleon. 

each  game  alternately,  drawing  lots 
to  see  who  shall  begin  the  first  game. 

5.  The  player  who  gives  the  odds 
has   the   right   to  move  first,  unless 
otherwise     agreed.        Whenever     a 
Pawn  is  given  it  must  be  the  King's 
Bishop's  Pawn. 

6.  A  Piece  or  Pawn  touched  must 
be  played,  unless,  a  man  not  being  in 
proper   position,   the   player,    before 
touching  it,  gives  notice  of  his  inten- 
tion   to   arrange   it   by  uttering  dis- 
tinctly the  words  "  J'adoube  "  (I  re- 
place).    But  a  Piece  or  Pawn  over- 
turned or  displaced  accidentally  may 
always   be   touched  to  put  it  back. 


When  the  player's  hand  has  once 
quitted  the  piece  moved,  the  move 
must  stand. 

7.  While  a  player  holds  the  Piece 
or  Pawn  he  has  touched,  he  may  play 
it   to   any  square   to   which    it  may 
legally  move. 

8.  Should   a  player  touch  one  of 
his  opponent's   men   without  giving 
notice  that  he  is  only  arranging    it, 
he    must   take   it,  if  he  can,  and    if 
not,  he  must  move  his  King  ;  but  if 
he  can  do  neither,  then  there  is  no 
penalty. 

9.  If  a  player  touch  more  than  one 

of  his  own  men,  he  must 
move  either  one  that  his  op- 
ponent may  name. 

10.  If  a  player  take  one  of 
his  adversary's  men  by  mak- 
ing a  false  move,  his  opponent 
may  compel    him  to  take  it 
with  a  man  which  can  legally 
take  it ;  or,  to  move  his  King. 

11.  Should   a   player  take 
one   of    his   own    men    with 
another,  his    adversary   may 
compel  him  to  move  either. 

12.  If  a  man  be  played  to 
a  square  to  which  it  cannot 
legally  be  moved,  the  player's 
adversary  may  require  him  to 
move  the  man  legally,  or  to 
move  his  King. 

13.  If  a  player  make  two 
moves  in  succession,  the  ad- 
versary may  take  his  choice 
as  to  which  one  shall  stand. 

14.  Penalties  can  be  enforced  only 
at  the  time  an  offense  is  committed, 
and  before  any  move  is  made  there- 
after. 

15.  A  player  cannot  castle — (i)  if 
the  King  or  Rook  have  been  moved, 
(2)   if  the  King  be   in    check,  (3)   if 
there  be  any  piece  between  the  King 
and  the  Rook,  (4)   if  the  King  pass 
over  any  square  attacked  by  the  ad- 
versary.     For  attempting    to  castle 
illegally,  the    player  doing  so  must 
move  either  the  King  or  Rook,  as  his 
adversary  may  dictate. 

1 6.  If  a  player  touch  a  Piece  or 
Pawn  that  cannot  be  moved  without 


CHESS 


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leaving  the  King-  in  check,  he  must 
replace  the  Piece  or  Pawn  and  move 
his  King,  but  if  the  King  cannot  be 
moved,  no  penalty  can  be  inflicted. 

17.  No  penalty   can  be   enforced 
for  any  offense  committed   against 
these  rules  in  consequence  of  a  false 
announcement   of  "  check,"  nor   in 
consequence  of  the  omission  of  such 
announcement,  when  legal  "  check  " 
be  given. 

18.  If  the  King  has  been  in  check 
for  several  moves,  and  it  cannot  be 
found  how  it  happened,  the  player 
whose  King  is  in  check  must  take 
back  his  last  move,  and  free  the  King 
from  check ;  but  if  the  moves  made 
after  the  check  are  known  they  must 
all  be  taken  back. 

19.  A  willful  displacement  or  over- 
turning of  the  men  forfeits  the  game. 

20.  Every  Pawn  which  has  reached 
the  last  line  of  squares  must  be  im- 
mediately exchanged  for  a  Queen,  or 
any    other  piece    the    owner  may 
choose,  except  a  King,  even  though 
all  the  pieces  remain  on  the  board. 

21.  If  a  player  remain  at  the  end 
of  the  game  with  a  Rook  and  Bishop 
against  a  Rook,  with  both  Bishops 
only  or  with  the  Knight  and  Bishop 
only,  or  if  it  be  doubted  near  the  end 
of  a  game,  whether  it  will  be  a  win 
or  draw,  or  a  win  be  possible,  but 
the  skill  to  force  the  game  question- 
able, then  either  player  may  demand 
that   the   fifty  following   moves   be 
counted.     If,  at    the  end  of    these 
fifty  moves  on  each  side,  no  check- 
mate has  been  given,  the  game  is 
drawn. 

22.  If  a  player  agree  to  checkmate 
with  a  particular  Piece  or  Pawn,  or 
on  a  particular  square,  or  engage  to 
force  his  adversary  to  stalemate  or 
checkmate  him,  he  is  not  restricted 
to  any  number  of  moves. 

Give-away  Chess.  A  form  of  the 
game  which  has  recently  come  into 
use.  Not  requiring  so  much  deep 
thought,  and  being  full  of  sudden 
and  unlooked-for  surprises,  it  offers 
a  quie't  relaxation  after  the  tiring 
head  work  of  a  game  of  regular  Chess. 


The  Give-away  game  differs  from 
the  ordinary  one  in  this,  that  a  play- 
er must  invariably  take  a  man  when 
offered.  When  two  or  more  men 
can  be  taken,  the  player  has  a  choice, 
except  when  the  King  is  in  check ;  in 
such  case  the  checking  piece  must 
be  taken,  and  in  any  event  the  King 
must  be  gotten  out  of  check.  The 
game  is  won  in  two  ways.  When  a 
player  is  unable  to  force  his  antagon- 
ist to  mate  him,  or  gives  him  "  sui- 
mate,"  as  it  is  called.  Secondly, 
when  he  forces  his  antagonist  to 
capture  all  his  men,  leaving  his  King 
alone  on  the  board. 

A  good  player  strives  to  get  rid  of 
his  Pawns  as  rapidly  as  possible. 

Fifteen  or  twenty  moves  may  be 
easily  calculated  ahead  in  this  game 
on  account  of  the  large  number  of 
forced  moves. 

It  differs  greatly  from  the  Give- 
away game  in  CHECKERS,  because 
in  the  latter  game  he  who  has,  at 
the  end  of  the  game,  the  superiority 
of  force  can  win,  whereas  in  the 
corresponding  Chess  game  it  is  not 
possible  to  say  whether  it  is  best  to 
hold  a  lesser  or  greater  number  of 
pieces  than  your  antagonist. 

Four-handed  Chess.  This  game 
is  now  played  in  all  the  principal 
clubs  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic. 

It  is  played  on  a  board  which 
may  be  described  as  an  ordinary 
Chess  board  taken  for  a  center,  to 
which  is  added  four  other  boards, 
placed  one  on  each  side.  These 
added  boards  are  but  three  squares 
deep,  that  is,  they  have  each  24 
squares.  The  whole  has,  therefore. 
1 60  squares. 

A  player  sits  at  each  of  the  sides 
of  the  board,  the  two  players  facing 
each  other  playing  as  partners,  and 
the  move  changes  from  the  player 
who  has  just  moved,  to  his  opponent 
on  the  left.  Two  sets  of  men  are 
used,  the  one  black  and  white  and 
the  other  red  and  blue,  the  red  and 
black  being  used  by  one  pair  of 
partners,  and  the  blue  and  white  by 
the  other  pair.  The  men  are  set  in 


CHESS 


182 


CHESS 


the  same  manner  as  in  the  two- 
handed  game,  with  the  exception 
that  the  Kings  are  placed  upon  the 
right  of  the  Queens,  and  the  men  are 
moved  as  in  the  ordinary  game.  No 
international  code  has,  as  yet,  been 
adopted  for  this  variety  of  the  game, 
although  several  books  upon  the  sub- 


ject have  been  published  in  England 
and  Germany.  The  rules  here  given 
are  those  in  use  in  New  York,  and 
differ  but  slightly  from  those  of 
Europe. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

I.  Before   beginning  a   game  an 
agreement  must  be  arrived  at  as  to 


^ 


.ss^s       ss^s        ssssss        ills        Ii 

i   •   H   IB   m         IP 

•     mm   Jm     mm    Jim    jim   ^m 
** — k "k  ""lk  • 


WHITE. 

Four-handed  Chess  Board. 


whether  the  games  shall  be  consulta- 
tion ones  or  not.  It  not,  then  perfect 
silence  regarding  the  play  must  be 
maintained  between  the  partners 
under  penalty  of  the  loss  of  the  game. 
2.  The  men  are  placed  in  the  two 
first  rows  of  the  four  wings  of  the 
board  in  the  same  manner  as  in 


ordinary  Chess,  except  that  the  Kings 
must  all  be  placed  on  the  right  of 
Queens ;  the  Kings,  therefore,  do 
not  face  each  other  as  in  the  regu- 
la'r  game. 

3.  The  three  rows  of  the  -wings 
form  the  territories  of  the  four  Kings, 
and  the  64  squares  of  the  main 


CHESS 


183 


CHESS 


board  forms  the  neutral  or  fighting 
ground. 

4.  The  Pawns  may  be  moved  one 
or  two  squares  on  the  first  move  of 
each,  afterwards  but  one.  A  Pawn 
having  reached  the  other  side  of  the 
board,  remains  blocked.  [In  Europe 
the  rule  is  that  the  Pawn  changes 
direction  upon  reaching  the  four- 
teenth rank.  The  question,  however, 
is  of  very  little  importance,  since  the 
chance  of  a  Pawn  in  the  four-handed 
game  reaching  the  other  side  of  the 
board  is  not  one  in  a  thousand.] 

4.  A  Pawn  having  pushed  against 
another  Pawn  or  piece,  no  matter  to 
whom  it  belongs,  cannot  move  until 
the  obstacle  is  removed,  or  a  man 
should  be,  or  come  upon,  the  con- 
tiguous diagonal  so  that  it  may  be 
taken  by  it. 

5.  Pawns  are  Queened  only  upon 
the  King  row  of  one  of  the  enemies' 
territories.     These  squares  can  only 
be  reached   by  the  Pawns  moving 
diagonally  when  capturing  the  ene- 
my's  men.       As   soon   as   a   Pawn 
reaches  one  of  the  three  ranks  of 
the  enemy's  territory,  it  changes  its 
direction  of  motion  and  moves  to- 
ward the  King  row  of  the  territory 
just  reached.     At  the  same  time  it 
receives  a  great  increase  in  power,  for 
it  can  capture  a  man  on  any  of  the 
four  contiguous  diagonals.     If,  how- 
ever, by  reason  of  taking  a  man  it 
returns  to  its  own  territory,  or  to  the 
neutral  ground,  then  it  loses  its  added 
force  and  takes  up  its  original  direc- 
tion.    This  change  of  the  force  and 
direction  of  the  Pawn  causes  no  con- 
fusion, as  its  position  proclaims  its 
power. 

6.  The  game  is  won  only  when 
both  the  opposing  Kings  are  check- 
mated. 

7.  When   one  of  the  Kings   has 
been  checkmated,  his  pieces  are  dead 
for  the  time  being,  and  none  of  them 
can  be  captured  or  the  squares  upon 
which  they  stand  be  occupied  by  a 
man,  either  friend  or  foe. 

8.  A  King  is  not  officially  in  check 
until  his  turn  comes  to  move. 


9.  A  King  is  not  mated  until  his 
turn   comes   to    move,   when,   if  in 
check  and  unable  to  get  out  of  it,  he 
is  checkmated. 

10.  A   partner  is  not  required  to 
cover  a  check  to  his  partner's  King, 
nor  is    he    prevented    (interdicted) 
from  moving  one  of  his  pieces  and 
thereby  uncovering  a  check  upon  his 
partner. 

1 1 .  A  checkmate  having  been  re- 
leased  by  one  partner  removing  a 
piece,  or  otherwise,  the  other  part- 
ner having  to  move  also  before  the 
checkmated  King,  cannot    take  one 
of  the  latter's  pieces,  as  the  check- 
mate is  not  officially  annulled  until 
the   mated    King's   turn   comes   to 
move. 

12.  Castling  is  permitted  in  this 
game,  but  cannot  be  made  use  of 
until  the  game  is  far  advanced. 

13.  When  one  of  your  antagonists 
is  checkmated,  his  men  being  dead, 
your  King  may  move  to  and  remain 
upon  any  square  commanded  by  the 
dead   pieces.      The   moment,  how- 
ever, the  mate  is  released,  your  King 
comes  into  check  and  must  be  got- 
ten out  when   your  turn  comes  to 
move.     This  rule  does  not  apply  to 
Kings,  which    cannot    be    brought 
into  close  proximity  at  any  time. 

Method  of  Play.  If  great  care  be 
not  taken  in  the  opening,  mate  will 
be  given  on  the  third  or  fourth  move. 
The  opening  move  generally  adopted 
is  Pawn  to  Q.B.  3  for  the  first  three 
players,  and  P.  to  K.  3  by  the  fourth 
player.  This  move  of  P.  to  Q.B.  3 
is  made  in  preference  to  the  old 
move  of  i,  P.  to  K.  3,  because  it  is  at 
once  defensive  and  attacking.  The 
fourth  player  is  compelled  to  play  i, 
P.  to  K.  3,  to  prevent  getting  into 
trouble. 

A  check  in  this  game  is  much 
more  to  be  feared  than  in  an 
ordinary  game,  for  the  reason  that 
the  partner  of  the  man  who  gives 
the  check  seizes  the  opportunity  to 
inflict  all  the  damage  he  can  upon 
the  one  who  is  in  trouble.  The  great 
aim,  therefore,  of  a  player  of  this 


CHESS 


184 


CHESS 


game,  is  to  endeavor  to  have  a  check 
threatened  against  one  or  both  of  his 
opponents'  Kings  and  keep  his  own 
King  so  covered  up  that  his  oppo- 
nents cannot  give  him  check.  Un- 
like the  ordinary  two-handed  game, 
the  Queens  are  brought  out  in  the 
early  part  of  the  game  because  their 
power  of  giving  check  is  very  great. 
Before  making  a  move,  the  partner's 
position  must  be  carefully  examined 
as  well  as  the  player's  own,  and  if  he 
see  that  the  former  is  in  greater 
straits  than  himself  he  is  called  upon 
to  sacrifice  himself  and  aid  his  friend. 
Ability  and  promptness  in  doing 
this  is  considered  one  of  the  great 
virtues  in  Four-handed  Chess. 

The  King's  Rook's  Pawn  moved 
two  squares  is  a  strong  defensive 
move  and  is  frequently  made  as  a 
second  or  third  move. 

A  double  check  by  each  of  the 
opponents  must  be  carefully  avoided, 
as  the  result  is  often  a  mate. 

The  order  of  succession  of  the 
moves  must  be  carefully  considered, 
as  a  failure  to  observe  which  of  the 
opponents  will  first  move  will  spoil 
a  player's  calculations  and  result  in 
disaster. 

History.  The  origin  of  Chess  has 
been  claimed  by  many  nations  and 
ascribed  to  various  persons.  Some 
writers  say  that  it  was  invented  by 
Japhet,  the  son  of  Noah  ;  others  by 
King  Solomon,  the  Greek  Palamedes. 
Han-sing,  a  Chinese  Mandarin,  Shat- 
reuscha,  a  Persian  astronomer,  etc. 
But  these  stories  are  purely  imag- 
inary. 

Thanks  to  the  recent  researches 
of  Dr.  Forbes,  all  doubts  have  been 
set  at  rest,  and  the  best  modern 
writers  concur  in  the  belief  that  the 
game  is  of  Hindoo  origin.  Dr. 
Forbes  has  discovered  in  Hindoo 
literature  documents  dating  back  to 
3000  years  B.C.,  describing  a  game 
which  certainly  represents,  in  a 
primitive  form,  the  modern  game  of 
Chess.  It  was  called  Chaturanga, 
which  means  Four  Parts,  because  it 
was  played  by  four  persons.  The 


board  had  64  squares,  as  now,  but 
all  of  the  same  color.  Each  player 
had  four  Pawns  and  four  Pieces — 
King,  Elephant,  Horse,  and  Ship, 
corresponding  to  our  King,  Bishop, 
Knight,  and  Rook.  The  moves  were 
at  first  determined  by  throwing 
DICE,  but  afterward  the  player 
moved  which  he  pleased.  The  King, 
Horse,  Ship,  and  Pawns  moved  like 
our  King,  Knight,  Rook,  and  Pawns, 
but  the  Elephant  (our  Bishop), 
could  advance  only  two  squares  at  a 
time.  The  Hindoos  took  the  game 


One  of  Charlemagne's  Chessmen. 


to  Persia,  where  the  name  was  cor- 
rupted to  Shatranj,  and  from  that 
country  it  spread  to  Arabia,  and 
thence  to  Europe,  being  probably 
taken  first  to  Spain  by  the  Moors. 
But  before  the  game  left  India  the 
number  of  players  was  reduced  to 
two,  each  with  a  double  set  of  men 
as  at  present.  Instead  of  having  two 
Kings,  however,  one  of  them  was  re- 
duced to  a  mere  counselor  or  general 
(our  Queen),  who  was  allowed  to 
move  only  one  square  diagonally. 
During  the  Middle  Ages,  but  at  what 
times  is  not  known,  the  powers  of 
the  Bishop  and  Queen  were  increased, 


CHESS 


185 


CHESS 


the  Pawns  were  allowed  to  jump  two 
squares  at  the  first  move,  and  cast- 
ling was  introduced. 


The  names  of  the  Chessmen  vary 
in  different  countries,  though  the 
principal  piece  is  everywhere  called 


Ancient  Chess  Kings. 


the  King,  and  the  second,  Queen  or 
Lady.     The  latter,  as  has  been  said, 


was  originally  a  minister  or  general, 
called    in   Persian    Farz    or  Firz, 


Modern  Chessmen. 


which  in  Europe  became  Farzia  or   this    was    corrupted     into    Vierge 
Fercia.     Some  say  that  in  France    (Virgin),  and  thus  the  piece  came  to 


CHESS 


1 86 


CHESS 


be  called  Dame  (Lady).  The  Per- 
sian Pil  (Elephant)  became  in  Ara- 
bic Al-Fil,  and  in  Spanish  Alferez. 
The  French  Fou  (fool)  is  corrupted 
from  the  same  word.  The  German 


Ancient  Chessmen. 

name  is  Laufer  (runner),  and  the 
pieces  are  called  Bishops  in  no  lan- 
guage but  English.  The  Hindoo 
Roka  (ship)  becomes  our  Rook  and 
the  Italian  Rocca.  The  latter  word 


means  a  rock  or  fortress,  so  the 
piece  is  called  also  Castle  in  English, 
Tour  (tower)  in  French,  and  Thurm 
(tower)  in  German,  and  is  made  to 
look  like  a  Tower.  The  Cavalry 
piece,  which  was  a  Horse  in  India, 
has  become  a  Knight  in  English  and 
Cavalier  in  French,  though  it  is  still 
made  like  a  Horse's  head.  The  Ger- 
mans call  it  Springer  (leaper).  The 
Pawn  was  first  called  Foot  Soldier,  in 
French  Pzon,  whence  our  Pawn. 
The  Germans  call  the  Pawns  Bauern 
(peasants). 
The  game  itself  is  called  in  French 


Game  of  Chess  with  Living  Chessmen.     (See  page  188.) 


£checs,  and  in  German  Schach, 
which,  with  our  word  Chess,  are 
probably  all  from  the  Persian  Shah, 
King,  though  some  say  they  are  from 
the  old  Hindoo  name  of  the  game, 
Chaturanga.  The  word  checkmate 
is  probably  from  the  Persian  Shah- 
mat  (the  King  is  dead). 

From  its  earliest  history  Chess  has 
been  a  favorite  game  with  great  men. 
Timur  or  Tamerlane,  the  Tartar  con- 
queror, invented  what  he  called  the 
"Great  Game,"  on  a  board  of  no 
squares,  and  invited  the  principal 
men  to  play  with  him  in  every  town 


he  entered,  sending  them  away  with 
presents,  whether  he  lost  or  won. 
The  Caliph  Haroun  Al  Raschid,  sent 
to  Charlemagne  a  fine  set  of  Chess- 
men, one  of  which  is  shown  in  the 
illustration.  The  game  was  a  fav- 
orite also  with  Voltaire,  Napoleon, 
Frederick  the  Great,  and  many  other 
celebrated  persons. 

Chess  is  said  to  be  the  only  game 
now  considered  harmless  by  all  relig- 
ious sects,  but  in  the  Middle  Ages 
it  was  often  condemned  with  other 
games  by  the  rulers  of  the  church. 
In  the  countries  most  remote  from 


CHESS 


18? 


CHESS 


European  influence  it  is  still  played 
in  the  old  way,  with   the  original 


Hindoo   or  Persian   moves  ;   but  in 
most  parts  of  the  world  it  is  played 


The  Automaton  Chess  Player.     (See  page  188.) 


as  with  us.  A  great  many  books 
have  been  written  about  it,  one  of  the 
first  of  which  was  by  Abul  Abbas,  a 
physician  of  Bagdad,  in  the  year  899. 
The  first  to  bring  Chess  into  public 
notice  in  this  country  was  Benjamin 
Franklin,  who  also  wrote  an  essay 
on  "The  Morals  of  Chess."  The 
game  was  little  played  here,  how- 
ever, before  1825.  In  1858  Paul 
Morphy,  an  American,  was  Chess 
champion  of  the  world,  and  he  is 
considered  by  some  the  finest  player 
that  ever  lived. 

The  forms  of  Chessmen  have  varied 
from  time  to  time.  The  Persians 
and  Arabs,  and  other  Mohammedan 
peoples,  being  forbidden  by  their 
religion  to  have  images  of  any  kind, 
usually  made  their  pieces  in  rude 
shapes,  though  sometimes  with  an 


Europe,  they  assumed  many  shapes, 
some  of  which  are  shown  in  the  pic- 


The  last  figures  on  page  185 


approach  to  a  figure.     In  Christian  j  show  examples  of  modern  Chessmen^ 


CHIVALRY 


1 88 


CHLORATE  OF  POTASH 


In  the  Middle  Ages  the  game  was 
sometimes  played  by  numarchs  with 
living  Chessmen  in  a  court  yard  paved 
to  represent  a  Chess  board,  as  shown 
on  page  186.  A  circular  chess-boaid 
was  sometimes  used  in  old  times. 
The  numbers  in  the  illustration  cor- 
respond to  the  following  names :  I, 
King;  2,  Queen;  3,  Rock  (Rook); 
4.  Aliin  (Bishop);  5,  Knight;  6, 
Pawn. 

A  so-called  Automaton  Chess 
Player  was  first  exhibited  in  Vienna, 
in  1769,  by  Wolfgang  von  Kempe- 
len,  an  Austrian  mechanician,  and  it 
was  bought  about  1805  by  John 
Maelzl,  who  brought  it  to  this 
country.  It  consisted  of  a  figure  of 
a  Turk  seated  behind  a  box  which, 
when  opened,  appeared  to  be  nearly 
full  of  machinery  that  was  supposed 
to  move  the  figure,  but  it  was  after- 
ward discovered  that  a  man  ingeni- 
ously concealed  in  the  box  was  the 
real  player.  The  man  could  tell  what 
pieces  were  moved  by  means  of  little 
magnets  under  the  board,  which  rose 
or  fell  as  the  squares  were  occupied 
or  not,  the  Chessmen  containing 
pieces  of  iron.  In  1842  the  automa- 
ton was  bought  by  a  gentleman  in 
Philadelphia,  and  in  1854  it  was  de- 
stroyed by  fire  in  that  city,  but  sev- 
eral imitations  of  it  have  since  been 
exhibited,  in  which  the  figure  was 
called  by  various  names,  such  as 
"  Mephisto  "  and  "  Ajeeb."  It  is  of 
course  impossible  to  make  a  mere 
machine  which  will  play  a  game  like 
Chess. 

CHIVALRY,  a  game  played  by 
two  persons  on  a  board  like  that  in 
the  figure.  The  squares  are  alter- 
nately light  and  dark,  and  the  letters, 
spots,  and  stars  are  gilt.  Each 
player  has  twelve  pieces  like  Pawns 
in  CHESS  and  eight  others,  slightly 
different,  called  Knights.  Each 
places  his  common  pieces  on  the 
two  rows  of  spots  nearest  him,  and 
his  Knights  on  the  squares  marked 
K. ,  and  the  players  take  turns  in  mov- 
ing, the  object  being  to  occupy  the 
two  opposite  gold  stars  with  any  two 


pieces.     Both  Knights  and  men  have 
three  kinds  of  moves. 

1.  The   common    move,  by  which 
the  piece  advances  one  square  in  any 
direction,  like  the  King  in  CHESS. 

2.  The  canter,  by   which  a  piece 
leaps   a   friendly   piece   to  the  next 
space  beyond  in  any  direction,  pro- 
vided   that    space  is  vacant.       The 
leaped  piece  remains  on   the  board. 
The  same  piece  can  make  as  many 
canters  as  it  wishes  in    one   move, 
but  is  not  obliged  to  canter  at  all. 

3.  The    jump,  by  which    a   piece 
leaps  an  enemy's  piece  in  any  direc- 
tion, provided  there  is  a  vacant  space 
just  beyond.     The  jumped   piece  is 
removed  from  the  board.     The  jump 


®® 


® 


® 


®® 


® 


Chivalry  Board. 

must  be  made,  if  there  is  a  chance, 
and  as  many  as  possible  must  be 
made  by  the  same  piece  in  one  move. 

The  plain  pieces  can  move,  canter, 
or  jump,  but  can  never  combine  two 
of  these  methods  in  one  play.  The 
Knights  can  combine  the  canter  and 
jump,  provided  that  all  canters  pre- 
cede all  jumps,  but  cannot  combine 
a  simple  move  with  either  of  the 
others.  The  game  differs  from 
CHECKERS  in  allowing  a  piece  to 
pass  over  one  on  the  same  side.  It 
is  entirely  a  game  of  skill. 

CHLORATE  OF  POTASH,  Ex- 
periment with.  Melt  a  teaspoonful 
of  chlorate  of  potash  in  a  test-tube. 


CHLORINE 


189 


CHOOSING  SIDES 


and  when  it  begins  to  boil  drop  into 
it  a  bit  of  charcoal  the  size  of  a  pea. 
The  charcoal  will  take  fire  and  jump 
about  in  the  tube.  The  reason  is 
that  heating  the  chlorate  of  potash 
sets  free  the  OXYGEN  in  it,  and  it  is 
this  that  causes  the  charcoal  to  burn 
so  vividly. 

CHLORINE,  Experiments  with. 
Chlorine  gas  is  described  in  C.  C.  T. 
The  easiest  way  to  make  it  is  to  put 
a  few  teaspoonfuls  of  chloride  of 
lime  in  the  bottom  of  a  glass  jar, 
and  pour  on  it  just  enough  dilute  sul- 
phuric acid  to  cover  it.  Chlorine 
will  at  once  begin  to  be  formed,  and 
owing  to  its  weight  will  remain  in 
the  jar  if  a  piece  of  paper  be  placed 
over  the  mouth  to  prevent  draughts. 
The  experimenter  must  avoid  breath- 
ing the  gas,  as  it  is  very  irritating  to 
the  lungs.  If  it  be  desired  to  keep 
the  jar  clean,  the  chloride  of  lime 
maybe  put  into  a  small  wide-mouthed 
bottle,  like  a  vaseline  bottle,  which  is 
lowered  into  the  jar  by  a  string  tied 
around  the  neck,  and  the  sulphuric 
acid  is  then  poured  into  the  small 
bottle  by  means  of  a  funnel.  When 
enough  gas  has  been  made  to  fill 
the  jar,  the  little  bottle  is  withdrawn 
by  means  of  the  string.  The  chlo- 
rine, made  in  this  way,  comes  from 
the  chloride  of  lime.  Chlorine  may 
be  prepared  in  several  other  ways, 
but  the  one  just  given  is  the  simplest. 
In  making  and  experimenting  with 
this  gas,  it  is  best  to  stand  in  a 
draught,  so  that  what  escapes  may 
be  carried  awav  from  the  experi- 
menter. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

i.  One-third  fill  a  small  jar  of 
chlorine  with  water  ;  then  place  the 
hand  tightly  over  the  mouth  of  the 
jar  and  shake  the  contents  a  few 
minutes.  It  will  be  found  that  the 
hand  sticks  to  the  jar,  as  if  the  air  had 
been  partially  pumped  out  by  an  air 
pump  (C.  C.  T.).  The  reason  of  this 
is  that  water  dissolves  chlorine  easily 
and  thus  makes  the  pressure  in  the 
jar  less  than  that  of  the  air  without. 

Note.     Owing  to  the  attraction  of 


chlorine  for  water  it  often  gets  laden 
with  moisture,  and  to  insure  the 
success  of  some  of  the  following  ex- 
periments, the  gas  may  have  to  be 
dried.  This  may  be  done  by  shaking 
in  the  jar  several  bits  of  pumice  stone 
wet  with  strong  sulphuric  acid. 

2.  It  will  be  found  impossible  to 
burn  a  jet  of  chlorine  in  the  air,  but 
it  may  be  burned  in  hydrogen,  using 
the  apparatus  described  in  the  arti- 
cle OXYGEN,  for  burning  oxygen  in 
hydrogen. 

3.  Lower  a  burning  candle,  or  a 
lighted  wood-splinter,  into  a  jar  of 
chlorine.     It  will  continue  to  burn, 
but  will  give  off  a  dense  black  smoke, 
The  reason   is   that   chlorine    likes 
hydrogen  but  not  carbon  (see  C.  C. 
T.).       Candles    and   wood    contain 
both  these  elements,  so  the  chlorine 
unites  with  the  hydrogen  and  throws 
off  the  carbon  in  a  cloud  of  black 
particles. 

4.  Dip  in  oil  of  turpentine  a  bit 
of   cotton   fastened   to   the   end   of 
a  piece  of  wire.      Heat  it  by  holding 
it  over  a  stove  for  a  moment,  and 
then  plunge  it  into  a  jar  of  chlorine. 
If  it  has  been  warmed  enough  it  will 
take  fire,  burning  with  a  dense  black 
smoke. 

5.  To  bleach  with  chlorine.  Hang 
in  a  jar  of  chlorine  a  bit  of  colored 
cloth,  or  a  flower,  and  the  color  will 
be  taken  out.      Ink  spots  can  be  re- 
moved from  cloth  or  paper  in  the 
same   way.       It    is    necessary   that 
either  the  chlorine  or  the  article  to 
be  bleached  be  slightly  moist,  as  dry 
chlorine  will  not  bleach.      A  solu- 
tion of  the  gas,  called  chlorine  water, 
may  be  prepared  as  in  experiment  I, 
and  can  be  used  for  bleaching  or  as 
a  disinfectant.      Pour  some  on  any 
ill-smelling  or  colored  substance,  and 
in  most  cases  the  bad   odor,  or  the 
color,  will  disappear. 

6.  Into  a  jar  of  chlorine  sprinkle 
powdered  antimony.    It  will  take  fire 
as  it  enters  the  gas. 

CHOOSING  SIDES,  or  Choos- 
ing Up.  In  many  games  where 
the  players  are  divided  into  two 


CHOOSING  SIDES 


190 


CHRISTMAS  SPORTS 


opposite  parties,  some  way  of  choos- 
ing sides  is  necessary.  In  most 
cases  two  captains  are  first  agreed 
upon.  The  captains  decide  which 
shall  have  first  choice,  and  then,  in 
turn,  choose  the  other  players,  one 
by  one.  As  soon  as  a  player  is 
chosen  he  stands  near  his  captain. 
The  first  choice  is  determined  by 
lot,  and  there  are  many  ways  of 
deciding  it,  some  of  which  are  given 
below. 

I.  By  drawing  cuts.     One  captain 
holds  in  his  hand  a  long  and  a  short 
piece  of  paper  or  wood,  of  which  he 
shows  only  the  ends.      The  other 
draws  one  of  them,  and  the  player 
holding  the    short    piece  has    first 
choice. 

II.  By  throwing  up  a  coin.     One 
captain  throws  a  coin  into  the  air 
while  the  other  cries  either  "  head  " 
or  ''  tail."     If  the  side  of  the  coin 
which  he  mentions  comes  uppermost, 
he  has  first  choice ;  otherwise,  the 
tosser  has  it.       The  side  with  the 
date   on    is  always    considered  the 
head  ;  the  other  the  tail. 

III.  In  games  played  with  a  racket, 
the  racket   is   used   as  the  coin  is 
above,   except    that    the    cries    are 
"  rough  "  and  "  smooth,"  correspond- 
ing to  the  rough  and  smooth  sides 
of  the  racket. 

IV.  In  games  played  with  a  bat  or 


Fig.  i. — Choosing  Sides. 


stick  of  any  kind,  like  baseball  or 
hockey,  the  first  choice  is  often  de- 
cided thus:  One  of  the  captains,  A, 
holds  the  bat  upright,  and  throws  it 
to  the  other  B,  who  catches  it  in  one 
hand,  also  holding  it  upright.  A 
then  grasps  the  bat  in  one  hand 
above  where  B  is  holding  it  and  as 
Icose  to  B's  hand  as  possible.  B 
then  lets  go  and  grasps  the  bat  above 
A's  hand  in  like  manner.  Thus  they 
go  on  in  turn,  and  the  one  who  holds 
the  bat  nearest  its  end  (as  in  Fig.  I, 
without  letting  his  hand  reach  be- 
yond it),  has  first  choice.  A  hand  is 
judged  to  be  below  the  end  of  the  bat 
when  a  stick  laid  across  that  end, 


Fig.  2.— Choosing  Sides. 

as  in   Fig.   2,   does  not  touch   the 
hand. 

V.  A   number  of    playing    cards 
equal  to  that  of  the  players,  half  red 
and  half  black,  may  be  shuffled  and 
then  dealt  one  to  each.     The  holders 
of  black  cards  play  on  one  side,  and 
those  of  red  cards  on  the  other. 

VI.  One  of  the  captains  shuts  his 
eyes  or  turns  his  back  on  the  other, 
who  holds  up  as  many  fingers  as  he 
chooses  and  says  "  Odd  or  even  ?  " 
If  the  first  named   captain   answer 
correctly,  he  has  the  first  choice ;  if 
not,  the  other  has  it. 

CHRISTMAS  SPORTS.  Christ- 
mas Day,  the  25th  of  December,  is 
celebrated  throughout  the  Christian 
world  by  the  giving  of  presents  in 
different  ways,  which  will  be  de- 
scribed separately. 

Christmas  Trees.  The  present 
are  hung  on  an  evergreen  tree,  which 


CHRISTMAS  SPORTS 


191 


CHRISTMAS  SPORTS 


is  decorated  and  lighted  with  candles. 
The  best  Christmas  trees  are  of 
spruce,  but  hemlock,  cedar,  or  any 
evergreen  may  be  used.  A  symmet- 
rical and  graceful  tree  should  be 
selected,  one  whose  limbs  incline  up- 
ward but  little,  and  stout  enough  to 
bend  but  slightly  when  laden  with 
presents. 

Stands  to  keep  the  tree  upright 
may  be  bought  in  cities,  but  one  can 
easily  be  made  from  an  old  packing 
box  by  nailing  strips  of  wood  across 
to  hold  it  in  place,  as  shown  in  the  il- 
lustration. If  the  tree  is  tall,  the  box 
should  be  weighted  by  filling  with 
stones,  or  sand,  after  it  is  put  in  its 
place.  A  sheet  or  rug  should  be 
spread  on  the  floor  to  catch  candle 


Manner  of  Fastening  Tree. 

drippings,  and  another  one  over 
the  box  and  close  around  the 
tree. 

Decoration.  Many  beautiful  or- 
naments of  glass  or  metal  are  to  be 
bought  at  toy-shops  for  tree  decora- 
tion ;  others  may  be  made  at  home. 
Almost  anything  bright  colored  or 
shining  looks  well  on  a  Christmas 
tree.  Pasteboard  cut  into  odd  shapes 
and  covered  with  gilt  or  colored 
paper,  bits  of  new  tin  or  looking 
glass,  or  small  fruits,  may  be  used 
with  effect.  Pop  corn  strung  on 
thread  and  intertwined  among  the 
branches  looks  well.  Fruit  or  nuts 
may  be  painted  with  gold  paint,  or 
covered  with  gilt  paper,  and  hung  to 
the  tree  with  colored  ribbon. 


Lighting.  Trees  are  usually 
lighted  with  colored  tapers,  about 
three  inches  long,  fastened  to  the 
branches  with  holders.  The  best 
holders  are  fitted  to  a  wire,  which 


Candle  Holders. 


in  most  cases. 


has  at  the  lower 
end  a  colored  ball 
the  weight  of  which 
keeps  the  candle 
upright.  Others 
are  fastened  to  the 
branch  with  sharp 
ends  but  have  the 
disadvantage  that 
a  motion  of  the 
branch  tips  them. 
Both  kinds  are 
shown  in  the  cut. 
The  candles  should 
be  distributed  as 
evenly  as  possible. 
A  row  of  candles 
along  only  one 
branch  looks  bad 
Each  candle  should 
be  lighted  and  allowed  to  burn  a 
few  seconds  before  putting  it  in  place. 
In  placing  the  candles,  it  should  be 
seen  that  all  loose  things  above  them 
are  trimmed  off,  so  that  there  is  no 
danger  of  fire.  One  or  two  extra 
candles  should  be  provided  to  light 
the  tapers  with,  and  a  sponge  or  rag 
saturated  with  water  to  extinguish 
any  that  appear  likely  to  set  fire  to 
the  tree.  It  should  be  the  sole  busi- 
ness of  one  person,  while  the  tree  re- 
mains lighted,  to  take  charge  of  the 
sponge,  and  each  candle,  as  it  burns 
down  into  the  socket,  should  be  put 
out.  A  tree  may  be  lighted  with  gas 
by  having  a  gas-fitter  run  pipes  up 
the  back  of  the  trunk  and  along  the 
branches,  but  nothing  equals  the 
effect  of  tapers.  There  should  be 
plenty  of  them  :  a  small  tree  six  feet 
high  should  have  not  less  than  50, 
and  larger  sizes  in  proportion.  A 


CHRISTMAS  SPORTS 


192 


CHRISTMAS  SPORTS 


tree  twelve  feet  high  would  need 
about  400  candles. 

Presents.  The  presents  may  be 
hung  on  the  tree,  or  placed  on  the 
box  and  floor  beneath.  Presents  on 
the  tree  are  fastened  to  the  branches 
by  strings  or  ribbons,  which  are  to  be 
cut  by  the  one  who  removes  them. 
Each  present  should  be  marked 
plainly  with  the  name  of  giver  and 
receiver,  which  should  be  read  aloud 
when  they  are  taken  down.  Instead 
of  a  Christmas  tree,  the  presents  are 
sometimes  hung  on  a  ladder,  on  the 
rounds  of  which  tapers  are  fastened, 
the  presents  and  decorations  being 
hung  to  it  just  as  to  a  tree.  The 
ladder  should  be  wound  with  a  green 
wreath  before  decorating.  A  Christ- 
mas ladder  is  much  more  easily  pre- 
pared than  a  tree,  and  looks  very 
well. 

Christmas  Ship.  Presents  may 
be  hung  also  on  a  toy  ship  instead 
of  on  a  tree.  The  ship  may  be 
bought  at  a  toy  shop,  and  the  pres- 
ents should  be  placed  inside  and 
hung  on  the  masts  and  rigging,  which 
are  wound  with  greens  and  decorated 
with  tapers.  Or  the  model  of  a 
floating  ship  may  be  made,  water 
being  represented  by  green  cloth, 
beneath  which,  under  the  ship,  is  a 
box,  where  the  presents  are  stowed, 
and  from  which  they  can  be  taken 
out  through  the  hatchways. 

Bran  Pie.  Presents  are  some- 
times given  in  a  large  imitation  pie, 
which  is  placed  on  the  table  Christ- 
mas morning.  The  presents,  wrapped 
in  paper,  are  put  into  a  large  pan 
and  the  spaces  between  them  filled 
with  bran  or  sawdust.  The  top  is 
covered  with  pie  crust,  which  is 
browned  in  the  oven,  provided  none 
of  the  presents  can  be  injured  by 
heat.  Another  way  is  to  make  the 
top  of  the  pie  of  thick  brown  paper. 
When  set  on  the  table,  part  of  the 
crust  is  removed  and  the  presents 
are  taken,  one  by  one,  out  of  the 
bran. 

Stockings.  Small  Christmas  pres- 
ents are  often  put  into  stockings, 


hung  by  the  fireplace  on  Christmas 
eve,  larger  ones  being  laid  on  chairs 
near  by.  Sometimes  a  large  stock- 
ing, several  feet  long,  made  especially 
for  the  purpose,  is  hung  up  to  receive 
all  the  presents. 

Santa  Claus.  Santa  Claus  may 
be  personated  by  a  boy  or  man 
dressed  in  a  thick  fur  coat,  cap,  and 
gloves,  and  stuffed  out  with  pillows 
so  as  to  look  very  fat.  His  face 
should  be  so  muffled  that  only  eyes 
and  nose  are  visible,  and  his  nose 
and  cheeks  should  be  colored  red 
with  carmine. 

There  are  several  effective  ways 
of  having  Santa  Claus  enter  the  room. 
One  way  is  for  him  to  rattle  a  string 
of  sleighbells  just  outside,  first  very 
softly,  and  then  louder  and  louder  as 
if  his  sleigh  were  approaching ;  finally 
he  cries  "  Whoa!  "  and  then  enters 
the  house — through  a  window  if  it 
can  be  arranged  ;  otherwise  through 
the  door.  He  may  carry  the  presents 
on  his  back  in  a  pack,  or  they  may 
be  already  arranged  on  a  tree  for  him 
to  distribute. 

Another  way  is  to  place  a  wooden 
mantel  in  front  of  a  door,  and  cover 
the  upper  part  of  the  doorway  with 
cloth,  so  that  the  whole  looks  like  a 
chimney-piece.  Santa  Claus  can 
thus  enter  the  room  through  the 
fireplace  under  the  mantel,  as  if  he 
had  come  down  the  chimney.  A 
chair  should  be  placed  at  one  side  of 
the  doorway,  behind  it,  and  Santa 
Claus  should  step  down  from  it,  so 
that  to  those  on  the  other  side  he 
will  appear  to  be  descending  from  the 
roof.  He  may  carry  all  his  presents 
at  once,  or,  if  there  are  too  many, 
leave  them  in  the  "  chimney,"  and 
return  now  and  then  for  a  fresh 
supply.  Large  stockings  may  be 
hung  on  either  side  of  the  imitation 
chimney-piece,  into  which  he  may 
cram  the  presents,  which  are  then 
taken  out  by  some  one  else  and  dis- 
tributed. The  one  who  takes  the  part 
of  Santa  Claus  should  talk  in  a  gruff 
voice  as  he  gives  the  presents,  mak- 
ing remarks  appropriate  to  each  one. 


CHRISTMAS   SPORTS 


History.  The  celebration  of  a  day 
as  the  birthday  of  Christ  was  begun 
very  early.  By  some  it  is  said  to 
have  been  instituted  by  Pope  Teles- 
phorus,  who  lived  early  in  the  second 
century.  At  first  different  days  were 
kept  in  different  parts  of  the  world, 
the  Eastern  churches  observing  gen- 
erally some  day  in  April  or  May.  In 
the  fourth  century  learned  men  were 
ordered  to  determine  the  exact  birth- 
day of  Christ,  and  they  settled  on 
the  25th  of  December,  which  has 
since  been  adopted  by  all  Christians, 
though  it  is  probable  that  that  was 


not  the  day  after  all.  It  is  said  that 
this  date  was  originally  celebrated 
at  Rome  because  a  heathen  festival 
called  the  Saturnalia  had  been  held 
at  that  time,  and  so  the  common 
people  would  not  have  to  change 
their  time  of  revelry.  During  the 
middle  ages  Christmas  was  cele- 
brated by  the  performance  of  re- 
ligious plays  called  "  mysteries  "  or 
"  moralities,"  where  different  people 
took  the  parts  of  the  Virgin  Mary, 
Joseph,  King  Herod,  etc.  These 
plays  are  acted  even  now  in  some 
parts  of  Germany,  and  the  illustra- 


The  Star-bearer,  Mary  and  Joseph,  and  the  Angel. 


tions  show  the  costumes  of  some  of 
the  characters.  The  festival  was 
also  the  time  for  singing,  dancing, 
and  all  kinds  of  revels.  "  Feasts  of 
Fools  and  Asses,"  as  they  were 
called,  were  held,  in  which  every- 
thing serious  was  burlesqued.  These 
were  sometimes  called  "  December 
liberties."  In  Germany  and  the 
North  of  Europe  the  season  became 
especially  devoted  to  children.  In 
England  the  Christmas  festivities  in 
every  large  house  were  in  charge  of 
a  "  Lord  of  Misrule,"  or  "  Abbot  of 
Unreason,"  and  they  continued  till 


Candlemas  Day,  February  2.  In 
every  house  was  built  a  great  fire  of 
logs,  the  largest  of  which,  called  the 
"  Yule  log  "  (Yule  being  the  ancient 
Saxon  name  for  Christmas),  was 
brought  into  the  house  with  great 
ceremony.  Among  the  favorite 
Christmas  games  were  giving  rid- 
dles, HOT  COCKLES,  Snap  Dragon 
(See  HALLOWEEN),  FORFEITS,  and 
dancing.  The  Christmas  dish  was 
a  boar's  head,  which  was  brought  in 
on  a  silver  platter  with  much  cere- 
mony. The  custom  of  decorating 
houses  and  churches  with  greens  is 


CHRISTMAS   SPORTS 


194 


CHRISTMAS   SPORTS 


said  to  have  been  derived  from  the 
ancient  Druids,  who  thought  that  if 
a  green  branch  was  suspended  in 
the  house  the  good  spirits  of  the 


Satan. 

woods  would  take  refuge  in  it  dur- 
ing the  cold  of  winter.  The  Puri- 
tans disapproved  of  Christmas  rev- 
elry, and  put  a  stop  to  it  largely 
when  they  came  into  power.  The 
last  "  Lord  of  Misrule  "  in  England 
is  said  to  have  been  appointed  in 
1627. 

In  many  parts  of  Europe  it  is  cus- 
tomary for  a  man  with  a  mask  over 
his  face,  dressed  in  outlandish  fash- 
ion, to  go  the  rounds  of  the  houses  in 
a  village,  pretending  that  he  is  going 
to  punish  bad  children.  This  char- 
acter is  called  Ruprecht  in  Germany, 
Krampus  in  lower  Austria,  Hans 
Trapp  in  Alsace,  and  has  other  names 
in  other  places.  Sometimes  he  ac- 
companies a  man  dressed  as  St. 
Nicholas  or  Santa  Claus,  or  a  girl 
dressed  as  the  Christ-child,  who 
brings  presents. 

The  Christmas  tree  is  supposed  to 
be  derived  from  the  old  German  leg- 


end that  the  world  was  a  great  tree 
whose  top  was  in  Paradise.  It  was 
first  decorated  in  honor  of  the  god- 
dess of  spring  while  the  Germans 
were  still  pagans.  At  the  time  of 
the  Reformation,  the  Protestants, 
who  wished  to  break  away  from  all 
Roman  Catholic  customs,  adopted 
this  tree  for  their  Christmas  festivities 
instead  of  the  Presipio,  or  manger, 
which  is  still  used  largely  in  Roman 
Catholic  countries.  Some  Presipios 
cost  large  sums  of  money  and  rep- 
resent the  Holy  Family  gathered 
around  the  infant  Jesus,  while  angels 
sing  in  the  clouds  above.  Presipios 
are  used  in  churches  and  in  private 
houses,  just  as  we  have  Christmas 
trees  for  Sunday  -  schools  and  at 
home. 

In  Poland,  Christmas  gifts  are 
hidden  in  various  places  thoughout 
the  house,  and  the  members  of  the 
family  search  for  them.  In  Sweden 
and  Denmark  presents  are  wrapped 
up  in  all  sorts  of  queer  ways,  some- 
times in  bundles  of  hay  or  wool,  and 
thrown  in  at  doors  or  windows  at 
unexpected  times.  The  packages 
are  called  Jueklapps  (Christmas 
boxes).  Each  one  is  labeled  with 
the  name  of  the  person  for  whom  it 


The  Three  Kings. 

is  intended,  and  sometimes  a  verse 
or  quotation  is  added. 

Settlers  from  different  countries 
brought  their  various  customs  with 
them  to  this  country,  so  our  cele- 
bration of  Christmas  is  made  up  of 


CIRCULAR   SAW 


195 


CLAP  IN  AND  CLAP  OUT 


those  of  several  nations.  The  Eng- 
lish brought  theirs  to  Virginia,  the 
Dutch  to  New  York,  and  the  Swedes 
to  Delaware.  In  New  England, 
owing  to  the  opposition  of  the  Puri- 
tans to  the  celebration  of  the  day,  it 
was  not  observed  at  all  in  old  times. 
The  Christmas  tree  is  taken  from 


The  Pharisees. 

Germany,  and  the  legend  of  Santa 
Claus  (St.  Nicholas)  was  brought 
by  the  Dutch  to  New  York.  In  the 
South  the  day  is  made  the  occasion 
for  setting  off  fire-crackers  and  fire- 
works, which  makes  it  seem  much 
like  Fourth  of  July  in  the  North. 

CHROMOTROPE.  See  FOURTH 
OF  JULY. 

CIRCULAR  SAW,  a  toy  consist- 
ing of  a  disk  of  tin,  through  which 
are  bored  two  holes  from  an  inch  to 
an  inch  and  a  half  apart,  and  equi- 
distant from  the  center.  A  string 


two  or  three  feet  long  is  passed 
through  each  of  these  holes,  and  the 
ends  tied.  Holding  one  end  in  each 
hand  so  that  the  disk  is  in  the  mid- 
dle, the  player  twirls  the  disk  till  the 
string  is  well  twisted,  and  then  pull- 
ing his  hands  apart,  forces  the  string 
to  untwist  and  spin  the  disk.  At 
the  moment  when  all  the  twist  is  out 
of  the  string  the  hands  are  brought 
slowly  together  again,  and  the  disk 
goes  on  twirling,  twisting  the  string 
in  the  opposite  direction.  By  pull- 
ing the  hands  apart  again,  the  disk 
will  spin  in  the  opposite  direction, 
and  it  can  thus  be  kept  on  spinning 
as  long  as  the  player  chooses.  Teeth 
can  be  cut  on  the  edge  of  the  disk  to 
imitate  a  circular  saw.  The  edges 
of  the  holes  in  a  tin  saw  cut  the 
string,  so  similar  toys  are  sometimes 
made  of  stiff  pasteboard,  but  these 
are  not  so  durable.  The  saws  are 
sometimes  called  water  cutters,  be- 
cause, when  the  edge  is  made  to 
touch  the  surface  of  the  water  in  a 
basin,  a  shower  of  spray  is  sent  out. 
The  toy  may  be  made  of  any  con- 
venient size,  but  it  is  usually  from 
three  to  six  inches  in  diameter. 

CLAP  IN  AND  CLAP  OUT,  a 
game  played  by  any  number  of  boys 
and  girls.  The  boys  stand  each  be- 
hind a  chair,  and  the  girls  go  into 
another  room.  One  of  the  players, 
who  acts  as  keeper  of  the  door  be- 
tween the  two  rooms,  asks  one  of 
the  boys  to  choose  a  girl.  The  door- 
keeper then  opens  the  door  and  calls 
the  girl  thus  chosen,  who  must  sit 


Circular  Saw. 


down  in  one  of  the  chairs.  If  she 
sit  in  front  of  the  boy  who  chose  her, 
he  kisses  her  and  she  keeps  her  seat, 
but  if  not,  all  the  boys  clap  their 
hands  as  a  sign  that  she  is  wrong, 


and  she  must  leave  the  room  again. 
The  door-keeper  asks  another  boy 
to  choose,  and  the  game  goes  on 
till  all  the  chairs  are  filled.  The 
boys  then  leave  the  room,  the  girls 


CLIPPED   SQUARES 


196 


COASTING 


stand  behind  the  chairs,  and  the 
game  is  repeated.  The  play  is  often 
varied  by  calling  in  three  or  four  at 
a  time. 

CLIPPED  SQUARES,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
with  paper  and  scissors.  Each 
player  cuts  a  square,  and  then  clips 
it  into  four  pieces  by  two  straight 
cuts  of  the  scissors.  He  then  mixes 
the  pieces  and  passes  them  to  the 
player  on  his  left.  All  the  players 
now  try  to  arrange  the  bits  so  as  to 
make  the  original  square,  and  at  the 
expiration  of  five  minutes,  or  any 
other  period  agreed  on  beforehand, 
those  who  have  been  successful  score 
one  point.  Each  one  now  passes 
his  pieces  to  the  left  again,  and  so  on 
till  each  has  had  before  him  all  the 
clipped  squares,  in  regular  order. 
He  who  has  scored  most  points  is 
the  winner.  The  time  limit  must  be 
arranged  according  to  the  skill  of 
the  players.  If  no  one  has  solved 
his  puzzle  at  the  expiration  of  the 
time  it  should  be  longer ;  if  almost 
all  have  succeeded,  it  should  be 
made  shorter. 

The  task  of  putting  the  pieces  to- 
gether seems  very  simple  at  first, 
but  in  reality  it  is  difficult.  The  four 
pieces  can  be  put  together  in  no  less 
than  256  different  ways,  only  one  of 
which  forms  a  square. 

The  game  can  be  played  as  a 
SOLITAIRE  by  simply  clipping  a 
square  and  then  trying  to  put  it  to- 
gether again,  which  will  be  found 
almost  as  difficult  as  though  the 
clipping  had  been  done  by  another 
person. 

CLUB  SWINGING.  See  GYMNAS- 
TICS. 

CLUMPS,  a  guessing  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons.  Two  of 
the  players,  who  act  as  captains, 
choose  sides,  and  then  each  captain 
sends  one  of  his  men  out  of  the  room. 
The  two  thus  sent  agree  on  the 
name  of  any  person  or  object,  real 
or  fictitious,  to  be  guessed  by  the 
rest  of  the  company.  Each  of  the 
two  then  sits  down  among  the 


players  of  the  opposing  side,  who 
try  to  guess  the  object  that  has  been 
selected,  by  asking  him  questions,  to 
which  he  is  permitted  to  reply  only 
"  yes,"  "  no,"  or  "  I  do  not  know." 
The  players  on  the  side  that  succeeds 
first  in  guessing  announce  the  fact 
by  clapping  their  hands,  and  the 
winning  captain  can  then  choose  a 
man  from  the  defeated  side.  Two 
men  are  then  sent  out  again,  and  the 
game  may  go  on  till  all  but  one  of 
the  players  on  one  side  have  been 
chosen,  when  it  must  cease,  because 
two  on  a  side  at  least,  are  necessary, 
one  to  ask  questions,  and  one  for 
the  enemy's  side  to  question.  As 
this  generally  takes  a  long  time,  an 
hour  may  be  agreed  on  beforehand, 
when  the  players  are  to  be  counted, 
and  the  side  with  the  greater  number 
wins.  The  sides  are  often  called 
Clumps. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  The  two   Clumps   must  sit  in 
separate  rooms  or,  if  this  is  impossi- 
ble, at   opposite   ends  of  the  same 
room. 

2.  The  questioning  shall  begin  at 
exactly  the  same  time  on  each  side, 
by  any  signal  that  may  be  agreed  on. 

3.  To  avoid  confusion,  the  captain 
on  each  side  shall  put  the  questions 
for  his  Clump,  which  may  be  sug- 
gested to  him   by   members   of  the 
Clump  in  any  order. 

4.  If  any  question  is  put  in  such  a 
form  that  it  cannot  be  answered  by 
"yes,"  "no,"  or  "I  do  not  know," 
no  answer  at  all  shall  be  made. 

5.  As  soon  as  the  subject  is  guessed 
each  of  the  questioned  players  shall 
return  to  his  own  Clump,  unless  he 
be  the  one  chosen  by  the  winning 
side. 

6.  Neither  of  the  captains  shall  be 
chosen. 

COASTING.  (See C.C.T., Sleigh). 
There  are  three  principal  ways  of 
riding  on  a  sled  ;  sitting,  lying,  or 
kneeling  on  one  knee,  each  of  which 
positions  has  its  advantages.  In 
sitting,  if  the  rider  runs  against  any- 
thing his  feet  bear  the  shock,  but  he 


COASTING 


197 


COASTING 


cannot  easily  take  a  run  in  starting. 
In  lying  flat,  the  coaster  starts  by 
holding  his  sled  upright  in  both 
hands,  taking  a  short  run,  then 
stooping  and  throwing  himself  face 
downward  on  the  sled.  Besides  the 
advantages  gained  by  such  a  start  it 
is  easier  to  steer  in  this  position,  but 
he  is  more  apt  to  be  hurt  in  a  col- 
lision, since  his  head  is  foremost. 
Many  coasters  prefer  the  third 
position,  kneeling  on  one  knee,  or 
jitting  sidewise  on  the  rear  of  the 
3led,  and  steering  with  one  leg, 
which  is  trailed  behind.  This  is  the 
best  plan  when  more  persons  than 
one  are  on  the  same  sled.  All  sit 
upright  but  the  hindmost  one,  who 
does  the  steering.  The  steersman 
should  keep  a  sharp  lookout  ahead 
for  curves  and  obstacles  of  all  kinds. 

On  a  hill  crowded  with  coasters, 
it  is  the  duty  of  those  who  are  walk- 
ing up  to  keep  out  of  the  way  of  the 
sliders.  A  coaster  should  never 
descend  a  hill  on  which  there  is  a 
vehicle  going  either  way,  and  if 
there  is  much  passing,  there  should 
be  no  coasting  there  at  all.  In  many 
places  coasting  on  such  hills  is  for- 
bidden by  law,  but  in  some  towns 
certain  streets  are  set  apart  specially 
for  the  use  of  coasters. 

The  two  chief  kinds  of  sleds  are 
the  high  and  the  low,  the  former 
sometimes  called  cutters,  and  the 
latter  in  some  piaces  "  pickerel "  or 
"  pig-stickers."  The  former  have 
runners  of  open  framework,  shod 
with  iron  ;  the  latter  have  solid  wood 
runners  shod  with  bars  of  steel, 
fastened  only  at  the  ends.  The  run- 
ners of  the  high  sleds  curve  upward 
sharply  in  front,  while  those  of  the 
low  ones  curve  but  slightly  and  end 
in  a  sharp  point.  The  low  sleds  are 
best  suited  for  a  coaster  lying  flat, 
and  for  smoothly  worn  hills,  while 
the  others  are  fitted  for  tracks  on 
which  the  loose  snow  is  an  inch  or 
so  deep.  The  sleds  called  "  bobs  " 
or  "  double  rippers  "  are  formed  by 
joining  two  ordinary  sleds  of  the 
same  height  by  a  plank  ten  to  twenty 


feet  long.  This  plank  is  fastened 
firmly  to  the  rear  sled,  and  pivoted 
to  the  forward  one  so  that  it  will 
turn  freely.  The  steering  is  usually 
done  with  the  forward  sled  ;  if  it 
projects  beyond  the  plank,  the 
steersman  lies  at  full  length  and 
holds  the  curved  ends  of  the  runners 
one  in  each  hand,  thus  being  able  to 
turn  the  rudder-sled  in  whichever 
direction  the  bob  is  to  be  steered. 
Sometimes  the  pivot  on  which  the 
sled  turns  is  brought  up  through  the 
plank  and  fitted  with  a  lever,  so  that 
the  helmsman  may  sit  upright  as  he 
steers.  A  short  bob  may  have  both 
sleds  fixed,  and  be  steered  behind, 
like  an  ordinary  sled,  and  sometimes 
the  guiding  is  done  with  an  extra 
runner,  something  like  the  rudder  of 
an  ice-boat.  In  any  case,  the  last 
passenger  on  the  bob  starts  it  by 
running  and  pushing,  and  jumps  into 
his  seat  just  as  the  proper  speed  is 
attained. 

Some  bobs  are  expensively  made 
of  fine  wood,  beautifully  polished 
and  fitted  with  cushions  for  the  pas- 
sengers. There  is  usually  a  hand- 
rail on  each,  by  which  the  coasters 
may  hold  on. 

Accidents  in  coasting,  as  in  other 
sports,  occur  usually  through  heed- 
lessness  or  neglect.  With  a  single 
sled,  the  coaster  is  responsible  only 
for  his  own  safety,  but  in  "  bobbing  " 
a  load  of  from  four  to  ten  passengers 
are  at  the  mercy  of  the  steersman, 
and  they  should  be  careful  to  ride 
with  no  one  who  is  not  clear-headed 
and  prudent.  If  the  hill  is  a  proper 
one  and  the  bob  or  sled  is  well 
steered,  coasting  is  as  safe  as  any 
other  sport. 

Coasting  has  undoubtedly  been  fol- 
lowed as  a  sport  in  cold  countries 
from  the  most  ancient  times  in  some 
rude  form  or  other.  Even  animals 
practise  it,  the  otter  being  very  fond 
of  sliding  down  slippery  banks  either 
of  mud  or  snow,  on  his  belly.  The 
sport  was  probably  first  reduced  to 
a  system  in  Russia.  (See  the  history 
of  TOBOGANNING.) 


COBALT   CHLORIDE 


198 


COINS 


COBALT  CHLORIDE,  Experi- 
ments with.  I.  Write  on  a  piece  of 
paper  with  an  ink  made  of  cobalt 
chloride  dissolved  in  water.  The 
marks  will  be  nearly  invisible  till 
heated,  when  they  will  turn  greenish 
blue. 

2.  Draw  a  landscape  in  ordinary 
ink,  afterward  filling  in  the  leaves 
and  grass  with  cobalt  chloride.  The 
picture  will  represent  winter  or  sum- 
mer according  as  it  is  damp  or  dried. 

COHESION  FIGURES.  Figures 
formed  by  dropping  oil  on  water. 
Let  a  drop  of  pure  sperm  oil  fall  into 


Oleographs  of  Tallow  and  Lard. 

a  basin  or  plate  full  of  water.  The 
drop  will  quickly  enlarge  into  a  cir- 
cular film  of  oil,  which  breaks  at  the 
edges  into  ragged  holes.  Finally  the 


center  becomes  filled  with  little  holes, 
forming  curious  figures.  The  film 
continues  to  change  for  about  half  an 
hour.  Castor  oil  gives  smaller  figures, 
and  in  general  every  kind  of  oil  gives 
figures  of  a  different  shape.  These 
figures  can  be  preserved  by  laying  a 
piece  of  glazed  paper  carefully  on 
the  surface  of  the  water  after  the 
film  has  assumed  the  desired  shape. 
The  paper  is  then  laid  on  an  inked 
plate,  or  an  inked  roller  is  passed 
over  it.  The  ink  sticks  to  the  paper 
except  where  the  oil  has  made  it 
greasy,  hence  the  cohesion  figures 
appear  in  white  on  a  black  ground. 
These  are  sometimes  called  oleo- 
graphs. The  illustrations  show  oleo- 
graphs of  tallow  and  lard. 

COINS,  Tricks  with.  i.  Head 
or  Tail.  To  tell  blindfold  whether 
a  spun  coin  falls  head  or  tail  upward. 
The  coin  used  must  be  prepared  by 
cutting  on  the  edge  of  one  face  a 
minute  notch  causing  a  little  point  of 
metal  to  project.  When  the  coin  is 
spun,  if  it  goes  down  with  the  notched 
side  underneath,  this  point  will  catch 
on  the  table  causing  the  coin  to  fall 
suddenly,  instead  of  gradually  as  it 
otherwise  would.  With  a  little  prac- 
tice the  two  sounds  may  be  easily  dis- 
tinguished. 

2.  To  rub  One  Coin  into    Two. 
Previously  stick   a   coin   with   wax 
underneath  a  table,  close  to  the  edge. 
Borrow   a  similar  coin   and   rub  it 
violently  with  the  ball  of  the  thumb 
against  the  edge  of  the  table.     The 
fingers  will  thus  naturally  be  beneath 
the  table,  and  the  waxed  coin  can 
easily  be  removed  at  any  time  and 
added   to    the    one    that    is    being 
rubbed. 

3.  The  Wandering  Coin.     Have 
ready  two  coins  each  slightly  waxed 
on  one  side.     Borrow  a  similar  coin 
and   secretly  exchange    it    for  one 
of   the  waxed  ones,  which   is   then 
laid  on  the  table,  waxed  side  upper- 
most.     Draw    two    cards    from    a 
pack,  and  take   them   in   the   same 
hand    with    the    other  waxed   coin, 
which  will  thus  stick  to  the  under- 


199 


COINS 


most.  Lay  this  card  on  the  table  near 
the  coin  which  is  already  there  and 
cover  that  coin  with  the  other  card, 
pressing  lightly  on  it  so  that  it  will 
stick.  A  coin  may  now  be  made 
to  appear  under  whichever  card  the 
performer  wishes,  for  if  he  bends  the 
card  slightly  upward  in  lifting  the 
coin  will  not  stick  to  it ;  otherwise  it 
will.  To  the  audience  it  will  appear 
as  if  there  were  but  one  coin,  which 
the  performer  caused  at  will  to  pass 
from  one  card  to  the  other. 

4.  The  Animated   Coin,      Have 
ready  a  long  piece  of  black  thread, 
to  one  end  of  which  is  fastened  a  bit 
of  wax.     The  waxed  end  lies  on  the 
table  in  front  of  the  performer ;  the 
other  is  held  by  an  assistant  in  an 
adjoining  room.     On  the  table  stands 
an  ordinary  goblet.     The  performer 
borrows  a  coin,  and  contriving  to 
stick  the  wax  to  it  throws  it  into  the 
goblet,  calling  on  the  spectators  to 
ask  it  questions  which  it  will  answer 
by  jingling  in  the  glass.     It  may  be 
agreed   that  one  clink   shall    mean 
"  yes  "  and  two  "  no."   The  assistant 
must  be  near  enough  to   hear  the 
questions,   and   answers    them,   ac- 
cording to  his  fancy,  by  pulling  the 
thread,  making  the  coin  jump  up  and 
down  in  the  glass. 

5.  Coin  and  Card.     Balance  a  card 
on  the  tip  of  your  forefinger.     On 


Coin  and  Card. 


top  of  it  balance  a  coin  about  the 
size  of  a  nickel  five  cent  piece.  Hit  the 
edge  of  the  card  a  smart  horizontal 
blow  with  some  object  like  a  pencil, 
or  snap  it  with  your  finger,  if  you  can 


do  it  directly  forward  without  tend- 
ing to  drive  the  card  up  or  down, 
and  the  card  will  fly  away,  leaving 
the  coin  balanced  on  your  finger. 
6.  Coin  and  Goblet.      Support  a 


'Coin  and  Goblet. 

glass  goblet  upside  down  on  two 
coins,  as  shown  in  the  picture,  on 
a  table  covered  with  a  cloth.  Place 
a  third  coin  within,  and  ask  the  com- 
pany to  remove  it  without  touching 
or  removing  the  glass.  This  may 
be  done  by  scratching  on  the  cloth 
near  the  glass. 

7.  Coins  in  Water.    Fill  a  glass 


Coins  in  Water. 


goblet   brimful   of  water,  and  then 
ask  the  company  how  many  coins 


COIN  COPYING 


200 


COMMERCE 


':an  be  dropped  in  without  spilling  it 
over.  The  guesses  will  all  be  too 
fimall,  for  a  surprising  number  can  be 
Out  in  if  it  be  done  carefully. 

COIN  COPYING.  To  obtain  an 
'ixact  copy,  in  copper,  of  a  coin  or 
neclal,  first  make  a  mold  of  wax  or 
Blaster  of  Paris.  A  wax  mold  is 
nade  by  pressing  the  coin  down  on 
i  piece  of  warm  wax,  brushed  over 
vith  sweet  oil  to  prevent  sticking. 
\  plaster  of  Paris  mold  is  made  by 
itting  a  little  paper  rim  around  the 
:oin  and  pouring  into  it  a  mixture  of 
Dlaster  of  Paris  and  water,  which  will 
'icon  become  hard.  In  this  case  the 
•  :oin  should  be  brushed  over  with 
,'iweet  oil  for  the  same  reason  as 
before.  The  mold  must  then  be 
covered  thickly  with  finely  powdered 
graphite,  which  can  be  obtained  by 
crushing  either  graphite  stove  black- 
ing or  pencil  leads.  When  the  mold 
is  well  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of 
this,  it  is  attached  to  the  negative 
wire  of  a  battery  and  hung  in  a  solu- 
tion of  copper  sulphate  (blue  vitriol). 
The  positive  wire  of  the  battery  is 
attached  to  a  copper  coin  suspended 
in  the  same  vessel.  The  electric 
current  will  decompose  the  copper 
sulphate  depositing  copper  on  the 
mold.  After  a  time  the  layer  of 
copper  may  be  pulled  off  the  mold, 
and  its  lower  surface  will  be  an  exact 
copy  of  the  coin  from  which  the 
mold  was  made.  The  process  is  ex- 
actly like  that  of  ELECTROPLATING. 

COIN  WINDMILL.  A  coin  can  be 
made  into  a  toy  windmill  with  the 
aid  of  two  pins.  Lay  the  coin  flat 
on  a  table  or  on  the  knee  and  press 
the  points  of  the  pins  against  opposite 
edges,  keeping  the  pins  exactly  in 
the  same  straight  line.  The  coin 
may  now  be  lifted  by  the  pins,  but  if 
it  hangs  vertically  this  shows  that  it 
is  not  perfectly  balanced,  and  another 
trial  must  be  made.  When  it  is 
properly  balanced  it  will  keep  hori- 
zontal as  it  is  lifted.  By  blowing 
on  one  side,  the  coin  may  now  be 
made  to  spin  very  rapidly  between 
the  pins. 


COLLISION  BALLS,  Experiments 
with.  Take  half  a  dozen  large  glass 
marbles  and  paste  a  little  strip  of 
leather  to  each  so  that  it  may  be  sus- 
pended by  a  thread.  The  paste 
should  be  slightly  moistened  gum 
tragacanth,  which,  though  it  does 
not  hold  the  leather  to  the  glass  when 
wet,  sticks  strongly  after  it  dries.  In- 
sert a  broom  straw  between  theleather 
and  glass  before  the  paste  is  dry, 
and  afterwards,  when  it  is  removed, 
a  hole  will  be  left  for  the  thread. 
These  glass  balls  must  be  hung  side 
by  side  on  a  frame  or  to  the  edge  of 
a  table  or  shelf.  They  should  just 
touch  each  other,  without  pressing 
against  each  other  at  all. 

EXPERIMEN  TS. 

1.  Draw   aside   the  end  ball   and 
let  it  fall  against  the  next.       All  the 
balls  will   remain   at   rest   save    the 
one  at  the  other  end  which   will  fly 
off.     As   it    falls    back    against    its 
neighbor  the  first  one  will  fly  aside 
again,  and  so  the  end  balls  will  con- 
tinue to  move  alternately.     Soon  the 
middle  balls  will   begin    to  move  a 
little  and  at  the  end  the  whole  half- 
dozen    balls   will    sway   to   and   fro 
slightly.     If  the  balls  were  perfectly 
elastic  the  middle  balls  would  never 
move,  but   always    remain    still    as 
at   first.       The   first    ball    struck   is 
squeezed  together  a   little,  and   ex- 
panding, squeezes  its  neighbor,  and 
so  on    till  the   last   ball  is  reached, 
which,    having    no    neighbor,    flies 
aside. 

2.  Draw  aside  the  two  end  balls 
and  let  them  fall  together.     The  two 
balls  at  the  opposite  end  will  fly  off 
together. 

COMMERCE,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons,  with  one  or 
more  full  packs  of  cards,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  company.  The 
dealer  gives  each  player  five  cards, 
two  and  three  at  a  time,  and  then 
deals  five  others  face  upward  on  the 
table.  The  latter  are  sometimes 
called  the  "  widow."  The  player  at 
the  dealer's  left  may  exchange  any  or 
all  of  his  cards  for  an  equal  number 


COMMERCE 


201 


COMPASS 


in  the  widow,  placing  those  he  dis- 
cards face  upward  on  the  table  with 
those  he  leaves,  or  he  may  "pass," 
that  is,  decline  to  exchange.  The 
next  player  in  order  has  the  same 
privilege,  and  so  on  till  each  has  had 
two  chances,  but  any  player  who 
passes  on  the  first  round  must  do 
the  same  on  the  second.  The  hands 
are  then  shown,  and  he  who  has  the 
lowest  retires  from  the  game.  The 
value  of  the  hands  is  the  same  as  in 
DRAW  POKER.  At  the  close  of  the 
next  hand  another  player  retires,  and 
so  on  till  only  one  is  left,  who  is  the 
winner.  Sometimes,  if  the  company 
is  large,  two  or  three  players  retire 
each  time  instead  of  one.  In  this 
case,  if  more  than  one  player  is  left 
at  the  end,  he  who  has  the  highest 
hand  wins.  There  are  many  varie- 
ties of  this  game  ;  some  of  the  most 
common  of  which  will  be  described. 

A  retired  player  is  sometimes 
allowed  to  enter  the  game  again  if 
he  can  induce  an  active  player  to 
speak  to  him.  In  this  case  the 
player  who  so  speaks  must  retire 
from  the  game. 

Sometimes  a  player  does  not  retire 
until  he  has  twice 
held     the    lowest 
hand. 

The  game  is  of- 
ten played  with- 
out any  widow. 
Each  player  in 
turn  must  either 
trade,  barter,  or 
stand.  In  trad- 
ing, the  player  ex- 
changes one  of  his 
cards  for  the  top 
card  of  the  remain- 
ing pack,  the  re- 
jected card  being  placed  under  the 
pack  ;  in  bartering,  he  exchanges  a 
card  with  his  left-hand  neighbor ;  if 
he  is  satisfied  with  his  hand  as  it  is, 
he  says  "  I  stand."  No  player's 
left-hand  neighbor  may  refuse  to 
barter,  unless  he  intends  to  stand. 
In  bartering,  each  may  select  the 
card  he  wishes  to  exchange,  but  may 


not  see  the  other  player's  card  till 
the  change  is  made.  When  any 
player  stands,  trade  and  barter  cease, 
and  the  hands  are  shown  at  once. 

When  parties  are  given  at  which 
this  game  is  played,  it  is  customary 
for  the  hostess  to  give  one  or  more 
prizes  to  the  winners.  Sometimes 
a  boy's  prize  and  a  girl's  prize  are 
offered,  in  which  case  the  boy  and 
girl  holding  the  lowest  hands  respec- 
tively retire  at  the  end  of  each  round. 

Three-Card  Commerce.  Each 
player  is  dealt  three  cards,  and  the 
hands  are  as  follows  in  the  order  of 
their  value,  beginning  with  the  high- 
est: 

1.  Tricon,  three  cards  of  a  kind. 

2.  Sequence,  three  cards  in  succes- 
sion. 

3.  Flush,  three  cards  of  the  same 
suit. 

4.  A  Pair,  two  cards  of  a  kind. 

5.  Point,  the  greatest  number  of 
pips  on  the  cards  held,  counting  the 
Ace  as   eleven,  and  face  cards   ten 
each. 

COMPASS,  A  simple  mariner's 
compass  may  be  constructed  as  fol- 
lows. Magnetize  an  ordinary  knit- 


Home-made  Compass. 

ting  needle,  E  (see  MAGNETS),  and 
pass  it  through  a  small  cork,  F,  from 
side  to  side,  so  that  the  cork  is  exactly 
in  the  middle  of  the  needle.  Thrust 
a  pin  lengthwise  through  the  same 
cork,  and  then  stick  in  it  two  sharp- 
ened matches,  C,  so  that  they  project 
downward  diagonally.  On  the  ends 
of  the  matches  fix  balls  of  wax.  The 


COMPLIMENTS 


202 


COMPRESSED   MAN 


whole  arrangement  can  now  be 
balanced  on  a  thimble,  D,  by  resting 
the  point  of  the  pin  in  one  of  the 
little  holes  on  the  top.  If  the  knit- 
ting needle  is  not  horizontal,  pull  it 
through  the  cork  to  one  side  or  the 
other,  or  alter  one  of  the  wax  balls. 
The  whole  is  placed  in  a  common 
earthenware  pudding  dish,  T,  and 
covered  with  a  pane  of  glass.  A  disk 
of  paper,  A,  with  the  points  of  the 
compass  marked  on  it,  may  be  fixed 
under  the  needle,  when  the  whole 
arrangement  will  appear  like  the 
illustration.  For  experiments  with 
the  compass  see  MAGNETS. 

COMPLIMENTS,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  who  sit 
in  a  circle.  One  of  the  players  begins 
by  wishing  that  he  were  some  animal, 
bird,  or  other  object,  living  or  not,  as 
he  may  choose.  He  asks  his  right- 
hand  neighbor  to  give  a  reason  for 
this  choice  and  the  answer  must  not 
be  complimentary.  He  then  asks 
the  same  question  of  his  left-hand 
neighbor,  who  must  return  a  com- 
plimentary reply.  Each  player  makes 
a  similar  wish  in  turn  and  asks  the 
same  questions  of  his  neighbors. 
Should  any  one's  answer  be  compli- 
mentary, instead  of  uncompliment- 
ary, or  the  reverse,  the  offender  must 
pay  a  forfeit. 

For  example,  suppose  the  player 
wishes  to  become  a  dog.  His  right- 
hand  neighbor  may  give  as  a  reason, 
"  That  you  may  indulge  your  pro- 
pensity for  making  hideous  noises"; 
and  his  left-hand  neighbor  may  say, 
"  Because  of  the  faithfulness,  intelli- 
gence, and  noble  character  of  the 
animal." 

COMPRESSED  MAN,  THE,  a 
trick  performed  by  two  boys.  One 
asks  the  other  if  he  is  willing  to  be 
compressed  to  half  his  height,  and  the 
two  then  retire  from  the  room.  One 
stands  in  front  of  the  other  and  two 
poles  are  placed  on  their  shoulders 
to  imitate  the  poles  of  a  bier  or 
stretcher.  A  small  pillow  is  placed 
across  the  poles  behind  the  rear  boy, 
who  leans  his  head  back  upon  it  and 


rests  his  arms  at  full  length  along 
the  poles,  which  must  be  long  enough 
to  allow  his  hands  nearly  to  reach 
the  back  of  the  forward  boy.  Boots 
are  placed  on  his  hands,  and  then 
his  arms  are  covered  with  a  blanket. 


Fig.  i. — Compressed  Man. 

This  arrangement  causes  him  to 
look  as  if  he  were  carried  by  two 
men  on  a  stretcher,  reduced  to  a 
heighth  of  about  three  feet.  The 
spectators  will  not  notice  at  first  that 


Fig.  2. — Compressed  Man. 

the  rear  bearer's  head  is  invisible,  or 
they  will  think  that  it  is  underneath 
the    stretcher,    concealed     by    the 
blanket. 
Fig.    i    shows    the    arrangement 


CONDUCTION  OF  HEAT 


203 


THE   CONFESSOR 


before  the  blanket  is  put  on  ;  Fig.  2, 
the  appearance  afterward.  An  "  ex- 
tended man  "  can  be  made  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner  by  placing  the  boots  on 
sticks  held  in  the  hands  of  the  rear 
performer,  but  the  effect  is  not  so 
striking.  While  the  performers  are 
absent  from  the  room  one  of  them 
should  saw  a  piece  of  wood,  while 
the  other  should  groan,  and  a  little 
sulphur  may  be  burned  to  excite  the 
interest  of  the  spectators. 

CONDUCTION  OF  HEAT,  Experi- 
ments on.  I.  Take  a  copper  wire, 
an  iron  wire,  and  a  glass  rod,  and 
dip  them  in  melted  wax,  so  as  to 
form  a  coating  on  each.  Lay  them 
on  a  table  with  the  ends  projecting 
about  two  inches  over  the  edge  and 
crossing  each  other.  Hold  an  alco- 
hol lamp  under  the  place  where  they 
cross  so  as  to  heat  them  all  equally. 
The  conduction  of  the  heat  along 
the  rods  can  be  traced  by  the  melt- 
ing of  the  wax,  which  will  take  place 
fastest  on  the  best  conductor  of  heat. 
Beyond  a  certain  point  on  each  rod 
the  wax  will  not  melt.  This  is  be- 
cause the  heat  escapes  from  the  air 
on  all  sides  of  the  rod,  so  that  there 
is  not  enough  left  to  melt  the  wax 
beyond  that  point.  The  wax,  how- 
ever, will  be  melted  much  farther  on 
a  good  conductor  than  on  a  poor 
one. 

2.  To  the  lower  surface  of  an  iron 
rod  stick  at  intervals,  by  means  of 
wax,  balls  of  wood  or  bullets.     Heat 
one  end   of  the  bar   in   an  alcohol 
flame  and  the  balls  will  drop  off  one 
by  one  as  the  wax  is  melted,  begin- 
ning with  the  one  nearest  the  flame. 
If   bars   of   different   substances   be 
used,  it  will  be  seen  that  some   of 
them  conduct  the  heat  of  the  flame 
faster  than  others. 

3.  Hold  a  scrap  of  paper  beneath 
a  wooden  penholder  so  that  half  is 
in  contact  with  the  wooden  handle 
and  half  with  the   metal   part   that 
holds  the  pen.     Hold  the  penholder 
and  paper  over  the  flame  of  an  alco- 
hol lamp,  and  the  part  touching  the 
wood  will  be  charred,  while  that  un- 


der the  metal  is  yet  white.  This  is 
because  the  metal  conducts  the  heat 
more  quickly  than  the  wood  does. 

4.  Place   one  within  another  two 
tin  pails,  of  such  sizes  that  when  to- 
gether there  will  be  a  space  about 
two  inches  wide  between  them.    Fill 
this  space,  including  that  at  the  bot- 
tom, with  old   newspaper  crumpled 
into  balls  and  packed  in  very  tightly. 
Fill  the   inside  pail   with   water  at 
100°   Fahrenheit,  put  on  the  cover, 
pack  the  space  above  it  with  paper, 
and   then    put  on  the  -outer  cover. 
This  arrangement    makes   a    vessel 
which  conducts  heat  very  slightly. 
If  the  water  is  tested  after  several 
hours  its  temperature  will  be  only  a 
degree  or  two  lower,  whereas  water 
in  an  ordinary  pail  will  cool  to  the 
temperature  of  the  room  in  the  same 
time. 

5.  Water  may  be  boiled  in  a  paper 
box,  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  ow- 
ing to  the  fact  that  the  heat  is  all 


Boiling  Water  in  a  Paper  Box. 

required  to  boil  the  water,  so  that 
the  paper  is  kept  below  the  charring 
point. 

THE  CONFESSOR,  agame  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,   one  of 


CONSEQUENCES 


204 


CONTUMACY 


whom  is  chosen  as  confessor  and  the 
others  personate  penitents.  Each 
of  the  players  is  given  a  pencil  and  a 
slip  of  paper.  The  confessor  writes 
on  his  slip  what  he  wishes  to  con- 
sider the  capital  sin,  and, then,  ad- 
dressing the  player  at  his  left  desires 
him  to  confess  his  sins,  at  the  same 
time  handing  him  a  TETOTUM.  The 
penitent  spins  the  tetotum.  on  a 
table,  and  the  number  that  it  turns 
up  shows  how  many  sins  he  must 
confess.  He  writes  them  on  his  paper 
and  hands  k  to  the  confessor,  who 
reads  the  sins  aloud,  and  then  pro- 
ceeds to  the  next  player  on  the 
right.  Any  player  who  confesses 
the  capital  sin,  or  any  one  of  the 
sins  that  have  already  been  confessed, 
must  pay  a  forfeit.  The  name  of  the 
capital  sin  is  not  told  to  the  company 
till  all  have  confessed.  Then,  if 
desired,  another  confessor  is  chosen 
and  the  game  goes  on,  entirely  new 
sins  still  being  required,  on  penalty 
of  a  forfeit.  The  game  is  made 
more  amusing  if  the  confessor  and 
the  penitents  act  out  their  parts.  If 
it  is  so  agreed  before  the  game,  any- 
one who  laughs  may  be  made  to  pay 
a  forfeit. 

CONSEQUENCES, a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  each  with 
pencil  and  paper.  The  players 
usually  sit  around  a  table  and  the  first 
writes  at  the  top  of  his  paper  an  ad- 
jective describing  a  man,  then  folds 
the  paper  over  the  word  so  as  to 
hide  it,  and  passes  it  to  his  left-hand 
neighbor.  Each  then  writes,  just 
under  the  hidden  word,  the  name  of 
a  man,  either  a  historical  character  or 
some  acquaintance,  and  folding  the 
paper,  passes  it  as  before.  After  this 
the  following  things  are  written  in  like 
manner,  the  paper  being  folded  and 
passed  after  each.  (3)  An  adjective 
describing  a  woman.  (4)  A  woman's 
name.  (5)  Where  the  man  and 
woman  met.  (6)  What  he  said. 
(7)  What  she  replied.  (8)  What 
the  consequences  were.  (9)  What 
the  world  said.  When  all  these 
have  been  written,  the  papers  are 


mixed  in  the  middle  of  the  table, 
and  each  player  draws  one  which  he 
must  read  aloud ;  or,  all  the  papers 
may  be  read  by  one  player,  chosen 
for  the  purpose.  The  reader  fills  in 
the  words  necessary  to  make  a  con- 
nected story. 

The  names  of  the  players  are 
often  used  with  amusing  effect. 
For  instance,  one  of  the  papers  may 
read,  "  The  gentlemanly  Henry  VIII. 
and  the  slovenly  Mary  B  — — ,  met  in 
the  Metropolitan  Museum.  He 
said,  '  Do  you  like  apples  ? '  and 
she  replied, '  Not  on  Sundays.'  The 
consequence  was  a  tremendous  ex- 
plosion, and  the  world  said,  '  What 
else  could  you  expect  ?  " 

The  words  and  sentences  written 
may  be  varied  as  agreed  on  at  the 
beginning  of  the  game.  For  in- 
stance, "  What  he  gave  her  "  and 
"  What  she  gave  him  "  are  often  put 
in.  In  its  simplest  form  the  game 
consisted  of  writing  merely  a  man's 
name,  a  woman's  name,  where  they 
met,  and  the  consequences. 

A  different  way  of  playing  the 
game  is  for  the  players  to  write  each 
of  their  words  or  sentences  on  a 
separate  card  or  slip  of  paper,  num- 
bering them  as  above.  The  slips  are 
then  gathered  in  piles,  each  pile 
containing  those  of  one  number, 
and  each  player  draws  one  from 
each  pile,  arranges  them  in  order, 
and  reads  the  story  that  results. 
Or,  if  there  are  just  as  many  players 
as  piles,  each  may  be  given  one,  and 
then  each,  in  the  order  of  the  num- 
bers, may  read  one  of  his  cards. 

The  game  may  be  played  many 
times  with  the  same  cards  if  each 
pile  is  shuffled  after  every  read- 
ing. Sometimes  words  or  sentences 
printed  on  cards  of  different  colors 
are  sold  at  the  toy  shops,  to  be  used 
in  playing  this  game  or  similar 
ones. 

CONTUMACY,  a  game  of  cards 
played  by  three  persons  with  a 
EUCHRE  pack.  The  players  cut  for 
deal,  and  he  who  cuts  the  lowest 
card  gives  three  cards  to  each  player. 


COPENHAGEN 


205 


CORN   AND   BEANS 


Beginning  with  the  eldest  hand,  each 
may  then  discard  his  hand,  if  not 
satisfied  with  it,  and  call  for  a  new 
one.  No  one  can  discard  part  of  a 
hand,  and  when  any  player  has  said 
he  is  satisfied  he  must  keep  his  hand. 
Each  of  the  other  players  may  thus 
draw  two  new  hands,  and  the  dealer 
may  draw  three.  The  dealer  then 
leads  from  any  suit  he  pleases,  and 
names  another.  The  other  players 
are  expected  to  play  in  the  named 
suit,  taking  just  as  if  they  were  fol- 
lowing suit.  Thus,  if  the  dealer 
lead  the  Five  of  Clubs  and  says 
"  Hearts,"  the  Six  of  Hearts  will  take 
the  trick,  but  the  Six  of  Clubs  will 
not.  If  either  player  wish  to  play  a 
suit  which  has  neither  been  named 
nor  played,  he  can  do  so,  but  to  take 
the  trick  his  card  must  be  the  second 
one  above  the  card  which  would 
otherwise  take  it.  He  may  play  thus 
from  choice  or  because  he  cannot  do 
otherwise.  In  either  case  he  is  said 
to  be  "  contumacious."  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  first  contumacious 
player  in  any  round  has  two  suits  to 
choose  from,  but  one  at  third  hand, 
where  the  second  hand  has  already 
been  contumacious,  has  but  one. 
Thus,  if  the  dealer  lead  the  Four  of 
Spades,  and  say  "  Hearts,"  and  the 
second  player  (choosing  to  be  con- 
tumacious) play  the  Six  of  Clubs,  the 
third,  if  he  also  is  contumacious, 
must  play  a  Diamond  higher  than 
the  Seven  to  take  the  trick.  But  in 
the  named  suit  (Hearts),  a  Seven 
would  take  it.  The  dealer  continues 
to  lead  till  the  hands  have  been 
played.  He  must  not  name  the 
same  suit  twice  in  succession,  nor 
must  he  name  the  suit  he  leads. 
The  cards  rank  as  in  ECART&,  the 
Ace  being  between  the  Ten  and 
Knave.  The  Ace  of  Spades  is  a 
special  card,  and  is  not  allowed  to 
win  a  trick  in  contumacy.  When 
played  in  the  named  suit  it  has  its 
ordinary  value,  but  when  led  it  must 
always  take  the  trick. 

COPENHAGEN,   a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  who  stand 


in  a  circle  holding  a  rope  whose  ends 
are  tied  together.  One  of  the  play- 
ers stands  in  the  middle  of  the  ring, 
and  tries  to  slap  the  hands  that  hold 
the  rope,  using  only  one  of  his  own 
hands  at  a  time.  The  players  must 
always  hold  the  rope  with  at  least 
one  hand,  and  can  try  to  escape  being 
slapped  only  by  changing  hands 
rapidly,  taking  hold  first  with  one 
and  then  with  another.  If  anyone's 
hand  is  slapped  or  he  lets  the  rope 
go  altogether,  he  must  take  the  place 
of  the  one  in  the  ring.  As  the  game 
is  often  played,  a  girl  tries  to  slap 
only  boys'  hands  and  a  boy  only 
girls'  hands,  and  when  a  hand  is 
slapped  the  players  kiss  as  they 
change  places. 

CORK,  Experiment  with  a.  Place 
in  the  neck  of  a  wide-mouthed  bottlt 
a  cork  considerably  too  small  for  it 
and  try  to  blow  it  into  the  bottle. 
Instead  of  going  in,  it  will  generallj 
fly  out.  The  reason  is  that  the 
blowing  compresses  the  air  within 
the  bottle  and  this,  recoiling  like  a 
spring,  drives  the  cork  out.  To  suc- 
ceed, the  experiment  must  be  tried 
with  bottle  and  cork  perfectly  dry  so 
that  one  will  not  stick  to  the  other. 

CORK,  The,  a  game  in  which  the 
players  try  to  knock  a  cork  from  the 
top  of  a  bottle.  The  bottle  is  placed 
on  a  table  and  the  cork  set  loosely  on 
the  neck  so  that  it  can  easily  be 
knocked  off.  Each  player  in  turn, 
standing  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
room,  holds  his  arm  directly  before 
him,  with  forefinger  extended.  He 
must  then  walk  slowly  toward  the 
bottle  and  with  a  single  movement  of 
the  arm  knock  off  the  cork  without 
disturbing  the  bottle.  The  player 
wins  who  succeeds  in  doing  this  the 
greatest  number  of  times  in  a  num- 
ber of  turns  previously  agreed  upon. 
The  task,  though  seemingly  easy,  is 
really  difficult.  Most  players  will 
strike  above  the  cork,  the  reason 
being  that  he  has  an  involuntary  fear 
of  hitting  the  bottle. 

CORN  AND  BEANS,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 


COTTON 


206 


COUNTING  OUT 


one  of  whom,  called  the  Professor, 
reads  questions  from  a  card,  while 
the  others  hold  cards  bearing  the 
answers.  The  Professor's  card 
bears  any  number  of  questions, 
usually  forty,  on  historical  or  other 
subjects,  and  there  are  the  same 
number  of  other  cards  each  con- 
taining the  answer  to  one  of  the 
questions.  After  a  Professor  has 
been  chosen,  the  answer-cards 
are  distributed  equally  among  the 
others.  A  quantity  of  corn  and 
beans,  for  use  as  counters,  is  also 
distributed  equally.  The  Professor 
begins  by  reading  any  question  he 
chooses.  The  holder  of  the  answer 
must  cry  "  Corn  !  "  and  all  the  oth- 
ers must  cry  "  Beans  !  "  If  the 
holder  cry  first,  he  reads  the  answer 
and  hands  the  card  to  the  Professor. 
If  one  or  more  cry  "  Beans  "  first,  he 
must  give  each  of  them  a  corn  or 
bean  and  hold  the  answer-card  till 
the  question  is  asked  again.  If  any 
one  cry  either  "  Corn  "  or  "  Beans  " 
wrongly,  he  must  give  a  corn  or  bean 
to  each  of  the  others.  If  the  Profes- 
sor ask  a  question  which  has  already 
been  answered,  the  first  one  to  dis- 
cover it  cries  "  Corn  and  Beans,"  and 
changes  places  with  the  Professor, 
who  becomes  an  ordinary  pupil.  The 
game  lasts  until  the  Professor  has  all 
the  answer-cards.  Should  any  one 
pay  out  all  his  corn  and  beans,  he 
must  borrow  of  a  neighbor.  The 
first  one  to  dispose  of  his  answer 
cards  is  called  the  "  Model  Scholar  "; 
the  first  one  out  of  corn  and  beans, 
the  "  Bankrupt,"  and  the  player  hav- 
ing most  corn  and  beans  at  the  end 
of  the  game,  the  "  Millionaire." 

COTTON,  Experiment  with. 
Take  a  glass  nearly  full  of  alcohol, 
and  as  much  loose  cotton  wool  as 
can  be  held  in  an  ordinary  stiff  hat. 
Put  the  cotton  into  the  alcohol,  a 
little  at  a  time,  pushing  it  down  with 
a  glass  rod  slowly,  so  that  the  alcohol 
will  have  time  to  soak  it  thoroughly. 
It  will  be  possible  to  put  all  the  cot- 
ton into  the  glass  without  making 
the  alcohol  run  over.  The  reason  is 


that  the  cotton  really  takes  up  very 
little  room,  as  would  be  seen  if  it 
were  squeezed  or  pressed  together 
very  tightly. 

COUNTING  OUT,  deciding  who 
shall  be  leader  of  a  game,  or  take 
some  special  part  in  it.  In  this 
country  the  one  who  takes  such  a 
part  is  called  "  It."  In  England  he 
is  sometimes  called  "  He,"  in  France 
Le  (It),  and  in  Germany  he  is  said  to 
be  daran  (in).  Sometimes  to  be  It 
is  a  desirable  thing,  and  sometimes 
not.  When  it  is  desirable,  the 
players  often  shout  "  I  choose  to  be 
It,"  or  some  similar  form  of  words, 
and  he  who  shouts  first  is  given  the 
post.  When  it  is  undesirable,  it  is 
often  agreed  that  all  shall  run  to 
some  tree  or  gate,  and  that  he  who 
gets  there  last  shall  be  It.  The 
question  is  often  decided  by  lot  in 
some  of  the  various  ways  described 
under  CHOOSING  SIDES.  Sometimes 
one  of  the  players  numbers  the 
others,  counting  from  one  to  seven 
and  then  begining  again.  Each 
seventh  player  drops  out,  till  finally 
only  one  is  left,  who  must  be  It. 
But  the  most  common  method  is  by 
"counting  out  rhymes,"  of  which 
there  are  a  great  number.  The 
players  stand  in  a  row,  and  one  recit- 
ing the  rhyme,  points  to  them  in 
order,  indicating  one  at  each  word. 
He  to  whom  the  last  word  falls, 
drops  out  of  the  line,  and  the  rhyme 
is  thus  repeated  till  only  one  is  left, 
who  must  be  It.  The  counter-out 
of  course  points  to  himself  in  the 
proper  order.  Most  counting  out 
rhymes  have  a  whole  word  for  each 
beat  or  accent,  but,  some  have  more 
than  one,  and  in  this  case  some 
counters-out  point  once  for  each 
word,  and  others  once  for  each  ac- 
cent. Thus  in  the  lines, — 

Little  boy  driving  cattle, 
Don't  you  hear  his  money  rattle, 

some    persons   point    only    for  the 
accented   words  in  the  second  line, 
while  others  point  for  each  word. 
Several  of  the  most  common  count- 


CRAMBO 


207 


CRAMBO 


ing-out  rhymes  are  given  below. 
Most  of  them  have  almost  countless 
variations. 

Overy,  uvery,  ickory,  Ann, 
Fillisy,  follasy,  Nicholas  John, 
Queevy,  quavy,  Irish  Mary, 
Stingalum,  stangalum,  Buck. 

Eeny,  meeny,  mona,  my, 
Barcelona,  bona,  stry, 
Kay  bell,  broken  well, 
We,  wo,  wack. 


Intery,  mintery,  cuter}',  corn, 
Apple  seed,  briar  thorn, 
Wire,  briar,  limber  lock, 
Three  geese  in  a  flock  ; 
One  flew  east,  one  flew  west, 
One  flew  over  the  cuckoo's  nest, 
O-u-t,  out ! 

One,  two,  three,  four, 
Lily  at  the  kitchen  door, 
Eating  grapes  off  the  plate, 
Five,  six,  seven,  eight. 

Monkey,  monkey,  bottle  of  beer, 
How  many  monkeys  are  there  here  ? 

One,  two,  three, 

Out  goes  he  (or  she). 

Stick,  stock,  stone  dead, 

Set  him  up,  set  him  down, 

Set  him  in  the  old  man's  crown. 


Onery,  twoery,  dickery,  davery, 
Hallibone,  crackabone,  tenery,  lavery, 
Discontent,  American  pine, 
Humble-ey,  bumble-ey,  twenty-nine. 

One-i-zol,  two-i-zol,  zig-i-zol,  zan, 
Bobtail,  vinegar,  tickle,  and  tan, 
Harum-scarum,  Virgin  Marum, 
We,  wo,  wack. 

COURT  TENNIS.     See  TENNIS. 
COVENTRY,   The  Earl  of.     See 

EARL  OF  COVENTRY. 

CRAMBO,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  who  try  to  guess 
a  word  by  means  of  another  which 
rhymes  with  it.  One  of  the  players 
thinks  of  a  word,  and  then  tells  the 
others  what  it  rhymes  with.  The 


players  who  guess  do  not  speak  the 
words  that  occur  to  them,  but  tell 
their  meaning.  Thus,  one  chooses 
the  word  pin,  and  says,  "  I  think  of 
a  word  that  rhymes  with  tin."  An- 
other asks,  "  Is  it  a  part  of  the  face  ?  " 
and  the  answer  is,  "  No,  it  is  not 
chin."  "  Is  it  a  loud  noise  ?"  "No, 
it  is  not  din,"  and  so  the  game  goes 
on  till  the  word  is  guessed.  Those 
guessing  often  try  to  make  the 
meanings  they  give  hard  to  under- 
stand, so  that  most  of  the  guessing 
is  on  the  other  side.  If  the  one 
who  thinks  of  the  word  cannot 
understand  his  questioners  he  may 
ask  them  to  repeat  the  question  dif- 
ferently. The  guesses  need  not  be 
made  by  the  players  in  order. 

Acting  Crambo,  or  Dumb  Crambo, 
a  kind  of  Crambo  in  which,  instead 
of  telling  the  meaning  of  the  words 
that  are  guessed,  the  players  act 
them  in  dumb-show.  Two  of  the 
company  generally  choose  sides,  and 
one  side  leaves  the  room,  returning 
to  act  its  guesses  after  being  told 
what  the  chosen  word  rhymes  with. 
The  acting  may  be  done  by  one  per- 
son and  be  simply  a  movement  of 
the  hand  or  body;  as,  for  instance, 
in  guessing  the  words  "  shake  "  or 
"  bend,"  or  the  whole  side  may  act 
a  long  CHARADE.  Sometimes  a 
game  played  in  this  way  will  last  a 
whole  evening.  The  game  of  QUES- 
TIONS AND  ANSWERS  is  also  some- 
times called  Crambo,  but  it  is  quite 
different. 

History.  The  name  Crambo  was 
given  in  old  times  to  several  rhyming 
games.  The  Spectator  speaks  of 
"  those  who  play  at  Crambo  or  cap 
verses."  The  word  means  a  rhyme, 
and  is  said  to  be  from  the  Latin 
crambe  (repetition).  This  word 
meant  cabbage  in  Greek,  and  came 
to  signify  a  tiresome  repetition 
through  the  proverb,  "  a  cabbage 
twice  boiled  is  death." 

The  natives  of  the  Samoan  Islands 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean  play  a  kind  of 
Crambo.  A  traveler  there  says:  "  One 
party  would  choose  the  names  of 


CRIBBAGE 


208 


CRIBBAGE 


trees,  and  another  the  names  of  men. 
Those  who  sided  with  the  trees 
would  say,  '  There  is  the  Tan  tree  ; 
tell  us  a  name  which  will  rhyme 
to  it.'  " 

CRIBBACE,  a  game  of  CARDS 
played  by  two,  three,  or  four  persons, 
with  a  full  pack.  Two-handed  six- 
card  Cribbage,  the  common  game  in 
this  country,  will  be  described  first : 

Points.  The  following  is  a  list  of 
the  points  that  can  be  made  in  Crib- 
bage. 

A  pair  (two  of  a  kind,  as  two 
Queens  or  two  Eights)  counts  2. 

A  pair  royal  (three  of  a  kind) 
counts  6. 

A  double  pair  royal  (four  of  a 
kind)  counts  12. 

A  sequence  (three  or  more  cards 
in  succession,  of  the  same  suit  or 
not),  counts  as  many  points  as  there 
are  cards  in  it.  In  a  sequence  the 
Ace  counts  below  the  Two,  and  not 
above  the  King.  Any  number  of 
cards  the  sum  of  whose  spots  is  15 
(counting  face  cards  as  10),  counts  2. 
A  Knave  of  the  same  suit  as  the 
trump  card  counts  i  (called  "  one  for 
his  nob").  Turning  up  a  Knave  as 
trump  counts  the  dealer  2  (called 
"  two  for  his  heels  ").  A  flush  (four 
or  five  cards  of  the  same  suit),  counts 
4  or  5  as  the  case  may  be. 

The  deal  is  determined  by  cutting 
(see  CARDS  ),  and  six  cards  are  dealt 
one  by  one  to  each  player.  Each 
now  takes  out  two  cards  from  his 
hand  to  form  what  is  called  the  Crib. 
This  is  the  property  of  the  dealer, 
but  he  must  not  look  at  it  till  the 
hand  is  played ;  the  four  cards  that 
form  it  are  placed  by  themselves, 
face  down,  on  the  table.  The  non- 
dealer  now  cuts  the  pack,  and  the 
dealer  turns  up  the  top  card  of  the 
lower  pile  as  trump.  Beginning 
with  the  non-dealer,  the  players  in 
turn  then  lay  down  their  cards,  one 
by  one,  face  upward,  each  making  a 
pile  of  his  own.  As  each  card  is  put 
down,  its  owner  calls  out  the  sum  of 
the  spots  on  all  the  cards  which 
have  been  played  (face  cards  count- 


ing 10) ;  thus,  A  may  put  down  a 
Six  and  say  "six,"  B  a  Seven  and 
say  "thirteen"  and  A  a  Queen  and  say 
"twenty-three."  When  thirty-one 
is  reached  the  counting  begins  over 
again.  If  either  one  makes  exactly 
thirty- one  he  scores  two  points,  and 
if  neither  can  do  so  he  who  comes 
nearest.it  scores  one,  which  is  called 
a  "  go."  Thus,  taking  up  the  play 
of  A  and  B  where  we  left  it,  sup- 
pose B  plays  a  Five  and  calls  out 
"  twenty-eight."  If  A  has  nothing 
lower  than  Four  he  must  say  "  Go," 
meaning  that  B  can  score  one  for  a 
Go,  as  he  has  come  nearest  31.  If 
B  can  play  again,  he  must  do  so 
before  scoring,  and  if  he  can  make 
31  he  scores  two  instead  of  his  Go. 
He  who  plays  the  last  card  in  the 
hand  also  scores  one.  In  playing,  if 
any  of  the  groups  in  the  above  list 
are  formed,  except  a  flush,  he  who 
plays  the  last  card  in  the  group 
scores  for  it  but  the  cards  must  be 
played  in  succession.  The  cards  of 
sequence  may  be  put  down  in  any 
order ;  thus,  2,  5,  3,  4,  would  be 
counted  by  the  one  playing  the  last 
card  as  a  sequence  of  four  (2,  3, 4,  5) ; 
and  if  the  next  player  should  then 
play  an  Ace,  he  would  count  a  se- 
quence of  five  (i,  2,  3,  4,  5).  The 
same  cards  can  be  counted  again  to 
make  a  higher  group  :  thus,  if  A 
plays  an  Eight,  and  B  another  Eight, 
making  a  pair  and  scoring  two.  A 
may  play  a  third  Eight,  making  with 
the  other  two  a  pair-royal,  and  scor- 
ing six.  But  when  thirty-one  is 
reached,  all  making  of  groups  must 
begin  anew.  Fifteen  counts  only  at 
the  beginning  of  play;  thus  if  A  plays 
a  Six,  B  a  Ten,  and  A  a  Five,  A 
cannot  call  the  Ten  and  the  Five 
fifteen.  Making  points  during  play  is 
called,  from  the  mode  of  counting, 
"  Peg¥mg-"  When  play  is  over, 
each  gathers  up  his  hand  and  reck- 
ons up  the  points  in  it.  The  non- 
dealer  counts  his  first,  and  is  said  to 
"  have  first  show."  This  is  an  ad- 
vantage, especially  at  the  end  of  a 
close  game,  when  he  who  has  first 


CRIBBAGE 


209 


CRIBBAGE 


show  often  wins.  The  cards  must 
be  spread  on  the  table  face  upward, 
so  that  both  players  may  see.  In 
reckoning,  the  trump  card  counts  as 
part  of  each  hand.  All  the  cards  in 
one  group  cannot  be  counted  as  part 
of  a  larger  group  as  in  playing,  but 
any  number  less  than  the  whole  can 
be  so  counted.  Thus,  if  a  player 
have  three  Queens  he  can  count  them 
only  as  a  pair  royal  and  not  as 
separate  pairs  also ;  and  if  he  have 
for  instance,  Nine,  Ten,  Knave,  Queen, 
he  can  count  only  a  sequence  of  four 
and  not  the  separate  sequences  of 
three.  But  if  he  have  Nine,  Ten,  and 
two  Knaves,  or  Nine,  two  Tens,  and  a 
Knave,  he  can  count  two  sequences 
of  three,  only  two  cards  -being  the 
same  in  both  groups.  This  is  called 
a  double  sequence  of  three,  and  evi- 
dently scores  eight,  counting  the  pair. 
A  double  sequence  of  four  would  in 
the  same  way  count  ten.  So,  too, 
with  one  Five  and  three  face  cards, 
three  fifteens  can  be  formed,  and 
with  two  Fives  and  two  face  cards 
four  fifteens. 

The  dealer  counts  his  Hand 
before  looking  at  his  Crib,  and  the 
Hand  and  Crib  are  reckoned 
separately.  The  trump  card  is 
counted  with  the  Crib  also,  and  the 
Crib  is  reckoned  like  the  Hand,  ex- 
cept that  a  flush  of  four  does  not 
count  in  it.  In  counting  fifteens  the 
score  is  added  to  the  word  fifteen  ; 
thus,  if  a  player  has  three  of  them  he 
says  he  has  fifteen-six,  and  if  five 
of  them,  fifteen-ten.  Experienced 
players  reckon  their  hands  very  fast, 
and  this  part  of  the  game  is  excellent 
training  in  addition.  After  the 
reckoning,  the  players  deal  alter- 
nately, until  one  has  made  61 
points,  which  wins  the  game.  The 
score  may  be  kept  simply  with  pencil 
and  paper,  but  it  is  usual  to  mark  it 
with  pegs  on  a  Cribbage  board  like 
that  in  the  illustration.  In  marking, 
each  player  uses  one  side  of  the 
board,  his  peg  traveling  the  outside 
row  of  holes,  returning  by  the  inside 
row,  and  finishing  in  the  end  hole. 


Each  player  usually  has  two  pegs, 
and  the  points  are  marked  with  them 
alternately,  so  that  the  number  of 


Cribbage  Board. 

holes  between  them  always  shows 
the  last  score  that  was  made. 

The  game  will  be  made  clearer  by 
carefully  playing  through  the  follow- 
ing sample  hand.  Suppose  the  cards 
to  be  dealt  and  that  they  are  dis- 
tributed as  follows,  A  being  the 
dealer. 

A  puts  in  the  Crib  a  pair  of  Eights, 
because  they  form  a  group  with 
nothing  else  in  his  hand,  and  because 
the  Crib  is  his  own.  If  it  had  been 
B's  Crib  he  would  have  hesitated 
before  giving  his  opponent  a  pair. 
B  should  put  in  his  Seven  and  Queen, 
leaving  himself  a  flush.  The  cards 
in  brackets  thus  form  the  Crib.  B 
cuts,  and  A  turns  up  the  Five  of 
Clubs. 

B  leads  with  his  Four  of  Clubs,  say- 
ing "  four." 

A  plays  his  Four  of  Spades,  saying 
"  eight"  (and  scoring  two  for  a 
pair). 

B  (having  no  Seven  to  make  15) 


CRIBBAGE 


210 


CRIBBAGE 


plays  his  Six  of  Clubs,  saying  "  four- 
teen." 

A  plays  his  Five  of  Hearts,  saying 
"  nineteen "  (and  scores  three  for 
the  sequence  4,  5,  6). 

B  his  Nine,  saying  "  twenty-eight." 
A  (having  no  card  that  will  make 
with  this  31,  or  less),  says  "  Go  "  (and 
B  scores  one). 

A  plays  his  King,  saying  "  ten." 

B  his  Knave,  saying  "twenty." 

A    his   Six,    saying   "  twenty-six " 

(and  scores  one  for  the  last  card). 

The  score  in  pegging  thus  stands  6 

for  A  to  I   for  B.      B,  having  first 

show,  spreads  out  his  hand.     The 


O    0 
O    O 


*  * 


*.* 

•  •?  » 
4,    4. 

*  * 


*  * 

*  * 


V 

X 


trump  card  makes  one  fifteen  with 
his  Knave,  another  with  his  Four  and 
Six,  and  his  Nine  and  Six  make  a 
third.  His  cards  and  the  trump  card 
are  all  clubs.  Therefore  his  score  is 
"  fifteen-six  ;  a  flush  of  five  makes 
n,  and  one  for  his  nob  makes 
12."  A  has  two  fifteens  in  his  own 
hand,  and  can  make  two  more  by 
using  the  trump.  His  Four,  Five,  and 
Six,  with  the  trump,  give  him  a 
double  sequence  of  three  as  before 


shown.  His  score  is  "  fifteen-eight, 
and  a  double  sequence  of  three 
makes  16."  The  points  in  the  crib 
are  "  fifteen-six  and  a  pair  makes 
eight."  A's  total  score  for  the  hand 
is  30,  and  B's  is  13. 

Five-Card  Cribbage.  Each  player 
has  five  cards,  two  of  which  he  dis- 
cards for  the  Crib  as  before,  leav- 
ing him  only  three.  The  method  of 
play  is  the  same  as  in  the  six-card 
game,  except  that  when  thirty-one  is 
reached,  play  stops,  and  the  remain- 
ing cards  are  not  put  down.  A 
flush  of  three  counts  in  the  hand,  but 
not  in  the  crib,  where  it  must  consist 
of  five  cards  as  before.  In  opening 
this  game,  the  non-dealer  is  allowed 
three  points  to  begin  with.  Five- 
card  ci  ibbage  is  considered  a  more 
difficult  game  than  six-card.  It  re- 
quires more  skill,  and  is  preferred  by 
many  players. 

Three-Handed  Cribbagef  a  kind  of 
Cribbage  played  by  three  persons, 
each  on  his  own  account.  Each  has 
five  cards,  and  an  extra  one  is  dealt 
to  the  crib,  to  which  each  adds  one 
card.  The  board  for  this  game  is 
three-sided. 

Four-Handed  Cribbage,  a  kind  of 
Cribbage  played  by  four  persons,  in 
partnerships  of  two.  Each  is  dealt 
five  cards  and  discards  one  for  the 
crib.  The  one  at  the  dealer's  left 
cuts  for  the  trump  and  begins  to 
play,  and  the  others  follow  in  suc- 
cession to  the  left.  The  method  of 
playing  and  the  rules  are  the  same 
in  three-handed  and  four-handed  as 
in  two-handed  cribbage,  but  more 
care  is  required,  the  greater  the  num- 
ber of  players.  The  board  for  four- 
handed  is  like  that  for  two-handed 
cribbage.  The  counting  is  done  by 
one  player  on  each  side,  and  neither 
of  the  others  may  touch  the  pegs. 

Skill  in  Cribbage  is  shown  both  in 
laying  out,  or  discarding,  for  the 
Crib,  and  in  playing  the  cards.  In 
the  former  the  player  must  bear  in 
mind  to  whom  the  Crib  belongs.  If 
it  were  his  own  he  would  not  object 
to  discarding  a  pair  or  a  fifteen, 


CRIBBAGE 


211 


CRIBBAGE 


whereas  if  it  were  his  opponent's  he 
would  probably  prefer  to  spoil  his 
own  hand  rather  than  to  give  his 
enemy  an  advantage  unless  he  were 
very  far  ahead.  In  Five-card  Crib- 
bage  it  is  considered  of  more  impor- 
tance to  "  balk  "  or  spoil  an  oppo- 
nent's Crib,  than  to  keep  good  cards  i 
for  one's  own  hand,  since  the  Crib 
is  larger  than  either  hand.  As  re- 
gards sequences  a  player  should 
avoid  discarding  close  cards  for  his 
opponent's  Crib,  and  choose  them 
for  his  own.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  j 
retain  a  sequence  in  hand  if  possi- 
ble, as  there  is  a  good  chance  of  the  ! 
turn-up  card's  making  it  a  double 
sequence. 

In  playing,  the  best  card  to  lead  is 
one  below  a  Five,  as  the  adversary 
cannot  then  make  fifteen.  A  good 
player  frequently  declines  to  make  a 
pair  or  small  sequence,  suspecting 
that  his  opponent  desires  him  to  do 
so  that  he  may  then  make  a  pair 
royal,  or  larger  sequence.  For  the 
same  reason,  if  it  is  possible  to  make 
either  fifteen  or  a  pair  the  former 
should  be  chosen.  Numbers  which 
•vould  enable  the  adversary  to  make 
fifteen  and  a  pair,  or  a  thirty-one 
and  a  pair,  at  the  same  time,  should 
be  avoided.  Thus  a  player  should 
never  count  fourteen  or  thirty  with 
an  Ace,  thirteen  or  twenty-nine 
with  a  Two,  twelve  or  twenty-eight 
with  a  Three,  and  so  on. 

In  counting  the  hand,  beginners 
often  overlook  points.  They  should 
therefore  look  over  the  hand  syste- 
matically, taking  fifteens  first,  for  in- 
stance, sequences  next,  and  then,  in 
order,  pairs,  flushes,  and  nob. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  The  player  who  cuts  the  lowest 
card  deals,  Ace  counting  as  low. 

2.  There  must  be  a  fresh  cut  for 
deal  after  each  game,  unless  a  rub- 
ber is  to  be  played,  when  the  deal 
alternates  throughout  the  rubber. 

3.  The  cards  must  be  dealt  one  at 
a  time.     If  two  are  dealt  at  once,  the 
dealer  may  correct  his  mistake,  if  he 


can  do  so  by  moving  only  one  card, 
otherwise  there  must  be  a  new  deal. 

4.  If  the  dealer  expose  one  of  his 
adversary's  cards,  or  give  either  too 
few  or  too  many  cards,  the  adversary 
may  take  two  points  and  call  for  a 
fresh  deal,  but  he  must  do  so  before 
looking  at  his  hand.     Except  that  if 
too  few  cards  have  been  given  the 
non-dealer,  he,  after  looking  at   his 
hand,  may  ask  to  have  it  completed, 
instead  of  demanding  a  new  deal. 

5.  If  a  player  deal  out  of  turn,  and 
the   error   is   discovered  before   the 
trump  is  turned,  there  must  be  a  new 
deal  by  the  proper  person,  but  if  the 
trump  has  been   turned  the  deal  is 
good.     The   one   who   should    have 
dealt   deals   next,  and   so   on   alter- 
nately as   if  no   mistake   had   been 
made. 

6.  The  dealer  may  insist  on   his 
adversary  discarding  first. 

7.  If  a  player  discard,  having  too 
many  cards,  his  adversary  may  score 
two,  and  either  call  for  a  new  deal 
or  draw  the  surplus  card  from  his 
opponent's  hand. 

8.  If  a  player  discard,  having  too 
few  cards,  he  must  play  out  the  hand 
with  the  number  he  has. 

9.  If  a   player   take   back   a  dis- 
carded card,  his  opponent  may  score 
two  and  call  for  a  new  deal. 

10.  The  Crib  must  not  be  touched 
during  play. 

11.  If   the   dealer  turn   up    more 
than  one  card  for  trump,  the  non- 
dealer  may  take  his  choice  of  them. 

12.  If  the  dealer  turn  up  a  Knave, 
and  neglect  to  score  for  "  his  heels  " 
before  he  has  played,  he  loses  the 
two  points. 

13.  No  card  that  is  properly  played 
can  be  taken  up  again,  but  if  one  is 
laid  down,  making  the  count  more 
than  31,  it  must  be  taken  back,  and 
there  is  no  penalty. 

14.  If  a  player  say  "  Go  "  when  he 
has  a  card  that  can  be  played,  his 
opponent  may  require  it  to  be  played, 
or  mark  two  points. 

15.  In  reckoning,  a  player's  Hand 
or  Crib  must  remain  in  full  sight  till 


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212 


CRICKET 


his   opponent   is    satisfied   that   the 
count  is  correct. 

16.  If  a  player  score  too  much,  the 
adversary  may  correct  him  and  add 
the  same  amount  to  his  own  score. 
If  he  score  too  little,  the  adversary  is  ] 
not  bound  to  correct  him. 

17.  A  player's  pegs  must  not  be  | 
touched  by  his  opponent,  except  to  ! 
correct  a  false  score  ;  nor  by  himself, 
except  in  scoring.     If  he  displace  his 
foremost  peg  he  must  put  it  behind 
the  other. 

1 8.  When  a  player  has  quitted  his 
peg,  he  cannot  alter  his  score. 

CRICKET,  a  game  of  ball,  played 
usually  by  22   persons,  1 1    on  each 
side.     It  is  played  on  a  field  arranged 
as  in   the   diagrams   below.      Two  I 
"  wickets  "  are  set  up,  22  yards  apart, ; 
each  consisting  of  three  upright  sticks 
called   stumps,   27   inches   high,   so 
close  together  that  the  ball  cannot 
pass  between  them.    Across  the  top 


generally  decided  by  lot,  and  the 
game  is  then  begun  by  the  players  of 
the  side  that  has  the  field  taking 
positions  round  the  wickets.while  two 
of  the  other  side  take  position  one  in 
front  of  each  wicket,  inside  the  Pop- 
ping Crease,  with  bats  like  those  in 
the  illustration.  The  duty  of  each 
of  these  players,  who  are  called  Bat- 
ters, is  to  keep  himself  from  being 
put  out  as  explained  below,  and  to 
make  as  many  runs  as  possible. 

The  players  on  the  fielding  side 
take  whatever  positions  in  the  field 
their  captain  directs.  There  are  al- 
ways a  Bowler  and  a  Wicket  Keeper, 
but  the  positions  of  the  other  men 
vary  with  the  opinions  of  the  captain 
and  the  changes  of  the  bowling.  The 
first  diagram  shows  an  arrangement 
of  the  field  for  fast  bowling  and  the 


II 


10 


U. 


s. 


U. 


Fig.  i. — Field  for  Fast  Bowling. 


S.  S.,  Strikers  ;  U.  U.,  Umpires  ;  i,  Bowler  ;  2, 
Wicket-keeper ;  3,  Point :  4,  Slip  ;  5,  Third  man 
up ;  6,  Cover  point  ;  7,  Mid-off ;  8,  Long-off ; 
9,  Long-on  ;  10,  Mid-on  ;  n,  Short-leg. 


x.  Pad.  2.  Wicket. 

Cricket  Implements. 


Bat. 


of  each  wicket  are  placed  two  pieces 
of  wood  called  bails.  In  front  of 
each  wicket  and  4  feet  from  it  is  a 
line  marked  on  the  ground  called  a 
Popping  Crease,  and  in  line  with 
each  wicket  is  a  Bowling  Crease 
similarly  marked,  6  feet  8  inches 
long,  having  at  its  end  short  lines  at 
right  angles  to  it  called  Return 
Creases.  The  choice  of  innings  is 


s. 


10 


II 


Fig.  2. — Field  for  Slow  Bowling. 

S.  S.,  Strikers;  U.  U.,  Umpires;  i.  Bowler;  a, 
Wicket-keeper  ;  3,  Longstop  ;  4,  Point ;  5,  Slip  ; 
6,  Cover  slip  ;  7,  Cover  point ;  8  Mid-off ;  9;  Mid- 
on  ;  10,  Short  leg  ;  n,  Long  leg 

second  one  for  slow  bowling.  The 
names  of  the  various  positions  in 
which  the  captain  distributes  his 


CRICKET 


213 


CRICKET1 


men,  as  he  deems  most  advanta- 
geous, vary  slightly  in  different  places, 
but  are  usually  those  given  in  the 
diagrams  of  the  field  inserted  below. 

The  Bowler  begins  play  by  deliver- 
ing the  ball  at  the  opposite  wicket, 
standing  with  one  foot  behind  the 
Bowling  Crease.  The  Batter  tries  to 
protect  the  wicket  by  striking  the 
ball  with  his  bat.  If  the  ball  neither 
is  struck  nor  hits  the  wicket,  the 
Wicket  Keeper  returns  it  to  the 
Bowler.  If  any  part  of  the  wicket  is 
knocked  down,  the  Batter  is  "  out," 
and  another  takes  his  place,  and  so 
on  in  an  order  decided  on  by  the 
captain  of  the  batting  side.  If  the 
player  strike  the  ball  far  enough  he 
may  run  to  the  opposite  wicket, 
changing  places  with  the  batsman 
there,  who  runs  at  the  same  time 
with  him.  If  the  two  cross  the  pop- 
ping creases  of  the  wickets  toward 
which  they  run,  or  put  the  bat  inside 
them  before  either  wicket  is  knocked 
down  (either  by  the  ball  thrown  by  a 
fielder  or  by  a  fielder  with  the  ball  in 
hand),  they  together  score  one  run. 
Otherwise  the  one  who  leaves  the 
knocked-down  wicket  is  out,  unless 
they  have  crossed,  when  he  who 
approaches  it  is  out.  The  players 
may  make  as  many  runs  as  they  can, 
crossing  to  and  fro  several  times,  and 
scoring  one  for  each  run.  A  player 
who  is  out  takes  no  farther  part  in 
the  game  until  all  on  his  side  are  out. 
The  side  wins  which  makes  the 
greater  number  of  runs  in  two  in- 
nings, or  sometimes  in  one  inning,  if 
it  be  so  agreed.  An  inning  is  com- 
pleted when  both  sides  have  been  at 
the  bat  and  have  been  put  out. 
When  the  Bowler  has  bowled  a  cer- 
tain number  of  balls  (generally  five 
in  England  and  Canada,  and  six  in 
the  United  States)  at  one  wicket,  the 
Umpire  calls  "  over,"  and  the  next 
"  over "  is  bowled  at  the  opposite 
wicket,  the  fielders  all  changing  their 
places  correspondingly. 

Besides  the-  ways  of  putting  out 
the  Batter  that  have  been  mentioned 
he  may  be  put  out  by  a  fielder's 


catching  and  holding  the  batted  ball 
before  it  strikes  the  ground,  by  his 
knocking  down  his  own  wicket,  when 
in  the  act  of  playing  the  ball,  stopping 
the  ball  with  his  body,  or  in  other 
ways  described  in  the  rules  below. 
The  batsman  and  wicket  keeper, 
when  playing  against  fast  bowling, 
generally  have  the  legs  protected  by 
guards,  and  wear  buckskin  gloves. 
The  size  of  the  bats  and  ball  is 
regulated  by  the  first  and  second 
rules  below.  The  duties  of  some  of 
the  players  will  now  be  described  in 
detail. 

The  Bowler.  The  Bowler  is  the 
most  important  player  on  the  field. 
He  sometimes  varies  his  balls,  like 
the  Pitcher  in  BASE  BALL,  deliver- 
ing some  fast,  some  slow,  some  with 
one  twist  and  some  with  another,  so 
as  to  puzzle  the  batter.  But  as  a 
rule  a  fast  or  slow  Bowler  will  stick 
to  his  particular  style,  as  his  field  is 
set  for  that  style  only,  and  a  change 
of  even  one  ball  might  prove  ex- 
pensive. The  figure  shows  the 
courses  of  the  balls  as  delivered  by 
different  bowlers.  The  ball  usually 
bounds  once,  and  the  place  where  it 
bounds  is  called  the  "  Pitch."  If  the 
ball  is  pitched  close  to  the  batsman, 
it  is  called  "  full  pitched " ;  if  it 
pitches  sooner  than  a  full  pitched 
ball  it  is  "  short  pitched,"  and  if  later, 
"  over-pitched."  A  ball  that  does 
not  hit  the  ground  before  reaching 
the  batsman  is  called  a  "  full  ball." 
A  short  pitched  ball,  reaching  the 
wicket  by  a  long  bound,  is  a  "  long 
hop  "  ;  an  over-pitched  ball,  which 
can  be  hit  back  or  "driven,"  is  a 
"  half  volley  "  ;  one  that  strikes  the 
ground  just  where  the  batsman's  bat 
is,  is  a  "  Yorker,"  and  one  which  keeps 
close  to  the  ground  after  it  pitches, 
is  a  "  shooter."  One  which  bounds 
several  times  is  a  "grounder"  or 
"  sneaker."  Grounders  and  full  balls 
are  too  easily  played  by  good  bats- 
men to  be  used  often,  but  are  some- 
times effective.  If  the  bowling  be 
fast,  the  ball  will  move  in  almost  a 
straight  line  from  the  Bowler's  hand 


CRICKET 


214 


CRICKET 


to  the  Pitch  ;  if  slow,  in  more  or  less 
of  a  curve.  In  underhand  bowling, 
formerly  more  used  than  now,  the 
ball  rises  from  the  Bowler's  hand  in 
a  very  decided  curve.  This  is  called 
"lobbing."  The  different  twists 


given  the  ball  make  it  bound  high  or 
low  or  to  one  side  as  the  Bowler  may 
wish,  the  ball  rolling  slightly  on  the 
ground  during  the  instant  it  touches 
it,  and  so  varying  its  direction  as  it 
rises.  The  Bowler  suits  his  balls  to 


Fast  Round-arm. 


Medium  Pace. 


Slow  Round-arm. 


Low  Underhand  (Lobs). 


Break  in  from  Leg. 


Screw  Ball. 
Different  Kinds  of  Bowling. 


the  Batsman,  trying  to  give  him 
those  hardest  for  him  to  play.  He 
should  hold  the  ball  with  his  fingers, 
not  in  the  hollow  of  the  hand,  take  a 
short  run  before  delivering  the  ball, 
and  "  pitch  "  it  as  near  to  the  Bats- 


man as  the  latter's  style  of  hitting 
will  allow.  If  the  Bowler  send  the 
ball  outside  the  limits  of  the  opposite 
Bowling  Crease,  it  is  a  "  wide  ball  " ; 
if  he  does  not  follow  the  rules  in 
delivering  it,  it  is  "  no  ball,"  and  in 


CRICKET 


215 


CRICKET 


either  of  these  cases,  when  the  um- 
pire so  calls  it,  at  least  one  run  is 
scored  for  the  opposite  side  (see 
Rule  13).  After  an  "over"  has 
been  bowled  by  one  player  another 
Bowler  takes  his  turn.  Sometimes 


The  Bowler. 

the  same  player  acts  as  Bowler 
and  Wicket  Keeper  alternately.  If 
an  "  over  "  is  bowled  without  a  run 
being  made,  it  is  called  a  "  maiden 
over  "  or  "  maiden."  Besides  deliver- 
ing the  ball,  it  is  also  the  Bowler's 
place  to  watch  for  chances  to  put 
the  Batsman  out  at  the  wicket  near 
which  he  stands. 

The  Batter.  The  Batter  wears 
leg  pads  and  gloves,  both  of  which 
should  fit  easily.  He  should  select 
a  bat  to  suit  his  size,  and  should 
practice  with  the  same  one  with 
which  he  intends  to  play  in  a  match. 
Heavy  bats  send  the  ball  farther 
than  light  ones,  when  given  the 
same  speed,  but  as  it  requires  greater 
strength  to  give  them  that  speed,  the 
Batter,  when  in  doubt  as  to  weight, 
should  choose  the  lighter  of  two 
bats.  The  Batsman  should  stand 
easily,  with  his  two  heels  not  more 


than  a  few  inches  apart.  Before  the 
Bowler  delivers  the  ball  the  Bat- 
ter should  "take  guard,"  as  in  the 
illustration.  The  stump  nearest  the 
Batter  is  called  the  "  leg  stump,"  the 
other  outside  one  the  "  off  stump," 
and  the  third  the  "  middle  stump." 
If  the  Batter  hold  his  bat  directly 
before  the  middle  stump,  he  is  said 
to  "  take  middle,"  if  in  front  of  both 
the  middle  and  leg  stumps,  to  "  take 
middle  and  leg"  for  guard.  The 
bat  should  be  held  about  three  inches 
inside  the  popping  crease.  The  right 
or  "  pivot "  foot  should  be  placed  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  wicket  with- 
out being  in  the  way  of  any  part  of 
it.  The  object  of  thus  taking  guard 
is  to  find  out  where  to  place  the  feet 
so  as  best  to  guard  the  wicket  with 
the  bat. 

As  the  Bowler  begins  to  run  be- 
fore delivering  the  ball,  the  Batter 
straightens  himself,  raising  his  bat 
slightly,  and  when  the  ball  is  de- 
livered he  draws  the  bat  back  to  the 
bails  of  the  wicket,  where  he  holds  it 
till  he  is  ready  to  strike.  If  he  lean 
slightly  toward  the  wicket,  in  strik- 
ing, he  is  said  to  "  play  back,"  while 
if  he  lean  toward  the  ball  he  "  plays 
forward."  In  general  the  former  is 
better,  especially  for  learners,  as  it 
gives  a  longer  time  to  see  the  ball. 
The  skillful  Batter  plays  forward  or 


Taking  Guard. 

back  according  to  the  way  in  which 
the  Bowler  gives  him  the  ball,  and 
the  beginner  can  best  learn  by  ex- 
perience which  to  do  in  any  case. 
In  general,  he  should  so  bend  his 


CRICKET 


216 


CRICKET 


body  that  the  bat  strikes  the  ball 
about  one-fourth  the  length  of  the 
blade  from  its  end ;  that  is,  in  the 
thickest  part.  When  the  Batsman 
"has  command  of  the  pitch,"  that 
is,  can  nearly  reach  with  his  bat 
(held  straight)  the  spot  where  the 


Preparing  for  Action. 

ball  bounds,  he  should  play  forward, 
always  holding  the  bat  close  to  the 
ground,  so  that  the  ball  will  not  go 
underneath  as  it  rises  from  the 
bound.  The  reason  for  playing  such 
balls  forward  is  that  any  twist  the 
Bowler  may  have  given  the  ball,  that 
it  may  bound  in  an 
unexpected  direc- 
tion, has  not  time 
to  act.  The  hits 
which  a  Batter  may 
make  are  given  dif- 
ferent names,  ac- 
cording to  the  di- 
rection and  manner 
of  striking  the  ball. 
If  it  is  hit  toward 
"  Point,"  "  Cover 
Point,"  or  into  the 
"  Slips,"  it  is  a 
"  cut  ";  if  it  is  hit 
forward  on  the 
"  half  volley  "  it  is 
a  "drive";  if  it  is  hit  to  the  "on 
side  "  back  of  the  wickets,  it  is  a 
"  leg  hit,"  and  if  it  is  sent  in  this 
direction  by  allowing  the  ball  to  hit 
the  bat,  it  is  a  "  draw." 

The  Batter  at  the  opposite  wicket 
should  be  ready  to  run,  but  must  be 
careful  not  to  do  so  till  the  ball  is  out 


of  the  Bowler's  hand.  He  may  get 
a  start  by  beginning  to  run  as  soon 
as  the  ball  is  delivered,  but  should 
not  go  so  far  that  he  cannot  return 
in  time  to  save  his  wicket  if  no  hit 
is  made.  Neither  need  run  unless 
he  wishes,  but  if  one  runs  the  other 
must,  otherwise  a  wicket 
would  be  left  unguarded. 
It  is  best  for  the  Batter 
to  decide  whether  to  run, 
when  the  ball  is  hit  in 
front  of  the  wicket,  and 
for  his  partner  to  decide 
when  the  hit  is  behind 
the  wicket. 

The    Wicket    Keeper. 
This  player  always  wears 
leg  pads  and  gloves.    He 
stands  in  a  stooping  po- 
sition behind  the  wicket, 
varying  his  distance  from 
it  according  to  the  swiftness  of  the 
bowling,    but    he    must    not    stand 
over  it,  or  with  hand  or  foot  in  front 
of  it,   till  the   ball  has   passed   the 
wicket   or  been  struck.     After  that 
he  may  stand  where  he  chooses,  but 
if  the  Batsmen  are  running  he  should 


Playing  Forward. 

so  stand  that  the  ball  will  be  thrown 
in  to  him  over  the  wicket,  which  he 
will  thus  be  able  to  put  down  with- 
out turning  around.  He  should  also 
be  on  the  watch  for  a  chance  to  put 
down  the  wicket  when  the  Batter  is 
not  on  his  ground  (called  "  stumping 
out").  As  soon  as  he  receives  the 


CRICKET 


217 


CRICKET 


ball  from  the  Bowler  he  should  re- 
turn it  easily.  If  the  Wicket  Keeper 
allow  a  ball  that  has  not  hit  the  bat 
to  pass  him,  and  so  give  the  Bats- 
man a  chance  to  make  a  run,  such  a 
run  is  called  a  "  bye."  If  the  ball  hit 
the  Batsman's  person  (not  his  bat  or 
hand)  and  he  make  a  run, 
it  is  a  "  leg-  bye."  As  the 
Wicket  Keeper  has  a  bet- 
ter view  of  the  field  and 
the  ball  than  any  other 
player,  he  is  generally  the 
captain  of  the  team,  and 
directs,  or  communicates 
with  the  other  Fielders 
and  the  Bowler,  by  a  sys- 
tem of  signs  previously 
agreed  upon. 

Point  is  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  remaining 
fielders,  as  he  has  more 
chances  for  catches  than 
the  others.  In  case  of  a  hit  he  often 
"  backs  up  "  the  Wicket  Keeper,  or, 
if  it  is  a  long  one,  runs  out  toward 
the  fielder  nearest  the  ball,  in  case 
there  should  be  a  short  throw. 

The    duty    of  the   Long  Stop  is 
principally  to  prevent  byes.     When 


other  chance  of  putting  it  down 
quickly.  Of  late  years  owing  to  the 
increasing  skill  of  Wicket  Keepers, 
the  custom  of  playing  a  man  in  this 
position  has  been  almost  entirely 
given  up,  the  extra  man  thus  gained 
being  used  elsewhere.  The  posi- 


The  Cut. 

the  Batsmen  are  not  running  he  re- 
turns the  ball  to  the  Wicket  Keeper, 
but  in  case  of  a  run  he  sometimes 
throws  to  the  Bowler  in  hope  of  put- 
ting a  man  out  at  the  opposite  wicket. 
Sometimes  he  throws  directly  at  the 
nearest  wicket,  where  there  is  no 


Playing  Back. 

tions  of  all  the  fielders  are  varied  by 
the  captain  in  many  ways  to  suit 
different  styles  of  bowling  and  strik- 
ing, so  that  the  field  looks  quite 
differently  at  one  time  and  another. 
Only  the  Bowler,  Wicket  Keeper, 
and  Long  Stop  keep  about  the  same 
places.  These  changes  of  position 
are  directed  by  signs  from  the  cap- 
tain. 

Scoring.  A  sample  score  card  is 
given  on  pages  220-221. 

The  runs  are  kept  by  making 
opposite  the  player's  name  marks 
which  are  summed  up  in  the 
"  Total "  column  after  he  is  out. 
Abbreviations  often  used  in  the 
"  Out "  column  and  elsewhere  in 
the  score  are  : 

b.  bowled 

c.  caught 
st.         stumped 

l.b.w.     leg  before  wicket 
h.w.       hit  wicket 
w.         wides 
n.b.      no  balls 
B.         byes 
l.b.        leg  byes 

The  runs  made  or  allowed  for 
Wides,  No  Balls,  Byes,  and  Leg 
Byes  are  kept  separately  at  the 


CRICKET 


218 


CRICKET 


bottom  of  the  score,  and  added  to 
the  Grand  Total  for  the  innings. 
In  the  Out  column  the  name  of  the 
person  who  put  the  Batsman  out  is 
always  mentioned,  and  if  he  was 
caught  out,  the  Bowler's  name  is  also 


Leg  Hit. 

put  down,  since   his    bowling  con- 
tributed to  the  result. 

The  right  half  of  the  score  card 
consists  of  a  Bowling  Analysis, 
which  is  made  as  follows  :  opposite 
the  name  of  each  Bowler  a  record  is 
kept  of  each  of  his  balls.  If  it 
results  in  neither  a  run  nor  in 
putting  down  a  wicket  it  is  re- 
corded by  a  dot  ;  If  runs  are 
made  from  a  ball,  the  number  of 
such  runs  appear  in  place  of  the 
dot.  If  a  wicket  is  put  down,  the 
letter  W  is  put  in  place  of  a  dot. 
"  Wides  "  and  "  No  balls  "  are 
kept  record  of  by  themselves  and 
all  are  footed  up  at  the  close  of 
each  inning.  Thus  a  "  Maiden 
Over"  appears  thus  —  :::  or  (:.:  if 
only  five  balls  are  allowed).  An 
Over  where  two  runs  were  made 
from  the  second  ball  and  none 


from  the  third  would  be 


on  the 


record.  If  the  last  ball  put  down 
the  wicket,  it  would  be  shown  by 
the  mark  '  '  ^  Sometimes,  in  case 
of  a  Maiden  Over,  the  letter  M  is 
made  by  joining  the  dots,  so  that 


Maidens  can  be  counted  up  more 
quickly  in  running  the  eye  over  the 
record.  The  following  are  the 
rules  of  Cricket  as  adopted  by 
the  Marylebone  Cricket  Club  of 
London,  they  contain  the  latest 
revisions  and  the  famous  altera- 
tions of  1889. 

The  M.  C.  C.  rules  govern  the 
play  of  all  matches  in  England 
and  Australia.  In  the  United 
States  they  are  generally  followed 
except  that  six  balls  instead  of 
five  are  bowled  to  the  Over.  The 
Cricketers'  Association  of  the 
United  States  has  adopted  cer- 
tain modifications  of  the  M.  C. 
C.  rules,  but  in  no  case  are  the 
changes  of  much  importance. 

I.  A  match  is  played  between 
two  sides  of  eleven  players  each, 
unless  otherwise  agreed  to ;  each 
side  has  two  innings,  taken  alter- 
nately, except  in  the  case  pro- 
vided for  in  Law  53.  The 
choice  of  innings  shall  be  de- 
cided by  tossing. 

2.  The  score  shall  be  reckoned  by 
runs.  A  run  is  scored  : — i.  So  often 
as  the  Batsmen  after  a. hit,  or  at  any 
time  while  the  ball  is  in  play,  shall 
have  crossed,  and  made  good  their 


Wicket  Keeper. 

ground,  from  end  to  end.  2.  For 
penalties  under  Laws  16,  34,  41,  and 
allowances  under  44.  Any  run  or 
runs  so  scored  shall  be  duly  recorded 
by  scorers  appointed  for  the  purpose. 
The  side  which  scores  the  greatest 


CRICKET 


219 


CRICKET 


number  of  runs  wins  the  match.  No 
match  is  won  unless  played  out  or 
given  up  except  in  the  case  provided 
in  Law  45. 

3.  Before  the    commencement  of 
the  match  two  umpires  shall  be  ap- 
pointed, one  for  each  end. 

4.  The   ball  shall  weigh  not  less 
than  five  ounces  and  a  half  nor  more 
than  five  ounces  and  three-quarters. 
It  shall  measure  not  less  than  nine 
inches  nor  more  than  nine  inches  and 
one   quarter  in   circumference.     At  j 
the  beginning  of  each  innings  either 
side  may  demand  a  new  ball. 

5.  The  bat  shall  not  exceed   four 
inches  and  one-quarter  in  the  widest 
part  ;    it   shall   not   be    more    than 
thirty-eight  inches  in  length. 

6.  The  Wickets  shall    be   pitched 
opposite  and  parallel  to  each  other  at 
a    distance    of     twenty-two    yards. 
Each  Wicket  shall  be  eight  inches  in 
Width  and  consist  of  three  stumps, 
with  two  bails  upon  the  top.     The 
stumps  shall  be  of  equal  and  suffic- 
ient  size   to   prevent  the  ball   from 
passing  through,  twenty-seven  inches 
out  of  the  ground.     The  bails  shall 
be  each  four  inches  in  length,  and 
when  in  position  on  the  top  of  the 
stumps  shall  not  project  more  than 
half  an    inch    above    them.       The 
Wickets  shall  not  be  changed  dur- 
ing a  match,  unless  the  ground  be- 
tween them  become  unfit  for  play, 
and  then  only  by  the  consent  of  both 
sides. 

7.  The  Bowling  Crease  shall  be  in 
a  line   with    the    stumps;    six   feet 
eight  inches  in  length  ;  the  stumps 
in  the  center ;  with  a  return  crease 
at  each  end,  at  right  angles  behind 
the  Wicket. 

8.  The   Popping  Crease  shall  be 
marked  four  feet  from  the  Wicket, 
parallel  to  it,  and  be  deemed  unlim- 
ited in  length. 

9.  The  ground  shall  not  be  rolled, 
watered,  covered,  mown,  or  beaten 
during  a  match,   except  before  the 
commencement  of  each  inning  and 
of  each  day's  play,  when,  unless  the 
in-side  object,  the  ground  shall  be 


swept  and  rolled  for  not  more  than 
ten  minutes.  This  shall  not  prevent 
the  batsman  from  beating  the  ground 
with  his  bat  nor  the  batsman  nor 
bowler  from  using  sawdust  in  order 
to  obtain  a  proper  foothold. 

10.  The  ball  must  be  bowled ;  if 
thrown  or  jerked  the  umpire  shall 
call  "  No  ball." 

11.  The  bowler  shall  deliver  the 
ball  with  one  foot  on  the  ground  be- 
hind the  Bowling  Crease,  and  within 
the  Return  Crease,  otherwise  the  um- 
pire shall  call  "  No  ball." 

12.  If  the  bowler  shall  bowl  the 
ball  so  high  over  or  so  wide  of  the 
Wicket   that   in  the  opinion  of   the 
umpire  it  is  not  within  reach  of  the 
striker,  the  umpire  shall  call  "  Wild 
ball." 

13.  The  ball  shall  be  bowled  in 
Overs  of  five  balls  from  each  Wicket 
alternately.     When  five  balls  have 
been  bowled,  and  the  ball  is  finally 
settled   in   the  bowler's   or  wicket- 
keeper's  hands,  the  umpire  shall  call 
"  Over."     Neither  a  "  No  ball  "  nor 
a  "  Wide  ball  "  shall  be  reckoned  as 
one  of  the  "  Over." 

14.  The  bowler  shall  be  allowed 
to  change  ends  as  often  as  he  pleases, 
provided  only  that  he  does  not  bowl 
two  Overs  consecutively  in  one  in- 
ning. 

15.  The  bowler  may  require  the 
batsman  at  the  Wicket  from  which 
he  is  bowling  to  stand  on  that  side  of 
it  which  he  may  direct. 

1 6.  The   striker   may   hit   a  "No 
ball  "  and  whatever  runs  may  result 
shall  be  added  to  his  score ;  but  he 
shall  not  be  out  from  a  "  No  ball "  un- 
less he  be  run  out  or  break  Laws  26, 
27,  29,  30.     All  runs  from  a  "  No 
ball  "  otherwise  than  from  the  bat 
shall  be  scored  "  No  balls,"  and  if  no 
run  be  made,  one  run  shall  be  added 
to  that  score.     From  a  "  WTide  ball  " 
as  many  runs  as  are  run  shall   be 
added  to  the  score  as  "  Wide  balls," 
and  if  no  run  be  otherwise  obtained 
one  run  shall  be  so  added. 

17.  If   the   ball   not   having  been 
called  "  Wide  "  or  "  No  ball  "  pass  the 


CRICKET 


220 


CRICKET 


striker  without  touching  his  bat  or 
person,  and  any  runs  be  obtained, 
the  umpire  shall  call  "  Bye  ";  but  if 
the  ball  touch  any  part  of  the  strik- 
ers person  (hand  excepted),  and  any 
run  be  obtained,  the  umpire  shall 
call  "  Leg  bye."  such  runs  to  be 
scored  "  Byes  "  and  "  Leg  byes  "  re- 
spectively. 

1 8.  At  the  beginning  of  the  match 
and  of  each  innings  the  umpire  at 


the  bowler's  Wicket  shall  call  "  Play  "; 
from  that  time  no  trial  ball  shall  be 
allowed  to  any  bowler  on  the  ground 
between  the  Wickets,  and  when  one 
of  the  batsmen  is  out,  the  use  of  the 
bat  shall  not  be  allowed  to  any  per- 
son until  the  next  batsman  shall 
come  in. 

19.  A  Batsman  shall  be  held  to  be 
"  out  of  his  ground  "  unless  his  bat 
in  hand  or  some  part  of  his  person 

SCORE 


Bowlers. 


Wides 


Overs,  with  runs  &c.  from  each  ball. 


t/KU2i*tJ/ 


M 


M 


M 


252 


M 


M 


MMK4 


M 


M 


Summary  Of  Rnwlinp,  Z—       Innings  o£_ 


_c.c. 


Bowler*.     ££.t±^^S\g^=l^       Bowlers.     £*, ^ I"  ^ I^I^^UJ 


3t 


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Total 


r^  ^-  fi^s^JZ,  (ffa  t*nM< 


MarkB  for  Iio«lin;  AnaljsU 


ILR. J&A-  J*s 


Kutt.  BI/M,  Wda  and  Ab  laU»  da  rut  ajftct  UuiUm  Overt. 


be  grounded  within  the  line  of  the 
Popping  Crease. 

20.  The  Wicket  shall  be  held  to  be 
"  down  "  when  either  of  the  bails  is 
struck  off,  or  if  both  bails  be  off  when 
a  stump  is  struck  out  of  the  ground. 

The  Striker  is  out — 

21.  If  the  Wicket  be  bowled  down, 
even    if  the    ball    first     touch    the 
striker's  bat  or  person  :     "  Bowled." 

22.  Or  if  the  ball  from  a  stroke  of 


the  hand  or  bat,  but  not  the  wrist, 
be  held  before  it  touch  the  ground 
although  it  be  hugged  to  the  body 
of  the  catcher :  "Caught." 

23.  Or  if  in  playing  at  the  ball, 
provided  it  be  not  touched  by  the 
bat  or  hand,  the  striker  be  out  of  his 
ground  and  the  Wicket  be  put  clown 
by  the  Wicket  keeper  with  the  ball  or 
with  hand  or  arm  with  ball  in  hand: 
"  Stumped." 


CRICKET 


221 


CRICKET 


24.  Or  if    with   any   part   of    his 
person  he  stop  the  ball,  which  in  the 
opinion  of  the  umpire  at  the  bowler's 
Wicket  shall  have  been  pitched  in  a 
straight  line  from  it  to  the  striker's 
Wicket  and  would  have  hit  it :    "Leg 
before  Wicket." 

25.  Or  if  in  playing  at  the  ball  he 
hit  down  his  Wicket  with  his  bat  or 
any  part    of   his  person   or    dress: 
"  Hit  Wicket." 

CARD. 


26.  Or  if  under  pretense  of  run- 
ning   or    otherwise    either    of     the 
batsmen    willfully     prevent    a    ball 
from  being  caught :     "  Obstructing 
the  field." 

27.  Or  if  the  ball  be  struck  or  be 
stopped  by  any  part   of   his  person 
and    he  willfully  strike  it  again,  ex- 
cept it  be  done   for  the  purpose  of 
guarding  his  Wicket,  which  he  may 
do  with -his  bat,  or  any  part  of  his 


Order 


Batsmen. 


Runs  as  scored. 


How  and.  where 
put  out.. 


Innings 


/i,  .Ji  •jh/ie 


\o  0& 


2jl_ 


10 


11 


9~f-   Wf^ifc 


12 


Remarks_ 


ItfLnA 


won  by....  ............  .  ............  by 


Total  f  rom^he  bat- 


Bye 


M.o  balls 


Total  of _ 


Total  for  the  Match 


Runs  at  the  fall  of  each  wicket 
Order  of  coining  out 
(by  numbers) 


or  hiti)  from  built  called  at  utta  or 
enter  batman't 


Ha  ballt  are  tcortd  at  Vfidu   or    Xo    ball*  and  do  not 


person  except  his  hands  :     "  Hit  the 
ball  twice." 

Either  Batsman  is  out — 

28.  If  in  running  or  at  any  other 
time  while  the  ball  is  •  in  play  he  be 
out  of  his  ground  and  his  Wicket  be 
struck  down  by  the  ball  after  touch- 
ing any  fieldsman,  or  by  the  hand  .or: 
arm  with  ball  in  hand  of  any  fields- 
man :     "  Run  out." 

29.  Or  if  he  touch  with  his 


or  take  up  the  ball  while  in  play,  un- 
less at  the  request  of  the  opposite 
side  :  "  Handle  the  ball." 

30.  Or  if  he  willfully  obstruct  any 
fieldsman  :    "  Obstructing  the  field." 

31.  If  the  batsmen  have  crossed 
each    other,  he    that    runs  for    the 
Wicket  which,  is  put  down  is  out ;  if 
they  have,  not  crossed,  he  .that  has 
left  the  Wicket  which  is  put  down  is 
o-,t. 


CRICKET 


222 


CRICKET 


32.  The  striker  being  caught   no 
run   shall   be   scored.      A   batsman 
being  run  out,  that  run  which   was 
being  attempted  shall  not  be  scored. 

33.  A  batsman  being  out  from  any 
cause  the  ball  shall  be  "  dead." 

34.  If  a  ball   in   play  cannot   be 
found   or   recovered,  any  fieldsman 
may  call  "  Lost  ball,"  when  the  ball 
shall  be  "  dead  " ;  six  runs  shall  be 
added  to  the  score ;  but  if  more  than 
six  runs  have  been  run  before  "  Lost 
ball  "  has  been  called,  as  many  runs 
as  have  been  run  shall  be  scored. 

35.  After  the  ball  shall  have  been 
finally  settled  in  the  Wicket  keeper's 
or  bowler's  hand,  it  shall   be  dead  ; 
but  when  the  bowler  is  about  to  de- 
liver the  ball,  if  the  batsman  at  his 
Wicket  be  out  of  his  ground  before 
actual  delivery,  the  said  bowler  may 
run  him  out ;  but  if  the  bowler  throw 
at  that  Wicket  and  any  run  result,  it 
shall  be  scored  "  No  ball."   . 

36.  A  batsman    shall    not  retire 
from  his  Wicket  and  return  to  it  to 
complete    his  innings  after  another 
has  been  in  without  the  consent  of 
the  opposite  side. 

37.  A  substitute  shall  be  allowed 
to  field  or  run  between  Wickets  for 
any    player    who  may    during    the 
match  be  incapacitated  from  illness 
or  injury,  but  for  no  other  reason,  ex- 
cept with  the  consent  of  the  opposite 
side. 

38.  In  all  cases  where  a  substitute 
shall  be  allowed,  the  consent  of  the 
opposite  side  shall  be  obtained  as  to 
the  person  to  act  as  substitute  and 
the  place  in  the  field  which  he  shall 
take. 

38.  In  case  any  substitute  shall  be 
allowed  to  run  between  Wickets  the 
striker  may  be  run  out  if  either  he  or 
his  substitute  be  out  of  his  ground. 
If  the  striker  be  out  of  his  ground 
while  the  ball  is  in  play,  that  Wicket 
which  he  has  left  may  be  put  down 
and  the  striker  given  out,  although 
the  other  batsman  may  have  made 
good  the  ground  at  that  end,  and 
the  striker  and  his  substitute  at  the 
other  end. 


40.  A  batsman  is  liable  to  be  out 
for  any  infringement  of  the  laws  by 
his  substitute. 

41.  The    fieldsman  may  stop  the 
ball   with   any   part  of  his   person, 
but  if  he  willfully  stop   it  otherwise, 
the    ball  shall  be  "  dead"   and  five 
runs  added  to  the  score ;  whatever 
runs  may  have  been  made  five  only 
shall  be  added. 

42.  The  Wicket  keeper  shall  stand 
behind  the  Wicket.     If  he  shall  take 
the  ball  for  the  purpose  of  stumping 
before  it  has  passed  the  Wicket,  or  if 
he  shall  incommode  the  striker  by 
any  noise  or  motion,  or  if  any  part  of 
his  person    be  over  or  before  the 
Wicket  the  striker  shall  not  be  out 
excepting  under  Laws  26,  27,  28,  29, 
and  30. 

43.  The  Umpires    are    the    sole 
judges  of  fair  or  unfair  play,  of  the 
fitness  of  the  ground,  the  weather, 
and  the  light  for  play;  all  disputes 
shall  be  determined  by  them,  and  if 
they  disagree    the  actual    state  of 
things  shall  continue. 

44.  They  shall  pitch  fair  Wickets, 
arrange  boundaries  where  necessary, 
and  the  allowances  to  be  made  for 
them,  and  change  ends  after  each 
side  has  had  one  innings. 

45.  They  shall  allow  two  minutes 
for  each  striker    to    come    in   and 
ten  minutes  between  each  innings. 
When  they  shall  call  play  the  side 
refusing  to  play  shall  lose  the  match. 

46.  They  shall  not  order  a  bats- 
man out  unless  appealed  to  by  the 
other  side. 

47.  The  umpire  at  the  bowler's 
wicket  shall  be  appealed  to  before 
the  other  umpire  in  all  cases  except 
in  those  of  stumping  hit  Wicket,  run 
out  at  the  striker's  Wicket  or  arising 
out  of  Law  42,  but  in  any  case  in 
which  an  umpire  is  unable  to  give  a 
decision  he  shall  appeal  to  the  other 
umpire  whose  decision  shall  be  final. 

48a.  If  the  umpire  at  the  bowler's 
end  be  not  satisfied  of  the  absolute 
fairness  of  the  delivery  of  any  ball  he 
shall  call  "  No  ball." 

48b.  The  umpire  shall  take  espe« 


CRICKET 


223 


CRICKET 


cial  care  to  call  "  No  ball  "  instantly 
upon  delivery  :  "  Wide  ball  "  as  soon 
as  it  shall  have  passed  the  striker. 

49.  If  either  batsman  run  a  short 
run    the    umpire    shall    call    "One 
short,"   and   the   run   shall   not   be 
scored. 

50.  After  the  umpire   has   called 
"  Over  "  the  ball  is  "  Dead,"  but  an 
appeal  may  be  made  as  to  whether 
either  batsman  is  out ;  such  appeal, 
however,  shall  not  be  made  after  the 
delivery  of  the  next   ball  nor  after 
any  cessation  of  play. 

51.  No  umpire  shall  be  allowed  to 
bet. 

52.  No  umpire  shall  be  changed 
during  a  match  unless  with  the.con- 
sent  of  both  sides  except  in  case  of 
violation  of  law  51 ;  then  either  side 
may  dismiss  him. 

53.  The  side  which  goes  in  second 
shall  follow  their  innings  if  they  have 
scored  80  runs  less  than  the  oppo- 
site side. 

54.  That  on  the  last  day  of  a  match 
or  if  a  one  day  match  at  any  time, 
the  in-side  shall   be  empowered  to 
declare  the  innings  at  an  end. 

One  Day  Matches.  I.  The  side 
which  goes  in  second  shall  follow 
their  innings  if  they  have  scored  60 
runs  less  than  the  opposite  side. 

2.  The  match  unless  played  out, 
shall  be  decided  by  the  first  innings. 

3.  Prior  to  the  commencement  of 
a  match  it  may  be  agreed  that  the 
over  consist  of  five  or  six  balls. 

Single  Wicket.  A  kind  of  Cricket, 
which  may  be  played  by  two  or  more 
persons  on  a  side.  There  is  but  one 
Wicket  and  one  striker  at  a  time,  and 
a  bowling  crease  or  stump  22  yards 
in  front  of  the  wicket.  The  laws  are, 
where  they  apply,  the  same  as  the 
above,  with  the  following  alterations 
and  additions. 

I.  One  Wicket  shall  be  pitched  as 
in  Law  6  with  a  bowling  stump  oppo- 
site to  it  at  a  distance  of  twenty-two 
yards.  The  bowling  crease  shall  be 
in  a  line  with  the  bowling  stump  and 
drawn  according  to  Law  7. 


five  players  on  a  side  bounds  shall 
be  placed  twenty-two  yards  each  in 
a  line  from  the  off  and  leg  stump. 

3.  The  ball  must  be  hit  before  the 
bounds  to  entitle  the  striker  to  a 
run,  which  run  cannot  be  obtained 
unless  he  touch  the  bowling  stump 
or  crease  in  a  line  with  his  bat,  or 
some  part  of  his  person,  or  go  beyond 


them  and   return    to    the 


popping 


crease. 

4.  When  the  striker  shall  hit  the 
ball  one  of  his  feet  must  be  on  the 
ground  behind  the  popping  crease, 
otherwise  the  umpire  shall  call  "  No 
hit,"  and  no  run  shall  be  scored. 

5.  When  there  shall  be  less  than 
five  players  on  a  side  neither  byes, 
leg-byes,  nor  overthrows    shall    be 
allowed,  nor    shall    the    striker    be 
caught  out    behind  the  Wicket  nor 
stumped. 

6.  The  fieldsman  must  return  the 
ball  so  that  it  shall  cross  the  ground 
between  the  Wicket  and  the  bowling 
stump  or  between  the  bowling  stump 
and  the  bounds  ;  the  striker  may  run 
till  the  ball  be  so  returned. 

7.  After    the    striker    shall    have 
made  one  run,  if  he  start  again  he 
must  touch  the    bowling  stump  or 
crease  and  turn  before  the  ball  cross 
the  ground  to  entitle  him  to  another. 

8.  The  striker  shall  be  entitled  to 
three  runs  for  lost  ball  and  the  same 
number  for  ball  willfully  stopped  by 
a  fieldsman  otherwise  than  with  any 
part  of  his  person. 

9.  When  there  shall  be  more  than 
four  players  on  a  side  there  shall  be 
no  bounds.     All  hits,  byes,  leg-byes, 
and  overthrows  shall  then  be  allowed. 

10.  There  shall  be  no  restriction 
as  to  the  ball  being  bowled  in  overs, 
but  no  more  than  one  minute  shall 
be  allowed  between  each  ball. 

Wicket,  a  kind  of  Cricket  once 
much  played  in  parts  of  the  United 
States.  The  Wicket  is  low  and 
broad,  the  bail  being  four  or  five  feet 
long  on  stumps  about  six  inches 
high,  placed  one  at  each  end.  The 
ball  is  larger  and  softer  than  a  Cricket 


2.  When  there  shall  be  less  than  |  ball,  and  the  bat  shaped  something 


CRICKET 


224 


CRICKET 


like  a  hockey  stick  with  a  large  flat 
end,  or  a  lacrosse  stick  having  its 
lower  end  entirely  of  wood  instead 
of  being  strung.  The  method  of 
playing  was  similar  to  Cricket.  It  has 
not  been  played  much  since  1865. 

The  largest  individual  scores  at 
Cricket  are  as  follows  : 

England,  485,  A.  E.  Stoddart, 
Hempstead,  Aug.  4,  1886.  Austra- 
lia, 328  (not  out),  W.  Bruce,  Mel- 
bourne, Jan.  19  and  26,  1884. 
Canada,  204,  A.  Browning,  Ottawa, 
July  i,  1880.  United  States,  182 
(not  out),  C.  S.  Farnum,  Philadel- 
phia, July  ii,  1885. 

The  largest  recorded  total  scores 
in  one  inning  are  as  follows  : 

British,  920  runs,  Orleans  Club, 
Rickling  Green,  England,  Aug.  4-5, 
1882. 

American,  418,  Germantown  Club, 
Philadelphia,  June  18  and  28,  1887. 

History.  Cricket  was  probably 
at  first  a  mere  game  of  bat  and  ball, 
without  the  Wicket,  and  French  au- 
thors say  it  was  derived  from  the 
French  Crosse,  which  is  also  called 
Criquet.  The  name  is  probably 
from  the  Saxon  Cric,  a  crooked  stick, 
referring  to  the  early  bats,  which 
were  curved,  instead  of  straight  as 
now.  In  the  wardrobe  account  of 
King  Edward  I.  for  the  year  1300,  is 
an  item  in  which  is  mentioned  playing 
at  Creag,  supposed  to  have  been  an 
early  form  of  Cricket.  At  first  the 
only  players  seem  to  have  been  bats- 
man and  bowler  ;  fielders  appear  for 
the  first  time  in  a  picture  of  1344. 
In  the  1 5th  century  the  game  was 
called  "  Hondyn  and  Hondoute " 
(Hand  in  and  Hand  Out),  showing 
that  there  was  then  an  In  and  an 
Out  side.  Under  this  title  it  was 
among  the  games  forbidden  by  Ed- 
ward IV.  in  1477,  as  interfering  with 
the  practice  of  archery.  The  first 
appearance  of  the  present  name  is  in 
1593,  in  a  lawsuit  about  a  piece  of 
ground,  in  which  a  man  testified  that 
he  had  played  "  at  Crickett "  there 
fifty  years  before.  Early  in  the  i8th 
century  the  game  became  popular, 


being  played  by  all  classes  of  people, 
and  in  1751  Frederick,  Prince  of 
Wales,  died  from  a  hit  with  a  Cricket 
ball  while  playing  at  Cliefden  House. 
It  was  a  favorite  especially  in  the 
southern  counties  of  England,  and 
matches  between  players  in  the  dif- 
ferent counties  began  to  be  held, 
which  have  continued  to  the  present 
day.  There  are  now  Cricket  clubs 
in  every  village  in  England,  and  it  is 
known  as  the  national  game  of  that 
country. 

I  n  the  early  history  of  cricket,  as  has 
been  said,  the  Wicket  did  not  exist. 
A  circular  hole  was  used  instead, 
into  which  the  ball  was  bowled. 
The  first  Wicket  consisted  of  one 
stump  only  18  inches  high,  then  a 
second  was  placed  two  feet  from  it, 
and  they  were  connected  by  a  cross- 
bar. The  hole  was  still  retained 
between  the  stumps.  About  1775 
the  third  stump  was  added,  and  the 
Wicket  was  gradually  made  smaller, 
till  in  1817  it  reached  its  present  size. 
The  bats  were  made  first  with  a 
sweeping  curve,  the  present  straight 
bats  coming  into  use  about  1825. 
The  bowling  was  always  underhand 
till  1 785,  when  round  arm  or  straight 
arm  bowling  was  introduced.  It 
was  declared  unfair,  but  since  1825 
has  been  adopted,  and  in  1864  all  re- 
strictions as  to  the  height  of  the  arm 
in  bowling  were  removed,  causing  a 
revolution  in  the  game,  by  giving 
much  greater  power  to  the  bowler. 

In  the  United  States  it  has  been 
played  since  the  middle  of  the  i8th 
century,  but  it  has  never  been  popu- 
lar. The  earliest  recorded  match 
in  this  country  was  between  eleven 
men  from  London  and  eleven  from 
New  York,  and  was  played  on  May 
I,  1751,  where  Fulton  Market  now 
stands,  in  New  York  city.  The 
New  Yorkers  won.  A  club  was 
formed  in  Boston  in  1809,  and  Benja- 
min Franklin  took  to  Philadelphia 
from  England  a  copy  of  "  The  Laws 
of  .Cricket,"  still  in  possession  of  a 
club  in  that  city.  Cricket  is  now 
played  principally  in  and  about  Phil- 


CROOKED  MAN 


225 


CROOKED  MAN 


adelphia,  though  there  are  150  organ- 
ized clubs  in  the  United  States,  and 
in  1878  the  Cricketer's  Association  of 
the  United  States  was  formed.  Base 
Ball  has  always  been  more  popular 
here.  Ball  players  say  that  Cricket 
is  too  slow,  since  a  game  generally 
lasts  a  whole  day  or  even  two  days, 
whv,.eas  a  hall  game  is  over  in  a  few 
hours. 

Since  1859,  English  and  Australian 
Cricketers  have  made  several  tours 
in  the  United  States  and  Canada 
and  have  as  a  rule  been  victorious. 
Matches  are  played  annually  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Canada 
in  which  the  former  generally  gets 
the  best  of  it.  In  1874  and  1875  a 
Philadelphia  team  won  a  silver  cup 
at  Halifax  and  Philadelphia,  respec- 
tively, against  British  and  Canadian 
teams.  In  1878  and  1882  Austra- 
lian teams  came  to  this  country  and 
won  or  drew  every  match  they 
played  ;  in  1879  two  English  teams 
met  with  similar  success,  and  during 
this  year  an  Irish  team  won  every- 
where except  in  Philadelphia,  where 
it  was  badly  beaten  ;  but  in  1884  a 
Philadelphia  team  won  eight  matches 
in  England,  losing  five  and  drawing 
five.  In  1885  a  strong  English  team 
received,  at  Philadelphia,  the  first  de- 
feat inflicted  on  organized  English 
cricketers  in  this  country,  but  in  1886 
another  English  team  won  every 
match  they  played  in  the  United 
States.  "  In  1887  a  Canadian  team 
visited  Great  Britain  and  played 
eighteen  matches,  winning  four,  los- 
ing five,  and  drawing  nine-." 

"  In  1888  an  Irish  team  was  suc- 
cessful everywhere  in  this  country 
except  in  Philadelphia,  where  they 
were  twice  defeated." 

"  In  1889  a  second  Philadelphia 
team  visited  Great  Britain  playing 
twelve  matches,  of  which  it  won  four, 
lost  three,  and  drew  five."  But 
attempts  to  arouse  general  interest  in 
the  sport  in  the  United  States  have 
met  with  little  success. 

CROOKED  MAN,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  in  which 


each  player  jumps  from  one  to 
another  of  a  series  of  pictures  drawn 
on  a  floor  or  pavement.  The  pic- 
tures illustrate  roughly  the  nursery 
rhyme : 

"  There  was  a  crooked  man. 
He  went  a  crooked  mile, 
And  found  a  crooked  sixpence 
Against  a  crooked  stile  ; 
He  bought  a  crooked  cat, 
Who  caught  a  crooked  mouse, 
And  they  all  lived  together  in  a  little 
crooked  house." 

There  are  seven  pictures,  represent- 
ing the  words  at  the  end  of  each 
line  ;  that  is,  a  man,  a  milestone,  a 
sixpence,  a  stile,  a  cat,  a  mouse,  and 


Crooked  Man  Diagram. 

a  house.  These  are  drawn  with 
chalk  close  together  in  any  desired 
order',  and  each  is  surrounded  with 
a  circle.  One  of  the  players  takes 
his  place  in  the  middle  of  the  group 
of  pictures,  and  the  others  sing  the 
rhyme  to  any  well-known  tune  which 
can  be  made  to  fit  it,  for  instance 
"John  Brown's  Body."  At  the  last 
word  of  each  line  he  must  jump  to  the 
corresponding  figure.  The  verse  is 
then  repeated,  and  this  time  he 
must  jump  to  the  figure  just  before 
it  is  mentioned,  giving  a  second 
jump  at  the  proper  word.  While 
the  last  line  is  sung,  he  must  step 


CROQUET 


226 


CROQUET 


from  one  figure  to  the  other  as  fast 
as  he  can,  going  over  them  all,  and 
ending  on  the  last  at  the  last  word. 
If  he  jumps  to  a  wrong  figure,  puts 
his  feet  outside  the  circles,  turns 
quite  around,  or  jumps  before  the 
proper  time,  he  must  pay  a  forfeit. 
The  players  take  turn  in  jumping 
like  the  first. 

This  game  is  played  in  a  slightly 
different  form  by  German  students. 

CROQUET.  A  lawn  game  played 
with  mallets  and  balls,  on  a  field  set 
with  nine  or  ten  wire  arches  or 
wickets,  and  two  Stakes,  generally 
of  wood.  An  ordinary  Croquet  set 
contains  eight  balls,  each  of  a  differ- 
ent color  or  marked  by  a  different 
colored  ring,  and  eight  mallets,  each 
similarly  marked,  to  correspond  with 
the  balls.  The  two  stakes  also  are 
painted  with  rings  of  the  same  col- 
ors, arranged  in  the  same  order. 

The  arches  and  stakes  are  set  in 
various  ways,  for  the  most  common 
of  which  see  Fig.  I,  in  which  the  un- 
broken line  marks  the  course  of  the 
ball  from  the  starting  point  to  the 
lower  stake,  and  the  dotted  line  its 
return  path.  If  played  on  an  un- 
limited field,  as  a  park,  or  lawn,  the 
boundary  is  designated  by  a  white 
cord  fastened  to  stakes,  A,  B,  C,  D. 
Any  ball  passing  beyond  this  border 
may  be  returned  for  play  to  the  point 
where  it  left  the  field.  The  dotted 
inner  border  F,  G,  H,  I,  represents  a 
line  30  inches  from  the  outer  border, 
and  when  the  field  has  a  fixed  bor- 
der, made  by  placing  boards  four  or 
five  inches  high  (not  more)  on  edge 
around  it,  balls,  having  passed  to,  or 
over  this  border,  are  placed  on  this 
inner  line  for  convenience  of  striking. 
On  grounds  without  a  lawn,  this  in- 
ner line  is  marked  by  a  slight  scratch 
in  the  soil.  The  letters  e,  e,  e,  e,  rep- 
resent corner  pieces  18  inches  long. 
This  style  of  ground,  with  fixed  bor- 
der, and  field  carefully  scraped  and 
sanded  and  rolled,  was  for  many 
years  (till  1889)  the  standard  field  of 
the  National  Association. 

The  game  may  be  played  by  two, 


four,  six,  or  eight  persons,  but  two 
or  four  make  the  best  game. 

Four-handed  Croquet  is  played 
exactly  like  the  two-handed  game, 
except  that  each  player  has  but 
one  ball,  so  that  the  two  balls  on 
one  side  are  played  by  partners  in- 
stead of  by  the  same  person.  In  Six 


Lower  Stake . 


Starting  ny 
Point  • 

Stake 


D  0 

Fig.  i. — Croquet  Ground. 

and  Eight-handed  Croquet  each 
player  has  a  ball,  and  there  are  two 
sides  as  before.  The  order  of  play 
must  be  decided  on  before  the  game 
is  begun  and  kept  the  same  through- 
out, no  one  playing  directly  after  any 
of  his  partners.  The  length  of  time 
required  for  a  Six  or  Eight  ball  game 
is  such  that  it  is  rarely  engaged  in. 
When  two  play,  each  player  uses  two 
balls ;  when  more  than  two,  each 
player  generally  has  but  one  ball.  In 
all  tournament  contests  by  members 
of  the  National  Association  there  are 
two  players,  each  playing  two  balls 
(see  Scientific  Croquet  below), 
but  friendly  or  social  games,  so 


CROQUET 


227 


CROQUET 


called,  have  four  players,  each,  of 
course,  using  one  ball,  the  first  and 
third,  and  the  second  and  fourth,  be- 
ing partners.  The  following  de- 
scription is  of  the  two-handed  game. 

The  players  take  turns,  each  using 
his  two  balls  alternately,  in  the  order 
of  their  colors  on  the  stakes.  The 
first  play  may  be  decided  by  lot. 
Play  is  begun  by  placing  the  ball 
half-way  between  the  starting  stake 
and  the  first  arch,  and  striking  it 
with  the  mallet,  generally  so  that 
it  will  pass  through  the  first  arch. 
If,  however,  the  arches  are  nar- 
row, a  good  player  rarely  attempts 
to  make  the  first  arch  at  the  outset, 
but  strikes  so  as  to  leave  his  ball  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  field,  or  at  some 
distance  from  the  starting  point,  pre- 
ferring to  wait  till  he  has  all  the  balls 
in  play  and  then,  by  their  help,  make 
several  arches,  as  described  below. 
The  player's  object  is  to  pass  through 
each  of  the  arches  in  turn,  strike  the 
opposite  stake,  called  the  turning 
stake,  and  then  return  to  the  starting 
stake  in  like  manner,  by  the  path 
shown  in  Fig.  I.  A  ball  after  hav- 
ing been  struck  from  the  starting 
point  is  generally  regarded  "  in 
play,"  whether  such  ball  has  made 
the  first  arch  or  not.  Early  rules 
recognized  the  "  booby  "  as  one  who 
attempted,  but  failed,  to  make  the 
first  arch,  but  this  term  is  now 
discarded. 

When  a  player's  ball  passes 
through  an  arch,  or  hits  the  lower 
stake,  he  is  said  to  "  make  a  point." 
When  his  ball,  from  a  stroke  of  the 
mallet,  hits  another,  either  friend  or 
foe,  it  is  said  to  "  roquet  "  it.  This 
gives  the  privilege  of  roquet-croquet, 
which  must  be  taken,  and  is  done  by 
placing  the  player's  own  ball  in  con- 
tact with  the  roqueted  ball,  and  then 
striking  the  former  so  as  to  move, 
however  slightly,  the  roqueted  ball 
and  sending  his  own  by  the  same 
stroke  a  greater  or  less  distance  as 
may  be  desired.  After  making  a 
point,  and  also  at  the  beginning  of 
every  turn,  the  player  has  the  privi- 


lege of  roqueting  any  ball  he  may 
choose,  but  no  ball  can  be  roqueted 
more  than  once  in  any  turn  unless  a 
point  be  made.  Then  the  player's 
ball  is  said  to  be  "  alive  "  on  all  the 


Position  by  Split  Shot. 


balls,  and  when  he  has  played  on  all, 
he  is  "  dead  "  on  them.  There  are 
two  ways  of  taking  roquet-croquet. 
The  one  above  described  is  called 
"loose"  croquet,  because  neither  ball 
is  held  during  the  stroke.  The  other 
is  "  tight  "  croquet,  when  the  playing 
ball  is  placed  against  the  roqueted 
ball,  and  held  either  between  the 
fingers  or  by  the  foot  so  that  when  it 
is  struck  the  object  ball  moves  in  any 
desired  direction.  If  the  struck  ball 
moves  from  the  hand  or  from  under 
the  foot,  it  is  called  a  "flinch  "  and  play 
ceases.  The  hand  is  used  upon  care- 
fully prepared  grounds  to  prevent  the 


CROQUET 


228 


CROQUET 


indentations  made  by  holding  a  ball 
firmly  under  the  foot. 

The  privilege  of  roquet-croquet, 
being  continued  after  every  point 
made,  enables  a  skillful  player  to 
make  several  arches,  frequently  the 
entire  round  from  start  to  finish,  in 
one  turn.  This  is  called  "  making 
a  run,"  in  which  sometimes  only  one 
ball  is  "  used,"  either  his  own  or  his 
opponent  s,  but  so  placed  each  time 
beyond  the  arch  to  be  made  that 
when  the  playing  ball  passes  through 
the  arch  it  can  use  the  other  to  get 
in  front  of  the  next  arch  (called 
"  getting  into  position  "). 


In  loose  Croquet,  roquet-croquet 
be  taken  by  means  of  several 
kinds  of  strokes,  or  "  shots,"  so 
called:  "  follow  shots,"  in  which  one 
ball  follows  the  other  more  or  less 
closely  according  to  the  skill  of  the 
player ;  "  split  shots  "  (Figs.  2  and  4), 
in  which  they  move  in  different  direc- 
tions, and  "  slice  shots  "  (see  Fig.  3). 
In  Figs.  2  to  6  the  player's  ball  is 
lettered  A  and  the  roqueted  ball  B, 
except  in  Fig.  4,  where  C  shows  the 
direction  of  the  mallet-stroke,  and 
A  and  B  that  of  the  balls  respectively. 
In  the  "  slice  shot,"  the  object  ball  is 
only  slightly  displaced  or  made  only 


Fig.  3.— Slice  Shot. 


to  shake,  this  latter  being  deemed  suf- 
ficient to  prevent  the  player  from 
losing  his  shot,  for  if  either  of  these 
shots  be  attempted  and  the  object 
ball  be  not  moved  play  ceases,  and 
the  struck  ball  may  be  returned  or 
not  (according  to  the  wish  of  the 
opponent)  to  the  position  it  had  be- 
fore the  stroke.  In  the  follow  shot, 
the  balls  will  roll  off  together  if  the 
stroke  be  slow  and  pushing,  but  if  it 
be  sharp  and  quick,  only  the  object 
ball  will  go  to  any  great  distance. 
By  varying  the  direction  and  speed 
of  stroke,  a  skillful  player  can  send 
each  of  the  balls  exactly  where  he 
wishes  them  to  go. 

Many  players  have  one  end  of  their 
mallets  made  of  soft  rubber,  by  an 
ordinary  stroke  of  which  both  balls 


will  go  the  whole  length  of  the  field 
together. 

When  a  player's  ball  has  made  all 
the  points  in  the  game  except  strik- 
ing the  finishing  stake,  it  is  called  a 
Rover,  but  remains  in  the  game  to 
assist  his  other  ball  till  it  also  be- 
comes a  Rover.  Rovers  can  be  put 
out  only  by  partners,  and  when  a 
Rover  is  thus  made  to  hit  the  stake, 
and  his  partner,  without  removing 
the  other  ball  from  the  field,  fails  to 
hit  the  stake  on  the  next  shot  neither 
is  regarded  as  out.  They  must  go 
out  in  successive  shots  by  the  same 
player.  A  Rover  has  no  additional 
privilege  of  play  on  account  of  being 
a  Rover. 

Suggestions.  In  Croquet,  the 
skillful  player  tries  to  keep  his  own 


CROQUET 


229 


CROQUET 


balls  together  as  much  as  possible 
and  to  separate  those  of  his  oppo- 
nent. That  one  of  the  enemy's  balls 
played  last  (called  the  "  innocent 
ball,"  because  it  can  do  no  harm 
till  three  others  have  had  their  turns) 
can  be  used  and  left  near  either  of  a 
player's  balls  without  danger,  but 
the  other  ball  (called  the  "  guilty  " 
or  "  danger  "  ball)  should  either  be 
sent  to  a  distance  after  it  has  been 
used,  or  so  placed  that  the  wire  of 
an  arch  or  a  stake  will  be  between 
it  and  the  other  balls.  In  the  latter 
case  it  is  said  to  be  "  wired."  Figs. 
5  and  6  show  two  different  methods 
of  wiring. 

When  his  ball  is  wired,  a  skilled 
player  may,  provided  the  ball  be  far 
enough  from  the  wire  to  allow  it, 
make  what  is  called  a  "  jump  shot," 
by  striking  the  ball  downward  so 
that  it  bounds  over  the  wicket. 
When  no  obstruction  prevents  one 
ball  from  hitting  another  the  shot  is 
said  to  be  "  open."  Bold  and  con- 
fident players,  especially  in  friendly 
or  social  contests,  frequently  take  the 
danger  ball  with  them  in  making 
a  run,  "tying  it  up,"  or  "wiring"  it, 
just  before  an  attempt  to  make  the 
difficult  center  or  basket  arch  (some- 
times called  also  the  cage.  This 
style  of  play  is  universally  adopted 
by  skilled  players).  A  player  should 
not  try  to  roquet  the  danger  ball  at 
all,  if  by  missing  it  he  would  give  it 
a  better  chance  for  play  than  it  had 
before.  At  the  end  of  a  play,  or  at 
the  beginning,  when  there  is  little 
chance  of  a  run,  the  player  should 
place  his  ball  where  it  will  aid  his 
other  ball. 

Field  and  Implements.  Croquet 
is  usually  played  on  closely  shaven 
turf,  but  skilled  players  prefer  a 
ground  of  rolled  earth,  sanded  (very 
slightly)  to  hold  the  balls.  The  size 
of  the  field  varies  from  40  by  60  to 
60  by  loo  feet,  the  latter  being  un- 
necessarily large ;  the  match  games 
of  the  National  Association  are 
played  on  fields  about  45  by  80  feet. 
The  arches  or  wickets  are  often  as 


wide  as  6  or  7  inches,  but  on  the 
grounds  of  clubs  belonging  to  the 
National  Association  they  are  only 
3|  inches  wide,  making  it  difficult  for 
a  ball  to  make  its  arch  unless  it  be 
directly  in  front  of  it.  The  wickets 
are  sunk  about  6  inches  in  the  ground 
and  usually  set  in  buried  blocks  of 
wood  to  make  them  more  firm.  The 
inside  measurements  of  Fig.  i  are  as 
follows :  The  stakes  are  7  feet  from 
the  middle  point  of  the  end  border, 
with  five  arches  in  a  straight  line  be- 
tween them,  the  center  one  being  a 
double  one,  formed  of  two  arches 
placed  1 8  inches  apart  and  set  cross- 
wise of  the  ground.  It  is  7  feet 
from  each  stake  to  the  first  arch, 
which  is  7  feet  from  the  second  arch. 
The  side  arches  are  about  14  feet 
from  the  second  arches  nearly  or 
quite  at  right  angles.  But  in  case 
the  field  selected  should  be  of  dif- 
ferent dimensions  from  those  given 
above,  any  similar  setting  of  arches, 
with  proportionate  distances,  will 
prove  satisfactory.  [For  diagram 
and  construction  of  grounds  adopted 
in  1889  by  the  National  Association 
see  Scientific  Croquet.}  The  mallets 


Fig.  4.— Split  Shot. 

are  made  in  various  styles  and  sizes, 
and  of  different  materials,  according 
to  the  owner's  taste,  there  being  no 
restriction  in  any  respect.  Those 
approved  by  the  National  Associa- 
tion either  have  solid  heads  of  box- 
wood, brass-ringed,  7  to  7$  or  8 


CROQUET 


230 


CROQUET 


inches  long  by  2±  to  2\  inches  in 
diameter;  and  handles  from  8  to  15 
inches  long,  or  have  hard  rubber  ends 
firmly  ringed  with  brass  rings  shrunk 
on,  these  ends  screwing  on  to  a 
center  piece  of  beautiful  wood,  into 
which  the  handle  screws,  so  as  to  be 
readily  taken  apart  for  convenience 
in  carrying  (see  Fig.  7). 

Though  short-handled  mallets  like 
those  just   described   are  now  pre- 


Fig.  5. — Wiring  by  Direct  Roquet 
Croquet. 

fered  by  skilled  players,  the  ordi- 
nary mallet  handles  are  from  3  to 
4  feet  long,  so  that  the  player  may 
strike  his  ball  without  stooping.  The 
ordinary  balls  are  of  wood,  lignum 
vitae  being  the  best,  but  balls  of 
various  compositions  are  used.  The 


National  Association  has  adopted 
hard  rubber  balls,  3}  inches  in  diam- 
eter, so  that  in  passing  through  a 
wicket  a  ball  has  only  one  quarter  of 
an  inch  of  spare  space,  or  an  eighth 
of  an  inch  on  each  side.  The  colors 
adopted  are  the  national  colors,  red, 
white,  and  blue,  and  always  in  that 
order,  therefore  easy  to  be  remem- 
bered. The  fourth  ball  is  the  natural 
color  of  the  rubber,  black,  and  fol- 
lows in  order ;  so  that  red  and  blue 
are  partners,  and  black  and  white 
their  opponents.  Metal  or  wooden 
spring  "  clips,"  so  called  (patent 
clothes  fasteners  are  excellent  for  the 
purpose),  colored  to  correspond  with 
the  balls,  are  placed  on  the  tops  of 
the  arches  to  determine  without  dis- 
pute the  arch  through  which  the  ball 
of  corresponding  color  must  next 
pass. 

[Balls  and  clips  can  be  very  easily 
painted  by  using  a  solution  of  white 
shellac  in  alcohol,  and  mixing  with 
this  as  wanted,  Chinese  vermillion 
for  red,  Prussian  blue  with  a  little 
zinc  white  for  a  light  blue,  and  zinc  or 
flake  white  for  white,  painting  with 
separate  brushes  and  mixing  colors 
in  separate  dishes.  Thus  painted 
they  will  dry  in  a  few  minutes  and 
wear  for  several  days.] 

Scientific  Croquet,  As  played  by 
experts  the  game  differs  from  ordi- 
nary croquet  in  many  particulars, 
some  of  which  have  been  hinted 
at  in  the  previous  description.  To 
be  full  in  all  respects,  we  append 
the  description  of  the  grounds 
adopted  in  1889  by  the  National  As- 
sociation, and  also  the  rules  amended 
to  June,  1890.  [Although  the  grounds, 
as  here  described,  are  those  upon 
which  all  tournament  contests  shall 
be  played,  some  clubs,  owing  to 
the  expense  required  to  change,  still 
adhere  to  the  style  as  given  in 
Fig.  i.] 

The  plan  of  the  ground  is  as  shown 
in  Fig.  8.  A  full-sized  ground  is 
45  by  80  feet ;  the  ground  to  be 
raised  two  inches  at  the  border,  the 
slope  extending  thirty  inches  into 


CROQUET 


231 


CROQO,.* 


the  field,  the  base  of  which  is  the 
boundary  line.  The  stakes  or  posts 
are  to  be  one  inch  in  diameter,  and 


one  and  one-half  inches  high,  situ- 
ated at  the  base  of  the  rise  at  the 
center  of  the  width  of  the  grounds. 


Fig;.  6.— Wiring  by.  Split  Shdt. 


The  first  wicket  to  be  seven  feet  from 
the  post ;  the  second  seven  feet  from 


Fig.  7.— a  a.  Brass  Rings  ;  £,  center  piece 
of  wood  screwing  into  the  hard  rub- 
ber ends. 

the  first,  each  on  a  line  extending 
though  the  middle  of  the  field.  The 
side  arches  to  be  five  feet  from  the 


foot  of  the  rise  On  a  line  with  the 
second  arch  from  each  stake ;  the 
cage,  or  double  wicket  in  the 
center,  to  be  eighteen  inches  long 
and  three  and  three-eighth  inches 
between  the  wires,  and  set  at  right 
angles  with  a  straight  line  drawn 
from  stake  to  stake.  The  border  at 
the  top  of  the  slope  is  to  be  made  of 
maple  or  other  hard  wood,  about 
four  by  six  inches,  laid  flat  to  serve 
as  a  cushion,  whence  caroms  can  be 
made.  The  corner  pieces  to  be  of 
same  material  and  eight  feet  long, 
inside  measurement.  All  arches  ex- 
cept the  center  arch  to  be  three  and 
one-half  inches  in  the  clear. 


CROQUET  2 

In  this  game  four  balls  make  a 
set,  and  two  or  even  three  games  of 
four  balls  each,  thus  accommodat- 
ing eight  or  twelve  persons,  may 
be  played  on  the  same  ground,  and 
with  but  little  confusion  or  interrup- 
tion, provided  one  set  of  balls  is 


Fig.  8.— S  S,  Stakes  ;  a  a,  Boundary ; 
continuous  line  going,  dotted  line 
returning. 

colored,  another  set  numbered,  and 
the  third  marked  with  rings  to  dis- 
tinguish the  sets  and  the  players. 
This  is  frequently  done  in  the  West- 
ern States,  where  the  grounds  are 
covered,  and  play  is  enjoyed  regard- 
less of  cold  or  storm  outside. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

The  following  are  the  rules  adopted 
by  the  National  Croquet  Association 
of  America : 

I.  Interfering  with  Players.  No 
player  or  other  person  shall  be  per- 
mitted to  interfere  with  the  result  of 
a  game  by  any  word  or  act  calcu- 
lated to  embarrass  the  player,  nor 


2  CROQUET 

shall  any  one  except  a  partner  speak 
to  a  player  while  in  the  act  of  strik- 
ing. 

2.  Order  of  Colors.     The    order 
of  colors  shall  be  Red,  White,  Blue, 
Black. 

3.  Mallets.     There  shall  be  no  re- 
striction as  to  kind  or  size  of  mallet 
used — one   or  two    hands    may   be 
used  in  striking. 

4.  No    player    shall    change    his 
mallet  during  a  game  without  per- 
missio'n  of   his  opponent,  except  in 
case  of  accident,  or  to  make  a  "  jump 
shot." 

5.  Should  a  ball  or  mallet  break 
in  striking,  the  player  may  demand 
another  stroke,  with  a  new  ball  or 
mallet. 

6.  Clips  or  Markers.  Every  player 
shall  be  provided  with  a  clip  or  in- 
dicator of  the  same  color  as  his  ball, 
painted  on  one  side  only,  which  he 
must  affix  to  his  arch  next  in  order 
in  course  of  play,  before  his  partner 
plays,  with  the  painted  side  toward 
the  front  of  the  arch.     Should  he  fail 
to  do  so  his  clip  must  remain  upon 
the   arch    it    rested   on    before    he 
played,  and  he  must  make  the  points 
again.     Should  he  move  his  marker 
beyond  or  back  of  the  point  he  is  for, 
his  attention  must  be  called  to  such 
error  before  he  plays  again,  other- 
wise it  shall  stand.     Should  a  player 
put  a  ball  through  its  arch,  he  must 
move  the  corresponding  clip  to  its 
proper  arch  before  the  next  ball  is 
played,    otherwise  the  clip   remains 
as  before. 

7.  Opening  of  Game.     All  games 
shall  be  opened  by  scoring  from  an 
imaginary  line  through    the  middle 
wicket  and  playing  toward  the  turn- 
ing  stake.     The   balls   must   be  so 
played  that  they  rest  below  the  first 
arch  from  the  turning  stake,  and  if 
dislodged,    must    be    replaced  —  all 
balls  being  in  play  from  where  they 
rest,  the  ball  nearest  the  stake  play- 
ing first. 

8.  Balls— How  Struck.   The  ball 
must  be  struck  with  the  face  of  the 
mallet,   the    stroke   being  delivered 


CROQUET 


233 


CROQUET 


whenever  touching  the  ball  it  moves 
it.  Should  a  stake  or  wire  inter- 
vene, the  stroke  is  not  allowed,  unless 
the  ball  is  struck  at  the  same  time, 
and  if  the  ball  is  moved,  without 
being  struck  by  the  face  of  the  mal- 
let, it  shall  remain  where  it  rests, 
and  should  a  point  (or  roquet)  be 
made,  it  shall  not  be  allowed,  except 
by  the  decision  of  the  umpire  as  to 
the  fairness  of  the  shot.  All  balls 
moved  by  a  foul  shot  may  be  re- 
placed or  not  at  the  option  of  the 
opponent. 

9.  When    making    a    direct    shot 
(i.   e.  roquet)    the   player   must    not 
push    or   follow    the   ball   with    his 
mallet ;    but   when    taking    croquet 
from  a  ball  (two  balls  being  in  con- 
tact), he  may  follow  his  ball  with  the 
mallet ;  but  must  not  strike  it  twice. 

10.  If  a  player  strikes  his  ball  be- 
fore  his   opponent  has   finished   his 
play,  the  stroke  shall  stand,  or  be 
made  over,  at  the  option  of  the  op- 
ponent. 

11.  Should  a  ball  rest  against  or 
near  a  wire,  and  the  umpire  or  other 
person  agreed  on  should  decide  that 
in  order  to  pass  through  the  arch,  an 
unfair  or  push  shot  must  be  made, 
it  shall  not  be  allowed  if  made. 

12.  Foul  Stroke.     Should  a  player 
in  making  a  stroke  move   with   his 
mallet   any   other    than    his    object 
ball,  it    shall    be    a    foul,   and    his 
play    ceases,   and    all    balls   moved 
shall  be  replaced  as  before  the  stroke 
or  remain  where  they  rest,  at  the  op- 
tion of  the  opponent. 

13.  If  a  dead  ball,  in  contact  with 
another  ball,  moves  on   account  of 
the  inequality  of  the  ground,  while 
playing  the  other  ball,  away  from  it, 
the  player  does  not  lose  his  shot.' 

14.  Balls  —  When      not     to    be 
Touched.  A  ball  must  not  be  touched 
while  on  the  field,  except  after  a  ro- 
quet, when  it  is  necessary  to  place 
it  beside   the  roqueted  ball  for  the 
purpose  of  croquet,  or  to  replace  it 
when  it  has  been    moved    by   acci- 
dent— except   by  permission  of  the 
opponent. 


15.  Roquet  and  Croquet.     A  ball 
roquets  another  when   it  comes   in 
contact  with  it  by  a  blow  from  the 
player's  mallet,  or  rebounds  from  a 
wicket  or  a  stake  ;    the  border  also 
when  it   comes   in    contact    with    it 
when  croquet  is  taken  from  another 
ball. 

1 6.  A  player   after  making  a  ro- 
quet shall   not  stop  his  ball  for  the 
purpose  of  preventing  its  hitting  an- 
other.     Should    he   do  so  his   play 
ceases,   and   all   balls   shall    be    re- 
placed as  before  the  stroke,  or  re- 
main, at  the  option  of  the  opponent. 

17.  Roquet  gives  to  the  player  the 
privilege  of   croquet  only,  and  play 
must    be  made    from  the   roqueted 
ball. 

1 8.  If  a  player  in  taking  a  croquet 
from    a  ball   fails   to  move   it,  such 
stroke   ends  his   play,  and  his  ball 
must   be   returned,  or  left  where  it 
stops,  at  the  option  of  the  opponent. 

19.  A  player,  in  each  turn  of  play, 
is  at   liberty   to   roquet  any  ball  on 
the  ground  once  only  before  making 
a  point. 

20.  Should  a  player  croquet  a  ball 
he  has  not   roqueted,  he   loses  his 
turn,  and  all  balls  moved  by  such 
play  must  be  replaced  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of    the   umpire,  or    adversary. 
Should  the  mistake  not  be  discovered 
before  the  player  has  made  another 
stroke,  the  play  shall  be  valid,  and 
the  player  continue  his  play. 

21.  In  taking  croquet  from  a  ball, 
if   player's    ball  strikes    another  to 
which    he    is  "  dead,"  such    stroke 
does  not  end  his  play. 

22.  If    a   player    roquets    two    or 
more  balls  at  the  same  stroke,  only 
the  first  can  be  roqueted. 

23.  Making  of  Points.     A  player 
makes  a  point  in  the  game  when  his 
ball  makes  an  arch  or  hits  a  stake  in 
proper  play. 

24.  If  a  player  makes  a  point,  and 
afterwards  at  the  same  stroke  roquets 
a  ball,  he  must  take  the  point,  and 
use  the  ball.     If  the  roqueted  ball  is 
beyond  the  arch,  as  determined  by 
Rule  45,  and  playing  ball  rests  through 


CROQUET 


234 


CROQUET 


the  arch,  the  arch  is  held  to  be  first 
made.  [Note.  While  this  is  not 
mathematically  correct,  the  rule  is  so 
made  to  avoid  disputes  and  difficult 
measurements.] 

25.  If  a  ball  roquets  another,  and 
afterwards  at  the  same  stroke  makes 
a  point,  it  must  take  the   ball  and 
reject     the     point.      (See    note    to 
Rule  24.) 

26.  A  player  continues  to  play  so 
long  as  he    makes  a  point    in  the 
game,  or  roquets    another    ball    to 
which  he  is  in  play. 

27.  A  ball  making   two  or  more 
points  at  the  same  stroke,  has  only 
the  same  privilege  as  if  it  made  but 
one. 

28.  Should  a  ball  be  driven  through 
its  arch,  or  against  its  stake  by  cro- 
quet or  concussion,  it  is  a  point  made 
by  that  ball,  except  it  be  a  Rover. 

29.  Playing  on  Dead  Ball.     If  a 
player  play  by  direct  shot  on  a  dead 
ball,  all  balls  displaced  by  such  shot 
shall  be  replaced  in  their  former  posi- 
tion, and  the    player's   ball   placed 
against  the  dead    ball   on   the  side 
from  which  it  came  ;  or  all  balls  shall 
rest  where  they  lie,  at  the  option  of 
the  opponent. 

30.  If  a  player,  in  making  a  direct 
shot,  strike  a  ball  on  which  he  has 
already  played,  i.  e.  a  dead  ball,  his 
play  ceases.     Any  point,  or  part  of  a 
point  or  ball  struck,  after  striking  the 
dead  ball,  is  not  allowed.     And  both 
balls  must  be  replaced  in  accordance 
with  the  preceding  rule.      A   dead 
ball  displaced  by  other  than  direct 
shot  shall  not  be  replaced. 

31.  If    playing    ball    in    passing 
through  its  arch  strike  a  dead  ball 
that  is  beyond  the  arch,  as  deter- 
mined by  Rule  45,  the  ball  shall  not  be 
considered  a  dead  ball  if  playing  ball 
rests  through  its  arch,  and  the  point 
shall  be  allowed. 

32.  Balls  Moved  or  Interfered 
with  by  Accident  or  Design.     A  ball 
accidentally  displaced,  otherwise  than 
as  provided  for  in  Rule  12,  must  be 
returned  to  its  position  before  play 
can  proceed. 


33.  If  a  ball  is  stopped  or  diverted 
from  its  course  by  an  opponent,  the 
player  may  repeat  the  shot  or  not  as 
he  chooses.     Should   he  decline  to 
repeat  the  shot,  the  ball  must  remain 
where  it  stops,  and,  if  playing  ball, 
must  play  from  there. 

34.  If  a  ball  is  stopped  or  diverted 
from  its  course  by  a  player,  or  his 
partner,  the  opponent   may  demand 
a  repetition  of  the  shot  if  he  chooses — 
Should  he  decline  to  do  so,  the  ball 
must  remain  where  it  stops,  and,  if 
playing  ball,  must  play  from  there. 

35.  If   a    ball,   while    rolling,    is 
stopped  or  diverted  from  its  course 
by  any  object  inside  the  ground,  not 
pertaining  to  the  game  or  ground, 
other  than  provided  for  in  Rules  33 
and  34,  the  shot  may  be  repeated  or 
allowed  to  remain  at  the  option  of  the 
player.     If  not  repeated  the  ball  must 
remain  where  it  stops,  and,  if  playing 
ball,  play  from  there. 

36.  Balls  in  Contact.     Should   a 
player,  on  commencing  his  play,  find 
his  ball  in  contact  with  another,  he 
may  hit  his  own  as  he  likes,  and  then 
has  subsequent  privileges  the  same 
as  though  the  balls  were  separated 
an  inch  or  more. 

Concerning Botindary.  [The  boun- 
dary is  a  line  extending  around  the 
field,  usually  thirty  inches  from  the 
border  and  parallel  with  it.] 

37.  A  ball  shot  over  boundary  line 
or  border  must  be  returned  at  right 
angles  from   where  it  stops   before 
play  can  proceed. 

38.  A  ball  is  in  the  field,  only  when 
the  whole  ball  is  within  the  boundary 
line. 

39.  No  play  is  allowed  from   be- 
yond the  boundary  line,  except  when 
a  ball  is  placed  in  contact  with  an- 
other for  the  purpose  of  croquet. 

40.  If  a  player  strikes  his  ball  when 
over  the  boundary  line,  he  shall  lose 
his  stroke  and  the  balls  shall  be  re- 
placed or  left  where  they  stop,  at  the 
option  of  the  opponent. 

41.  If  a  player  roquet  a  ball  off  the 
field  by  a  direct  shot  his  play  ceases, 
and  the  roqueted  ball  is  placed  on  the 


CROQUET 


235 


CROQUET 


boundary  opposite  the  point  where 
it  lay  before  being  thus  hit.  But  if  a 
ball  off  the  field  is  hit  from  a  croquet 
the  hit  shall  not  be  allowed,  the  ball 
shall  be  properly  replaced  in  the  field, 
and  the  play  shall  not  cease. 

[The  three  following  rules  apply  to 
grounds  square-cornered  and  with- 
out slope.] 

42.  The  first  ball  driven  over  the 
boundary  line  into  a  corner  must  be 
placed  on  the  corner  at  the  intersec- 
tion of  the  two  boundary  lines. 

43.  If  a  ball,  having  been  struck 
over  the  boundary  line,  is  returnable 
at  the  corner,  another  ball  being  on 
or  entitled  to  the  corner,  it  shall  be 
placed  on  that  side  of  the  corner  on 
which  it  went  off. 

44.  If  two  balls,  having  been  shot 
over  the  boundary  line,  rest  directly 
behind  one  another  at  right  angles 
with    boundary   line,    they   shall   be 
placed  on  the  line  alongside  of  each 
other  in  the  direction  from  whence 
they  were  played  off.     This  can  oc- 
cur only  when  the  centers  of  the  two 
balls  rest  directly  behind  one  another 
at   right  angles   with  the   boundary 
line. 

45.  Ball — When      Through     an 
Arch.     A   ball   is    not   through  an 
arch   when    a    straight    edge,   laid 
across  the  two  wires  on  the  side  from 
whence  the  ball  come,  touches  the 
ball  without  moving  the  arch. 

46.  Balls —  When  in  Position.    If 
a   ball   has   been   placed   under  an 
arch,  for  the  purpose  of  croquet,  it 
is  not  in  position  to  run  that  arch. 

47.  If  a  ball   be  driven  under  its 
arch  from  the  wrong  direction,  and 
rests  there,  it  is  not  in  position  to 
run  that  arch  in  the  right  direction. 

48.  If  a  ball  shot  through  its  arch 
in   the   right     direction,    rolls   back 
through    or  under    that    arch,   the 
point  is  not  made,  but  the  ball  is  in 
position  if  left  there. 

49.  Hitting  Ball  while  Making 
Wicket.     The  cage  wickets  may  be 

made  in  one,  two,  or  more  turns, 
provided  the  ball  stops  within  limit 
of  the  cage. 


50.  Any  playing  ball  within,  or  un- 
der, a  wicket,  becomes  dead  to  ad- 
vancement through  the  wicket  from 
that  position,  if  it  comes  in  contact 
with  any  other  ball  by  a  direct  shot. 

51.  Rovers.     A     Rover    has    the 
right  of  roquet  and  croquet  on  every 
other  ball  once  during  each  turn  of 
play,  and  is  subject  to   roquet  and 
croquet  by  any  ball  in  play. 

52.  Rovers  must  be  continued  in 
the    game   until     partners    become 
Rovers,  and  go  out  successively,  and 
a  Rover  that  has  been  driven  against 
the  stake  cannot  be  removed  to  make 
way  for  the  next  Rover. 

53.  Playing   Out    of     Turn,   or 
Wrong  Ball.     If  a  player  plays  out 
of  his  proper  turn,  whether  with  his 
own  or  any  other  ball,  or  in  his  proper 
turn  plays  the  wrong  ball,  and    the 
mistake  is  discovered  before  the  next 
player  has  commenced  his  play,  all 
benefit   from    any   point    or  points 
made  is   lost,  and  his   turn  of  play 
forfeited.     All    balls  moved  by  the 
misplay  must  be  returned   to  their 
fonTier  position  by  the  umpire  or  ad- 
versary.    If  the  mistake  is  not  dis- 
covered until   after  the  next  player 
has  made  his  first  stroke,  the  error 
must  stand. 

54.  Points  Remade.     If  a   player 
makes  a  point  he  has  already  made, 
his  marker  not  being  on  that  point, 
and  the  mistake  is  discovered  before 
the  proper  point  is  made,  the  play 
ceases  with   the  shot  by  which  the 
wicket  was  remade,  and  the  marker 
remains  where  it  stood  at  the  begin- 
ning of  this  play.     All  balls  shall  be 
left  in  the  position  they  had  at  the 
time  the  wicket  was  remade.     If  not 
discovered  before  the  proper  point  is 
made,  the  points  so  made  are  good, 
and  play  proceeds  the  same  as  if  no 
error  had  been  made. 

55.  Error  in  Order  of  Play.     If 
any  error  in  order  is  discovered  after 
a  player  has  struck  his  ball,  he  shall 
be  allowed  to  finish  his  play  provided 
he  is  playing  in  the  regular  sequence 
of  his  partner's  ball  last  played.     In 
case  of  dispute  as  to  proper  sequence 


CROQUET 


236 


CROQUET 


of  balls,  it  shall  be  decided  by  the 
umpire  ;  if  there  is  no  umpire,  by  lot. 
No  recourse  shall  be  had  to  lot  un- 
less each  party  expresses  the  belief 
that  the  other  is  wrong. 

56.  At  any  time  any  error  in  order 
is  discovered,  the  opposite  side  shall 
follow  with  the  same  ball  last  played 
(the   proper   sequence) ;   but  before 
playing,  their  opponents  shall  have 
privilege  to  demand  a  transposition 
of  adversaries'  balls. 

Example.  Black  plays  by  mistake 
after  Red — the  error  is  not  discov- 
ered— Blue  plays  in  the  proper  se- 
quence of  his  partner  Red,  and  see- 
ing that  Black  has  just  played,  is 
thus  led  to  believe  it  the  innocent 
ball,  and  upon  concluding  his  play 
leaves  Black  by  Red.  Now  if  error 
in  order  is  discovered  the  player  of 
Red  and  Blue  can  demand  that  the 
position  of  Black  and  White  be  trans- 
posed. 

57.  Changing  Surf  ace  of  Ground. 
The  surface  of  grounds  shall  not  be 
changed   during   a  game  by   either 
player,  unless  by  consent  of  the  um- 
pire, and  if  so  changed  at  the  time  of 
playing  the  shot    shall  be  declared 
lost. 

58.  Direction   through    Wickets. 
In  making  all  side  or  corner  arches, 
the  playing  ball  shall  pass  through 
them  toward  the  center. 

59.  Penalty.     If  a  rule  is  violated, 
a  penalty  for  which   has   not  been 
provided,  the  player  shall  cease  his 
play. 

TERMS  USED  IN  CROQUET. 

To  Roquet.  To  hit  with  one's  own 
ball  another  ball  for  the  first  time. 

To  Croquet.  To  place  player's 
ball  against  the  roquetted  ball  and 
then  striking  his  own  ball,  moving 
both. 

In  Play.  A  ball  is  in  play  so  long 
as  points  are  made,  or  balls  hit,  in 
accordance  with  the  rules. 

Points.     See  Rule  24. 

Dead  Ball.  A  ball  on  which  the 
player  has  played  since  making  a 
point.  It  is  then  dead  to  the  player 
till  he  makes  another  point. 


Direct  Shot — Roquet.  This  is  a 
direct  shot,  whether  the  ball  in  pass- 
ing to  its  destination  does  or  does 
not  carom  from  a  wire,  a  stake,  or 
the  border. 

Drive  or  Block — English  "  Rush." 
A  roquet  played  so  as  to  send  the 
object  ball  to  some  desired  spot. 

Slice  or  Cut.  To  drive  the  object 
ball  to  a  desired  position,  by  causing 
player's  ball  to  hit  it  on  one  side. 

Run.  The  making  of  a  number 
of  points  in  the  same  turn. 

Set  up.  To  locate  the  balls,  so  as 
to  afford  facility  for  making  the  next 
point  or  run. 

Wiring.  To  leave  the  balls  so 
that  the  next  player  finds  a  wire  or 
stake  between  his  ball  and  the  object 
ball. 

Object  Ball.  The  ball  at  which 
the  player  aims. 

Jump  Shot.  Striking  the  ball  so 
as  to  make  it  jump  over  any  obstacle 
between  it  and  the  object  aimed  at. 
To  do  this,  the  ball  should  be  struck 
with  considerable  force  on  the  top 
just  back  of  the  center. 

Guilty  or  Danger  Ball.  The 
next  ball  to  play  on  the  adversary's 
side. 

Innocent  Ball.  The  last  played 
ball  of  the  adversary. 

Rover.  A  ball  that  has  made  all 
the  points  except  the  last. 

Loose  Croquet.  Striking  a  ball 
when  it  is  in  contact  with  another, 
where  it  has  been  placed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  Croquet,  thus  moving  both 
balls. 

Tight  Croquet.  Holding  with  the 
hand  or  foot  a  ball  placed  against 
another  for  the  sake  of  croquet,  thus 
allowing  only  the  latter  to  be  moved. 

Carom.  Rebounding  from  an  arch, 
a  stake,  a  ball,  on  the  border. 

Variations.  The  most  important 
variation  in  the  game  is  the  "  tight 
croquet,"  which  is  often  substituted 
at  pleasure  for  the  roquet-croquet  or 
"  loose  croquet."  This  method,  em- 
ploying either  the  hand  or  the  foot, 
has  been  already  described.  In  the 
early  form  of  the  game  the  tight 


CROQUET 


237 


CROQUET 


croquet  was  the  usual  method,  but 
it  has  long  been  discarded  by  scien- 
tific players,  except  in  the  Western 
States,  where  it  is  carried  to  a  high 
degree  of  skill.  The  word  "  croquet  " 
as  formerly  used,  always  meant  the 
tight  croquet,  but  is  sometimes  used 
by  modern  players  to  designate  loose 
croquet.  To  avoid  confusion  the  ap- 
propriate adjective  should  be  used. 
Some  of  the  preceding  rules  can  be 


Pall  Mall. 


construed  and  used  only  in  "  loose 
croquet."  All  others  may  be  used 
for  tight  croquet,  and  adopted  there- 
fore. The  Western  Clubs  use  the 
rules  of  the  National  Association 
herein  published,  which  are  sufficient 
for  all  purposes.  Tight  croquet 
gives  a  splendid  chance  for  showing 
skill  in  placing  balls,  accurate  hitting, 
and  driving  balls,  as  the  act  of  cro- 
quet leaves  the  playing  ball  near 
where  the  roqueted  ball  rested. 

Dead  Ball  Game.     In  this  a  ball 
is  after  the  first  turn  never  alive  on 


any  ball  if  such  ball  has  been  once 
hit  since  making  an  arch.  This 
form  of  the  game  is  rarely  played 
because  of  its  great  difficulty. 

Parlor  Croquet.  Croquet  sets  for 
use  in  the  parlor  are  sold  at  toy 
shops.  The  hoops  are  mounted  on 
stands  so  that  they  will  stand  up- 
right on  the  floor,  and  hoops,  mal- 
lets, and  balls  are  all 
smaller  than  those  used 
in  the  lawn  gamet  the 
mallet  handles  being 
usually  from  one  to 
three  feet  long.  Some- 
times, however,  a  bil- 
liard or  other  level 
cloth-covered  table, 
with  elastic  border,  is 
fixed  with  arches  and 
stakes,  like  a  diminutive 
croquet  field.  This  af- 
fords an  opportunity  for 
much  skill  with  short- 
handed  mallets  and 
ivory  balls,  and  as  an 
indoor  amusement  is 
next  to  billiards. 

History.  It  is 
thought  that  croquet  is 
derived  from  the  an- 
cient game  of  Paille- 
Maille  (Ball  -  Mallets) 
which  was  played  in 
France  as  early  as  the 
1 3th  century,  and  which, 
under  the  name  of  Pall 
Mall,  was  fashionable 
in  England  in  the  time 
of  the  Stuarts,  and  has 
given  its  name  to  one 
of  the  principal  streets 
in  'London.  Pall  Mall, 
or  Mall,  was  played 
with  a  mallet,  a  ball, 
and  two  hoops,  or  a 
hoop  and  a  stake.  .  From  the  name 
of  this  game  is  derived  our  word 
pell-mell. 

Croquet,  as  it  is  now  played,  was 
taken  to  England  from  Ireland, 
where  it  was  introduced  from  France. 
The  illustration  shows  a  kind  of  cro- 
quet played  in  that  country  in  1826. 


\  • 


p 


Croquet   i  n 

France  in 

1826. 


CROSS  QUESTIONS 


238 


CRYSTALLIZATION 


It  was  first  played  in  Ireland  as  a 
fashionable  game  about  1852,  and  in 
England  about  1856.  It  was  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States  about 
1865,  and  for  many  years  was  the 
most  popular  of  lawn  games  ;  but  of 
late  it  has  been  almost  superseded  in 
England,  and  in  many  parts  of  the 
United  States,  by  Lawn  TENNIS. 
Since  its  introduction  into  the  United 
States  croquet  has  been  much  modi- 
fied. The  number  of  arches  has  been 
increased,  their  positions  have  been 
changed,  and  the  size  of  the  ground 
has  been  diminished.  In  1882  the 
National  Croquet  Association  was 
organized  in  New  York*  And  since 
that  year  it  has  held  annual  tourna- 
ments. The  clubs  in  the  Association 
are  mostly  from  New  England  and 
the  Middle  States.  The  chief 
Western  clubs,  whose  style  of  play 
is  slightly  different,  have  never  been 
represented,  though  they  have  been 
invited. 

The  Association  has  fine  grounds 
at  Norwich,  Conn.,  where  the  annual 
tournaments  have  been  held  since 
1883.  Cottage  City,  Martha's  Vine- 
yard, is  a  great  place  for  croquet 
during  the  summer  season.  The 
grounds  there  are  among  the  finest 
in  the  country,  and  it  is  a  general 
practice  ground  for  many  during  the 
summer  who  participate  afterwards 
in  the  annual  tournament  at  Nor- 
wich. 

CROSS  QUESTIONS,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
who  sit  in  a  circle.  Each  puts  a 
question  to  his  fight  hand  neighbor, 
and  receives  an  answer.  Each  of 
the  players  in  turn  then  repeats  aloud 
the  question  that  his  left  hand  neigh- 
bor asked  of  him  and  the  answer 
that  his  right  hand  neighbor  gave. 
In  order  that  the  result  may  be  more 
amusing,  it  should  be  agreed  before- 
hand what  kind  of  questions  are  to 
be  asked.  For  instance,  it  m;iy  be 
agreed  that  each  is  to  ask  why  his 
neighbor  does  a  certain  thing,  real  Or 
fictitious.  Thus  B  asks  C,  on  his 
right  hand, "  Why  do  you  sit  so  near 


the  fire  ?  "  C  answers,  '  Because  I 
like  the  heat."  A  asks  B,  "  Why 
did  you  fall  into  the  water  yester- 
day?" and  he  replies,  ''Because  I 
went  too  near  the  edge."  When  it  is 
B's  turn,  he  must  tell  A's  question 
and  C's  answer,  thus,  "  Why  did  you 
fall  into  the  water?"  "Because  I 
like  the  heat,"  and  so  on. 

The  game  is  often  played  by  giving 
the  right  hand  neighbor  a  predica- 
ment and  the  left-hand  a  solution, 
and  then  telling  the  predicament  that 
comes  from  the  left  and  the  solution 
from  the  right,  It  is  then  called 
Predicaments. 

CRYSTALLIZATION,  Experi- 
ments in.  I.  Dissolve  salt  in  water 
till  it  will  hold  no  more,  and  then  dip 
a  slip  of  glass  into  the  solution,  so 
that  When  it  is  removed  it  will  be 
wet  with  the  liquid.  Watch  the 
glass,  holding  it  in  the  sun,  and 
presently  little  specks  will  appear  in 
the  film  of  liquid.  These  will  grow 
larger,  and  others  xvill  appear,  until  the 
glass  is  covered  with  crystals  of  salt. 
If  the  formation  is  watched  through 
a  magnifying  glass  it  will  be  more 
interesting; 

2.  Try,  in  the  same  way,  other  sub- 
stances which  will  dissolve  In  water, 
such  as  sugar,  washing  soda,  sal  am- 
frioniat,  chlorate  of  potash,  or  alum. 
The  crystals  formed  by  each  sub- 
stance have  their  own   shape  and 
method  of  formation"}  some  branch- 
ing out  over  the  glass  like  the  growth 
of  a  plant. 

3.  Project  the  growing  crystals  on 
the  Wall  by  holding  them  before  a 
lens  in  a  beam  of  light  from  a  HELI- 
OSTAT,  as    directed    under  MAGIC 
LANTERN,  and  the  crystals  will  ap- 
pear enormous  and  seem  to  grow 
very  rapidly. 

4.  Dissolve  in  hot  water  as  much 
alum  as  it  will  hold,  and  place  in  the 
solution  any  object  you  wish  to  cover 
with  crystals.    Set  the  solution  in  a 
quiet  place,  and  in  a  few  hours  crys- 
tals of  alum  will  be  deposited  on  all 
of  the  objects.    In  this  way  baskets 
made  oT  iron  wire  may  be  covered, 


CRYSTALLIZATION 


239 


CUP   AND   BALL 


or  dried  grasses  may  be  made  to  look 
as,  if  laden  with  frost. 

5.  Fill  one  third  of  a  bottle  or  jar 
with   silicate   of   soda,   often   called 
"  soluble  glass,"   and    the  rest  with 
clear  water,  and   shake  till  the  two 
fluids  have  thoroughly  mixed.     Then 
drop  into  the  bottom  of  the  jar  crys- 
tals, the  size  of  a  pea,  of  one  or  more 
of  the  following  substances  :  alumi- 
num sulphate,   potash  alum,  proto- 
sulphate  of  iron,   copperas,  or  blue 
vitriol.     If  the  jar  is   large   several 
may  be  used.     Set  the  jar  in  a  quiet 
place  and  in  a  few  hours  a  growth  of 
crystals   will  begin  from  each  sub- 
stance, branching  upward  like  vege- 
tation,   but   different   in   each   case. 
When  the  growth  has  reached  the 
surface  it  may  be  stopped  by  pour- 
ing water  gently  into  the  jar,  which 
will  carry  off  the  soluble  glass  grad- 
ually in  the  overflow.     The  crystals 
may  thus  be  preserved,  but  if  the  jar 
is  to  be  moved  a  layer  of  sand  quar- 
ter or  half  an  inch  thick  must  be  put 
into  the   bottle   to   begin   with,  the 
crystals  of  alum  and  the  other  sub- 
stances are  pressed  down  into  this 
with  a  glass  rod,  and  are  thus  held 
firmly  in  their  places. 

6.  Put  a  twig  or  bit  of  a  shrub  in 
a  jar,  stem   upward.     Drop   a   few 
crystals  of  benzoic  acid  on  a  plate 
of  hot  iron,  and  invert  the  jar  over 
them.      The  crystals  will  turn  to  va- 
por which  will  crystallize  again  on 
the  shrub  in  a  form  resembling  hoar 
frost. 

7.  Dissolve  in   a   quantity  of  hot 
water,  sufficient  to  half  fill  the  glass 
or  tube  in  which  the  experiment  is  to 
be  tried,  ten  times  its  weight  of  hypo- 
sulphite of  soda.     Having  warmed  a 
tall   narrow   glass,  or  test-tube,  by 
means   of   boiling   water,    pour    the 
solution  slowly  into  it.    Make  a  simi- 
lar solution  of  acetate  of  soda  and 
pour  carefully  in  above  the  first  solu- 
tion, on  which  it  will  float.     On  this 
pour  a   layer  of   boiling-hot   water. 
Allow  the  solutions  to  cool  slowly, 
and  then  lower  into  the  glass  a  crys- 
tal of  hyposulphite  of  soda  on  the 


end  of  a  thread.  It  will  pass  through 
the  upper  solution  without  disturb- 
ing it,  but  as  soon  as  it  reaches  the 
lower  one,  that  one  will  crystallize  at 


Crystallization.     Experiment  7. 

once.  A  similar  crystal  of  acetate  of 
soda  is  now  lowered  into  the  upper 
solution  which  then  crystallizes  in 
like  manner. 

CUP  AND  BALL,  a  game  played 
by  one  or  more  persons  with  a 
wooden  or  ivory  ball  connected  by  a 
string  with  a  shallow  cup,  just  large 
enough  to  fit  the  ball,  on  the  end  of 
a  handle  about  a  foot  long.  The 
other  end  of  the  handle  is  pointed 
and  made  to  fit  a  corresponding  hole 
in  the  ball.  The  game  consists  in 
trying  to  catch  the  ball  in  the  cup. 
The  player,  taking  the  cup  by  its 
handle,  throws  the  ball  upward  in  the 
air  and  catches  it  in  the  cup  as  it 
falls.  This  is  easily  done  after 
sufficient  practice.  If  more  than  one 
person  play,  each  has  a  trial  in  turn, 
and  he  who  catches  the  ball  after  a 
stated  number  of  trials,  agreed  on 
beforehand,  is  the  winner.  When 
the  player  can  easily  catch  the  ball 
in  the  cup,  he  should  try  to  do  so  by 
sticking  the  pointed  end  of  the  handle 
in  the  hole.  The  illustration  shows 


CUPID  COMES 


240 


CURLING 


the   cup  held    in   position  to  catch 
the  ball  on  the  point.     This  requires 

freat  skill,  for  to  do  it  the  ball  must 
e  given  a  twirling  motion  around 
the  axis  passing  through  the  hole. 
In  catching  the  ball  in  the  cup,  the 
latter  must  be  placed  under  the  ball 
and  lowered  quickly,  so  that  the  two 
are  both  moving  in  the  same  direc- 
tion as  the  ball  strikes  it ;  otherwise 
the  ball  is  apt  to  bound  out  of  the 


Cup  and  Ball. 

cup.  In  France  the  cup  and  ball  is 
called  Le  Bilbouquet  (Ball-bouquet). 
Henri  III.,  King  of  France,  and  his 
courtiers  were  fond  of  playing  with  it, 
and  it  came  into  great  favor  again  in 
the  reign  of  Louis  XV.  In  that  time 
a  gentleman  of  fashion  always  carried 
a  cup  and  ball  of  ivory,  and  even 
actors  and  actresses  appeared  on  the 
stage  in  tragedy  bearing  the  toys. 
Says  a  French  writer:  "It  must 
have  been  rather  amusing  to  hear 
Orestes  or  Phedra  breathing  forth 
tragic  fury  with  cup  and  ball  in 
hand."  Its  popularity  in  France  was 
still  great  at  the  time  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, when  it  was  succeeded  in  favor 
by  L' Emigrant.  (See  BANDILORE.) 
CUPID  COMES,  an  alphabetical 
game  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons, each  of  whom  tells  how  Cupid 
Comes,  in  answer  to  a  question.  The 
answers  must  begin  with  the  letters 


of  the  alphabet  in  order,  and  must 
all  end  in  "  ing."  Thus,  the  first 
player  says  to  his  neighbor  "  Cupid 
Comes."  The  neighbor  asks  "  How 
does  he  come  ? "  and  the  first 
player  replies,  for  instance,  "  An- 
gling." The  second  player  then  says 
to  the  third  :  "  Cupid  Comes,"  and, 
in  answer  to  the  same  question,  re- 
plies "  Boiling."  So  the  game  goes 
on  till  the  alphabet  is  exhausted. 
Sometimes  it  is  then  repeated,  the 
answers  ending  in  "  ly."  Cupid  then 
is  said  to  come  Amiably,  Bravely, 
Cautiously,  etc.  Sometimes  the 
letter  A  is  used  by  all  the  players  in 
the  first  round,  B  in  the  second 
round,  and  so  on.  The  game  thus 
lasts  longer.  In  this  case,  any  one 
who  gives  an  answer  already  given 
must  pay  a  forfeit. 

CURLING,  a  game  played  on  the 
ice  by  any  number  of  persons,  divided 
into  two  sides,  who  try  to  slide  stones 
as  near  as  possible  to  two  points 
called  "  Tees."  A  rink  or  course  is 
laid  out  on  a  piece  of  strong  ice 
about  7  yards  wide  and  not  less  than 
50  yards  in  length.  At  the  opposite 
ends  of  the  rink,  38  yards,  apart,  are 
two  small  holes  called  "  Tees," 
around  each  of  which  a  circle  14  feet 
in  diameter  is  drawn.  The  space 
inside  of  this  circle  is  called  the 
"  brough  "  or  "  tee-head,"  and  two 
smaller  circles  are  drawn  inside  to 
make  measurement  more  easy. 
Four  yards  behind  each  Tee  a  hack 
is  cut  in  the  ice,  or  a  piece  of  corru- 
gated iron,  called  a  "crampit,"  3^ 
feet  long  by  i  foot  in  width,  is  placed 
for  the  player  to  stand  on  when  de- 
livering his  stone,  making  the  whole 
distance  played  42  yards.  Seven 
yards  in  front  of  each  Tee  is  a  mark 
called  the  hog  score,  and  if  any  stone 
fails  to  pass  this  it  is  called  a  "  hog." 
Curling  stones  are  made  of  various 
kinds  of  granite,  and  weigh  from  30  to 
50  pounds  each.  They  are  flattened 
spheres  in  shape,  not  more  than  36 
inches  around  and  not  higher  than 
one-eighth  their  greatest  circum- 
ference. The  handles  are  made  of 


CURLING 


241 


CURLING 


iron  or  brass,  nickel  or  silver  plated, 
with  a  grip  for  the  hand  of  ebony, 
hardened  rubber  or  ivory,  screwed  to 
a  bolt  running  through  the  stone. 
Each  player  has  a  pair  of  curling 
stones,  and  the  sides  are  divided  by 
lots  into  sets  of  two  opponents  each. 
Each  pair  of  opponents  play  their 
stones  alternately, 
and  then  the  next 
pair  plays.  Each 
player  tries  to  slide 
his  stone  as  near  to 
the  Tee  as  possible, 
and  also  to  knock 
away  any  of  his  op- 
ponents' stones  that 
have  already  been 
played.  In  delivering, 
the  stone  is  slightly 
raised  from  the  ice 
and  then  slid  along 
toward  the  furthest 
Tee,  with  more  or 
less  force  as  the  oc- 
casion requires.  It  is 
better  play  for  the 
first  shot  to  lie  three 
feet  in  front  of  the 
Tee  than  one  foot 
behind  it,  as  the  for- 
mer may  be  "  touched 
up "  (driven  nearer 
the  Tee)  and  the  lat- 
ter "  touched  out " 
unless  well  guarded. 
Each  player,  besides 
trying  to  knock  his 
opponent's  stones  out 
of  the  "  brough,"  tries 
to  guard  his  own 
side  from  danger  of 
being  knocked  out. 

When  a  stone  hits 
the  inside  of  another 
and  bounds  in  toward 
the  Tee  it  is  called  an  "  invvick,"  and 
when  it  strikes  the  outside  of  another 
and  knocks  the  latter  inward  it  is 
called  an  "outvvick."  The  skillful 
player,  also  by  sliding  his  stone  with 
a  twist,  causes  it  to  describe  a  curve 
and  thus  sometimes  reaches  the  Tee 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  another  stone 


Curling  Rink. 


appeared  directly  in  its  way.  When 
a  stone  on  the  Tee  is  knocked  out  of 
the  circle  by  another  which  remains 
within  it  the  shot  is  called  a  "  chap 
and  lie  "  ;  when  a  stone  on  the  Tee  is 
partially  guarded  by  another  outside, 
and  yet  an  opponent  succeeds  in 
knocking  it  off,  he  is  said  to  "  chip  the 
winner."  If  a  stone  is  very  near  the 
Tee,  those  on  the  same  side  as  its 
owner  strive  to  place  their  stones  so 
as  to  protect  it  from  the  enemy's 
attacks.  When  all  have  played,  the 
distances  of  the  various  stones  from 
the  Tee  are  determined  with  the  aid 
of  the  "  broughs."  Every  stone  that 
is  nearer  the  Tee  than  any  on  the 


Curling  Stone. 

opposite  side  scores  one  point  or  one 
"  shot,"  as  it  is  called.  Each  one 
then  takes  a  turn  at  the  opposite  Tee 
in  the  same  order  as  before,  and  the 
game  thus  goes  on  till  one  of  the 
sides  has  won. 

The  way  in  which  a  game  shall  be 
won  depends  on  agreement  made 
beforehand.  It  may  be  done  by  the 
side  that  first  scores  21  or  31  shots, 
or  the  one  that  scores  most  shots  in 
21  or  25  "ends"  or  innings;  or  by 
the  one  that  is  ahead  at  the  end  of  3 
or  4  hours  play. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

I.  Four  yards  behind  each  Tee  a 
circle  18  inches  in  diameter  shall  be 
drawn,  on  the  left  hand  side  of  the 
line  joining  the  Tees,  and  just  touch- 
ing it.  In  this  circle  each  player 
must  stand  when  playing  his  stone 
at  the  more  distant  Tee,  if  he  be 
right-handed.  If  left-handed  he 
must  stand  in  a  similar  circle  on  the 
right  of  the  central  line. 


CURLING 


242 


CURLING 


2.  No  stone  shall   count  that  is 
without  the  farther  edge  of  a  circle, 
or  "  brough  "  drawn  with  a  radius  of 
7  feet  from  the  Tee  as  a  center. 

3.  A  straight  line  called  a  "  hog 
score  "  is  drawn  across  the  rink  at  a 
distance  from  each  Tee  equal  to  one- 
sixth  the  entire  length  of  the  rink. 
Every  stone  not  reaching  this  line  is 
called  a  "  hog,"  and  is  taken  off  the 
ice  except    it   strike   another  stone 
lying  on  the  line. 

4.  No  stone  shall  be  changed  after 
the  beginning  of  a  game,  unless  it  be 
broken,  in  which  case   the    largest 
piece  is  scored  for  the  play  in  which 
it  was  broken. 

5.  If  the  played   stone    rolls  and 
stops  on  its  side  or  top  it  shall  not 
be  counted,  but  put  off  the  ice. 

6.  If  the    handle  parts  from  the 
stone  in    playing,  the    player   must 
keep  hold  of  it,  otherwise  he  shall 
not  be  entitled  to  replay  his    shot 
turn. 

7.  No  player  must  cross  the  rink, 
or  go  on  it  except  when  sweeping  in 
accordance  with  the  following  rule. 

8.  Both    parties    may    sweep  the 
rink ;    the  player's   party  while  the 
stone  is  moving  from  the  middle  line 
to  the  Tee,  and  the  opposite  party 
after  it  passes  the  Tee.     All  sweep- 
ing must  be  from  side  to  side,  and 
no  sweepings  must  be  left  in  front  of 
a  sliding  stone. 

9.  If  a  player's  stone  be  obstructed 
by  his  own  party  it  shall  be  put  off 
the  ice ;   if  by  the  opposite  party  it 
shall   be  placed  where  the  skip   of 
the  side   to   which  it  belongs  may 
direct. 

10.  If  a  player  play  out  of  turn  his 
stone  may  be  stopped  and  returned, 
but  if  the  mistake  is  not  discovered 
till  the  stone  is  at  rest,  the  opposite 
party  is  allowed  the  choice  of  letting 
the  shot  stand    and  adding  one  to 
their  score,  or  of  declaring  the  round 
void. 

11.  If  a  player  play  a  wrong  stone, 
it  may  be  stopped  and  returned,  but 
if  allowed  to  come  to  rest,  it  shall  be 
replaced  by  his  own. 


12.  No  shot  shall  be  measured  till 
the  end  of  the  round. 

13.  The  "skips"  or  captains  of 
the  two  sides  have  exclusive  control 
each  of  his  own  party.     Each,  when 
it  is  his  turn  to  play,  appoints  some 
other     player     to     take    temporary 
charge.      The  skips  decide  on  the 
order  of  play,  direct  where  their  men 
shall  stand,  and  how  they  shall  sweep, 
and  decide  disputed  questions.      If 
they  cannot  agree,  the  dispute  shall 
be  referred  to  an  umpire  or  some  out- 
sider.    No  one  but  the  skip  on  his 
own  side  shall  address  any  player  in 
the  act  of  sliding  his  stone. 

History,  Curling  originated  in 
Scotland,  where  it  has  been  a  favorite 
for  three  hundred  years.  It  is  played 
there  by  all  classes  of  people,  a 
wealthy  landowner  sometimes  acting 
as  skip  for  one  party,  while  the  leader 
of  the  other  is  a  common  laborer. 

The  game  was  first  played  on  this 
continent  at  Montreal  about  the 
beginning  of  this  century,  being  in- 
troduced there  by  Scotchmen.  It 
is  now  played  in  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  wherever  a  sheet  of 
ice  can  be  had,  Americans  having 
rapidly  become  experts  at  the  game. 
Owing  to  intense  cold  and  snow- 
storms in  Canada  covered  rinks  are 
mostly  used,  lighted  and  used  in  the 
evening  as  well  as  by  daylight.  The 
unwritten  laws  of  curling  against  any 
gambling  or  betting  on  the  game,  or 
profanity  on  the  ice,  are  very  em- 
phatic and  rigidly  enforced.  The 
Grand  National  Curling  Club  of 
America,  organized  in  1867,  and 
having  now  44  associated  clubs,  has 
clone  a  great  deal  toward  populariz- 
ing the  game,  and  reducing  it  to  a 
science  in  this  country.  Matches  for 
several  championship  medals  are 
played  for  annually  under  its  aus- 
pices. The  records  in  the  oldest  of 
these,  that  for  the  Gordon  medal,  are 
given  in  the  appendix.  Besides  these 
"  rink  medals,"  others  called  "  point 
medals"  are  contended  for,  the  ob- 
ject being  to  play  perfectly  certain 
shots,  such  as  "  inwicking,"  "  out- 


CURVE  OF  DESCENT 


243 


CYCLING 


wicking,"  "  chap  and  lie,"  and  "  chip 
the  winner." 

Curling  stones  are  greatly  im- 
proved of  late  years  both  in  appear- 
ance and  usefulness,  the  best  being 
made  from  granite  quarried  at  Ailsa- 
craig,  a  barren  island  on  the  Scottish 
coast.  They  are  known  as  gray, 
blue,  and  red  hones.  The  word 
"  Curling  "  applies  to  the  curves  in 
which  skilled  players  send  their 
stones  to  avoid  obstacles.  Similar 
games  are  known  in  Holland  as  Cal- 
luiten,  in  Flanders  as  hisblocken 
(ice-blocks),  and  in  Germany  as  Eis- 
kugeln  (ice-balls). 

CURVE  OF  QUICKEST  DE- 
SCENT. The  shape  of  the  trough 
down  which  a  marble  will  roll  in 
the  shortest  time  from  one  point 
to  another  is  not  a  straight  line, 
as  one  might  think,  but  a  curve 
called  a  cycloid.  Such  a  trough 
can  be  made  as  follows :  To  draw 
the  cycloid,  procure  a  circular  piece 
of  board  or  thick  pasteboard,  a  ruler, 
or  straight  board  more  than  half 
as  long  as  the  circumference  of  the 
circle,  and  some  sheets  of  blank 
newspaper.  The  size  may  be  as 
large  as  desired,  but  a  good  one  is 
made  by  taking  a  circle  two  feet  in 
diameter  and  a  ruler  about  four  feet 
long.  Lay  the  paper  on  a  smooth 
floor  and  the  ruler  upon  it.  Cut  a 
notch  in  the  edge  of  the  circle  to 
hold  the  point  of  a  lead  pencil.  Lay 
the  circle  on  the  paper  with  the 
notch  touching  the  ruler,  place  the 
pencil  point  in  the  notch,  and  roll  the 
circle  along  the  ruler,  taking  care 
that  it  does  not  slide  at  all.  The 
curve  drawn  by  the  pencil  held  in  the 
notch  is  a  cycloid.  When  the  notch 
has  reached  the  top,  that  is,  when  the 
circle  has  rolled  half-way  around, 
stop.  To  make  the  trough,  take  a 
strip  of  pine  wood  an  inch  wide  and 
thin  enough  to  bend  easily.  Bend  it 
to  the  curve,  as  it  lies  on  the  floor, 
and  hold  it  in  shape  by  sticking  pins 
into  the  floor  on  each  side  of  it.  Then 
lay  down  a  stiff  piece  of  wood,  also  an 
inch  wide,  parallel  with  the  ruler  and 


touching  the  curve  at  the  point  where 
the  drawing  was  stopped.  Fasten 
the  curved  and  straight  strips  to- 
gether by  nailing  pieces  of  lath  from 
one  to  the  other,  so  that  the  curved 
piece  will  keep  its  shape.  Set  the 
arrangement  upright,  the  straight 
piece  forming  the  base,  and  glue 
strips  of  paper  along  the  side  of  the 
curved  piece  to  form  a  trough.  It 
will  be  found  that  a  marble  will  roll 
down  this  curve  quicker  than  down 
any  other  line  connecting  the  same 
points.  To  show  this,  troughs  can  be 
made  of  various  shapes,  including 
one  straight  line.  If  marbles  be  held 
at  the  top  of  these  and  released  all 
at  the  same  time,  the  one  on  the 
cycloid  will  always  get  to  the  bottom 
quickest. 

Another  curious  thing  about  this 
curve  is  that  a  marble  takes  the  same 
time  to  roll  to  the  bottom  of  it,  no 
matter  where  it  starts.  For  instance, 
if  one  marble  be  held  at  the  top 
and  another  half-way  down,  and 
both  be  released  at  once,  the  upper 
one  will  strike  the  lower  one  just  as 
it  gets  to  the  bottom.  This  curve  is 
often  called  the  Brachistochrone, 
from  the  Greek  brachistos,  shortest, 
and  chronos,  time. 

CYCLING.  The  early  forms  of 
bicycle  are  described  in  the  article 
j  VELOCIPEDE  (C.  C.  T.).  About  a 
'  thousand  varieties  of  bicycles  and 
tricycles  are  now  made,  but  they  all 
belong  to  five  or  six  classes  or  types. 
They  have  frames  of  steel,  but  gener- 
ally the  rims  of  the  wheels,  and 
sometimes  the  handle-bars,  are  of 
wood,  and  the  wheels  have  hollow 
rubber  tires  which  are  inflated  with 
air.  The  pedals,  by  which  the  feet 
operate  the  wheels,  have  rubber  bars 
or  steel  plates,  and  the  axles  revolve 
on  what  are  called  "  ball  bearings," 
that  is,  the  axle  rests  near  its  ends, 
and  revolves,  on  rows  of  little  steel 
balls  to  lessen  the  friction,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  I.  The  bicycles  now  almost 
universally  used  are  of  the  type 
originally  for  a  short  time  called  the 
"  rover,"  from  the  name  of  the  first 


CYCLING 


244 


CYCLING 


one  of  the  kind  that  became  popular. 
They  were  also  known  as"  safeties," 
although  there  were  other  types  of 
so-called  safety  bicycles,  the  name 


Fig.  I. — Ball  Bearings. 


being  given  to  almost  any  bicycle 
which  differed  in  shape  and  con- 
struction from  the  high  or  "  ordi- 
nary "  bicycle.  The  French  still 
call  the  type  "  bicyclettes."  The 
wheels  are  generally  of  the  same  size, 
28  inches  in  diameter,  and  26  or  24 
for  children.  The  rear  one  drives 
and  the  front  one  steers.  The  pedals 
are  in  the  middle  between  the 
wheels,  and  are  generally  connected 
with  the  rear  wheel  by  a  chain, 
although  in  chainless  wheels  some 
other  device,  such  as  a  rod  with 
gears  at  the  ends,  is  substituted. 
Bicycles  for  women  have  the  upper 
cross  tube  of  the  frame  curved  down- 
ward toward  the  bottom  bracket  so 
as  to  remove  everything  in  the  way 
of  a  skirt.  The  small-wheeled  cycle 
was  originally  called  a  "  safety  "  be- 
cause there  was  less  danger  of  a 
fall  from  it  than  from  the  type  of 
wheel  then  in  common  use — that 
with  a  very  large  wheel  in  front. 
The  old  type  still  retains  the  name 
of  "  ordinary,"  though  it  is  no 
longer  used.  It  had  no  gear,  and 
the  cranks  to  which  the  pedals  are 


attached  were  directly  on  the  axle 
of  the  large  wheel.  The  "  Star," 
which  was  a  transition  form,  had 
the  small  wheel  in  front,  and  the 
large  wheel  was  worked  by  levers, 
as  seen  in  Fig.  3.  The  early  safeties, 
of  the  Kangaroo  type,  which  was 
practically  a  small  "  ordinary,"  were 
often  called  "  dwarf  "  bicycles  be- 
cause the  front  wheel  was  much 
smaller  than  in  the  ordinary  kind. 
Another  kind  of  safety  bicycle,  called 
the  "Otto,"  after  its  inventor,  de- 
serves notice  only  as  a  curiosity,  be- 
ing unlike  other  bicycles  in  having  its 
wheels  side  by  side,  thus  resembling 
a  tricycle  without  its  small  wheel. 
The  rider's  seat  was  placed  between 
them,  above  the  axle,  and  he  was 
supposed  to  keep  his  balance  by  the 
way  he  worked  the  pedals.  There 
was  a  prop  behind  to  strike  the 
ground  if  the  machine  tipped  back- 
ward. This  kind  of  bicycle  has 
never  been  used  in  the  United  States 
and  but  rarely  in  England.  It  re- 
quires special  practice  to  ride  it. 


Fig.  2. — "Ordinary"  Bicycle. 


The  Tandem  bicycle  is  intended 
to  be  ridden  by  two  persons  tandem 
— that  is,  one  in  front  of  the  other. 
Both  riders  work  pedals,  connected 


CYCLING 


245 


CYCLING 


with  the  axle  of  the  rear  wheel  by  two 
chains.  The  machine  may  be  con- 
structed so  that  it  may  be  steered  by 
either  or  both  riders.  When  the 
front  seat  is  adapted  for  women's 
use,  having  a  drop-frame,  the  tandem 
is  called  a  "  combination  "  tandem. 
Bicycles  for  three,  four,  or  more 
riders  are  also  occasionally  made. 
They  are  called,  respectively,  "  trip- 
lets," "quadruplets,"  "quintuplets," 
etc.  It  is  possible  to  attain  great 
speed  on  them,  as  the  gear  can  be 
made  very  high. 

Tricycles.  The  tricycle  is  a  three- 
wheeled  machine  which  can  be 
ridden  by  either  girls  or  boys.  It 
is  safe,  and  runs  very  easily  and 
smoothly.  It  is  used  by  women  and 
elderly  people,  especially  in  England. 
The  kind  shown  in  Fig.  6  is  the  one 
now  generally  in  use.  One  of  the 
first  to  become  popular  was  known 
as  the  "  Cripper  "  type,  said  to  have 


had  a  race  with  these  machines  in 
New  York  in  1888,  but  they  havenever 
been  used  practically,  except  perhaps 
to  give  practice  in  rawing.  Another 


Fig.  3. — Star  Bicycle. 

been  named  from  Robert  Cripps,  a 
famous  English  rider. 

Tandem  tricycles  are  also  occa- 
sionally used.  The  "  Sociable  "  tri- 
cycle has  its  two  seats  side  by  side, 
instead  of  one  in  front  of  the  other. 

One  kind  of  tricycle,  called  the 
"  Road  Sculler,"  is  worked  by  the 
hands  by  an  action  similar  to  row- 
ing. Several  professional  oarsmen 


Fig.  4. — Safety  Bicycle. 

curious  tricycle,  for  use  on  a  railway 
track,  is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  The 
wheels  have  flanges  like  car  wheels, 
and  the  small  wheel  is  directly  be- 
hind one  of  the  large  ones,  so  as  to 
run  on  the  same  rail. 

Various     fittings     and 
equipments  are  used  on 
almost    all    cycles,   espe- 
cially if  the  rider  is  taking 
a  long  trip.     A  cyclom- 
eter   is    an    arrangement 
connected  with  the  wheel, 
usually    fastened    to   the 
front  axle,  which   shows 
the  distance  traveled    by 
the  cycle.     A  lantern   is 
generally  required  to  be 
carried  at  night ;  it  is  se- 
cured   sometimes   to   the 
hub  of  the  forward  wheel, 
to  the  fork-side,  but  more 
generally  on  the  head,  just 
below   the    handle   bars. 
Lanterns  serve  the  double 
purpose   of  showing   the 
rider  the   condition  of   the  road    in 
front  of  him,  and  of  preventing  colli- 
sions by  making  his  coming  known 
to    others.      They    are    usually   oil 
lamps  with  powerful  reflectors,  but 
electric  lamps  with  portable  batteries 
have  been  made,  and  one  kind  uses 
acetylene  gas,  which  is  generated  as 
it  is  wanted  by  chemical  means. 
Bells  or  alarms  are  carried  to  give 


CYCLING 


246 


CYCLING 


warning  of  the  cycle's  approach. 
Some  make  a  continuous  noise,  like 
an  electric  bell,  or  clock  alarm, 
while  others  give  a  single  stroke,  and 


Fig.  5. — Ladies'  Bicycle. 

still  others  can  be  operated  in  either 
way.  They  are  generally  operated 
by  pressing  a  lever.  Instead  of  a 
bell,  a  whistle  was  formerly  much 
used,  but  most  local  regulations  now 
require  a  bell. 

An  arrangement  of  steel  and 
leather  straps  for  carrying  baggage 
is  usually  attached  to  the  cycle  on 
a  long  trip.  One  of  the  devices  used 
is  shown  in  Fig.  14. 

The  rider  should  carry  with  him 
also  a  tool  bag  (Fig.  15),  containing 
a  wrench,  an  oil  can,  a  piece  of  cloth, 
chain  lubricant,  and  a  tire-repairing 
kit,  for  use  in  keeping  his  machine 


Fig.  6.— Tricycle. 


in  order  and  repairing  it  in  case  of 
accident. 

Bicycle  riding  can  be  learned  in 
cities  in  special  riding-schools  es- 
tablished for  the  purpose,  but  it  is 


possible  to  learn  on  an  ordinary  road, 
and  some  think  this  preferable,  be- 
cause after  learning  on  a  smooth 
floor  it  is  difficult,  at  first,  to  ride  in 


Fig.  7. — Tandem  Tricycle. 

the  street.  The  learner  may  get  on 
his  bicycle  at  first  while  an  assistant 
holds  it,  mounting  not  being  prac- 
ticed till  later.  The  first  thing  to  be 
learned  is  the  balance,  which  is  ac- 
quired only  by  practice.  The  great 
art  consists  in  turning  the  forward 
wheel  very  slightly  toward  which- 
ever side  the  bicycle  begins  to  fall. 
It  is  necessary  to  have  aid  at  first 
from  some  experienced  rider,  though 
some  authorities  advise  that  the 
balance  be  learned  by  riding  down  a 
very  gentle  incline  without  placing 


Fig.  8. — Tandem  Safety. 

the  feet  on  the  pedals  at  all.  When 
the  learner  can  make  the  descent  suc- 
cessfully, he  may  begin  to  use  the 
pedals,  at  first  merely  placing  his 
feet  on  them,  and  gradually  begin- 
ning to  use  a  little  force.  The  foot 


CYCLING 


247 


CYCLING 


should  not  be  held  rigidly  when 
pedaling,  using  force  only  on  the 
down  stroke,  but  the  crank  should 
be  pushed  forward  at  the  top  of  the 
stroke  and  back  at  the  bottom.  In 
order  to  do  this  the  heel  should  be 
dropped  at  the  top  and  raised  at  the 
bottom.  This  is  called  "ankle  mo- 
tion." 

Position.  The  rider  sTiould  sit 
erect  unless  he  wishes  to  attain  a 
high  speed,  is  running  against  the 


wind,  or  is  mounting  a  hill,  when  it 
lightens  the  work  somewhat  to  lean 
forward  over  the  handles.  The 
handles  should  be  held  lightly,  and 
the  rider  should  practice  steering 
with  one  hand.  It  is  possible  also 
to  ride  without  touching  the  handles 
at  all,  guiding  the  bicycle  simply  by 
altering  ihe  balance.  The  bicycle 
can  be  slowed  by  using  the  brake  or 
by  "  back  pedaling,"  that  is,  by 
pressing  down  on  each  pedal  slightly 


Fig.  Q;— -Railvvay  tricycle. 


as  it  rises,  A  skillful  rider  can  thus 
regulate  his  speed  when  descending  a 
moderate  hill,  exactly  as  he  wishes. 
In  learning  to  use  the  brake,  it  Should 
be  applied  cautious!^  at  first, ,  The 
sole  of  the  shoe  may  be  used  as  a 
brake  by  applying  if  to  the  front  tire1; 
care  being  taken  to  place  it  side- 
ways, so  that  the  t6e  will  hot  be 
drawn  into  the  fork.  This  requires 
much  care  and  skill. 
"  Coasting "  is  riding  downhill 


without  touching  the  pedals,  the  feet 
being  on  the  "  Coasters,"  which  are 
rests  fastened  on  the  front  fork,  or 
on  the  crown  of  the  fork  itself.  Skill- 
ful, ft  clefs  Coast  swiftly  down  steep 
hills.  The  learner  should  not  try  it 
till  he  has  practiced  level  riding  for 
seven  or  ,eig.ht  weeks,  and  should 
then  begin  bn  a  gentle,  smooth  in- 
cline; A  bicycle  should  never  be 
used  to  coast  on  a  rough  hill  or  an 
unknown  hill,  nor  on  a  hill  where 


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248 


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there  are  other  vehicles.  The  rider 
should  never  let  the  machine  get 
beyond  his  control. 

Mounting  and  Dismounting,  Dis- 
mounting is  better  learned  before 
mounting,  as  it  is  easier.  To  dis- 


Fig.  lo. — Cyclometer. 

mount  by  the  pedal,  which  is  the 
usual .  method,  the  rider  slows  his 
machine,  and  as  the  descending  pedal 
reaches  its  lowest  point  he  steps'  oft 
from  it,  throwing  the  other  leg"  over 
the  frame.  Mounting  by  the  pedal 
is  the  reverse  of  this,  anil. is  the 
only  method  that  can -be  used  on  a 
woman's  wheel. 

To  learn  to  mount  from  the  step 
the  rider  should  learn  tO'steer.  the 
machine  while  standing  on  the  step, 
without  trying  to  gain  the  saddle. 
When  he  can  do  this  he  should  slide 
gentle  into  the  saddle  while  the  ma- 
chine is  moving  slowly. 

Tricks.  Many  fancy  tricks  which 
can  be  learned  only  by  imitation  and 
practice  are  performed  by  skilled 
bicyclists  on  their  machines.  They 
include  vaulting  in  and  out  of  the. 
saddle,  dismounting  by  throwing 
one  leg  over  the»handles,  riding  side- 
saddle, and  balancing  the  machine 
on  one  wheel.  Bicycle  olubs  often 
perform  many  difficult  evolutions  to- 
gether, going  through  a  sort  of  drill. 

Rules  of  the  Road.     After  the  in- 


troduction of  the  bicycle  there  was 
some  doubt  as  to  its  rights  and 
privileges  on  the  road,  but  the  courts 
of  nearly  every  State  have  ruled  that 
it  is  a  vehicle,  with  all  the  rights  of 
one.  In  most  large  places  bicycles, 
like  other  vehicles,  are  not  allowed 
on  sidewalks.  Cycles  approaching 
each  other  or  other  vehicles  are 
obliged  to  turn  out  to  the  right,  and 
a  cycle  overtaking  another  vehicle 
passes  it  oh  its  left.  If  there  is  no 
room  to  pass  unless  the  other  vehicle 
turn  aside,  the  cyclist  should  ring 
his  bell,  and  where  the  room  for 
passage  is  very  narrow,  he  must  dis- 
mount and  lead  his  cycle  past  the 
other  vehicle.  In  the  evening  the 
lantern  should  always  be  lighted. 

Bicycles  are  most  used  in  the 
neighborhood  of  cities  or  large 
towns,  where  there  are  hard,  smooth 
roads.  Tours  or  trips  on  bicycles 
should  be  planned  with  reference  to 
theconditioh  of  the  roads;  and,  to  aid 
in  this,  bicycle  guides  are  now  pub- 
lished, by  many  of  the  State  divi- 
sions of  the  League  of  American 
Wheelmen  giving  lists  and  descrip- 
tions of  practicable  routes. 


Fig.  ii.— Cycle  Bell. 

Tires.  The  .modern  pneumatic 
tires  are  a  source  of  trouble  to  many 
wheelmen,  as  they  are  apt  to  be 
punctured,  which  lets  out  the  air  and 
makes  it  almost  impossible  to  ride 
on  them.  They  are  of  two  kinds — • 


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249 


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double-tube  and  single-tube.  In 
vthe  former  an  inner  tube  of  thin 
rubber  holds  the  air,  while  a  thick 
outer  one  takes  the  wear,  and  in  the 
latter  the  two  tubes  aft  united  into 
one.  Each  form  has  its  advocates. 
Many  so-called  "  unpuncturable " 
tires  are  made  ;  but,  in  general,  if  a 
tire  is  elastic  and  easy-riding,  it  is 
easily  punctured  ;  if  tough  and  hard, 
it  is  non-elastic  and  hard  to  ride. 
Every  rider  should  learn  how  to  re- 
pair slight  punctures,  and  should 


Fig.  12. — Lamp  and  Luggage  Carrier. 


carry  with  him  one  of  the  numerous 
outfits  sold  for  that  purpose. 

Gear.  With  the  old-fashioned 
"  ordinary  "  wheel  the  relation  be- 
tween the  revolution  of  the  pedals 
and  the  speed  of  the  wheel  depended 
wholly  on  the  diameter  of  the  front 
wheel.  The  larger  the  wheel  the 
further  the  machine  would  travel 
for  one  turn  of  the  cranks.  Hence 
the  speed  was  limited  by  the  size  of 
the  wheel.  With  the  modern  form, 
as  the  cranks  are  not  fastened  to  the 
axle  of  the  wheel,  this  relation 
depends  on  the  relative  sizes  of  the 
front  and  rear  sprockets,  and  is  not 
so  limited.  The  larger  the  front 
sprocket  is  in  proportion  to  the 
rear  one,  the  higher  the  possible 
speed.  What  is  called  the  "gear  " 
of  a  wheel  is  a  distance  equal  to  the 
diameter  of  the  old  "  ordinary,"  that 


will  go  as  far  in  one  turn  of  the 
pedals.  It  is  found  by  multiplying 
the  diameter  of  the  wheel  (generally 
28  inches)  by  the  ratio  of  the  number 
of  teeth  on  the  front  to  those  on  the 
rear  sprocket.  Thus,  if  the  front 
sprocket  has  20  teeth  and  the  rear 
one  8,  the  gear  is  28  x  Y~>  or  70 ; 
that  is,  the  wheel  corresponds  to 
an  old  "  ordinary "  with  a  front 
wheel  5  feet  10  inches  in  diameter. 
The  higher  the  gear  the  slower  it  is 
necessary  to  move  the  feet,  but  the 
greater  the  pressure  that 
has  to  be  put  on  the 
pedals.  High  gears  make 
hill  climbing  more  diffi- 
cult. Most  gears  are  be- 
tween 60  and  76,  and 
the  lower  ones  are  better 
for  the  general  rider, 
though  each  one  must  de- 
cide by  experience  which 
will  suit  him  best. 

Bicycle  Racing.  Races 
on  bicycles  are  now  in- 
cluded among  the  events 
of  almost  every  outdoor 
athletic  meeting.  See 
ATHLETICS.  Great  speed 
has  been  attained  on  these 
machines.  A  bicycle  can 
not  only  go  faster  than  a  horse 
for  a  short  distance,  but  it  can  keep 
up  with  one  for  a  long  distance. 
The  League  of  American  Wheelmen, 
which  is  the  only  national  associa- 
tion of  bicyclists  in  this  country, 
though  there  are  numerous  local 
clubs,  has  now  more  than  100,000 
members.  It  was  formed  in  1880 
to  secure  the  rights  of  riders  in  the 
courts,  and,  having  done  this,  is  now 
turning  its  attention  to  the  improve- 
ment of 'highways.  It  has  a  division 
in  nearly  every  State,  the  chief  officer 
of  which  is  called  a  Consul.  It  pub- 
lishes a  weekly  paper  called  the  "  L. 
A.  W.  Bulletin/'  which  is  sent  to  each 
member  for  twenty-five  cents.  The 
following  rules  are  condensed  from 
those  of  the  League  governing 
bicycle  racing,  which  have  been 
adopted  also  by  ,  the  National 


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250 


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Amateur    Athletic    Union,    are    as 
follows  : 

RULES  FOR  BICYCLE  RACING. 

Records.  The  standard  table  of 
recognized  records  shall  be  1-4,  1-3, 
1-2,  2-3,  3-4,  I  mile,  and  all  even 
miles  upward ;  no  intermediate  dis- 
tances. 

Records  against  time  may  be 
made  at  an  open  meeting,  or  in 
private,  and  with  or  without  pace- 
makers. 

The  Board  will  consider  flying- 
start  only  in  records  against  time ; 
standing-start  only  in  competition 
records. 

A  competition  record  must  be 
made  in  a  race  between  men. 

Records  made  with  the  assistance 
of  other  than  recognized  cycling 
machines,  propelled  by  man  power, 
will  be  recorded  separately. 

In  unpaced  events,  or  dufing  un- 
paced  record  trials,  there  shall  be  no 
pacing  devices,  and  only  the  rider 
making  the  trial  shall  be  on  the 
track. 

Tracks.  Tracks  shall  be  meas- 
ured on  a  line  drawn  eighteen  inches 
out  from  a  well-defined,  fixed  and 
continuous  inner  curb  or  pole  ;  no 
record  shall  be  allowed  on  a  track 
otherwise  measured. 

Machines  Excluded.  The  Board 
reserves  the  right  to  exclude  from 
the  racing  path  any  and  all  machines 
which,  in  its  judgment,  do  not 
come  within  the  commonly  accepted 
meaning  of  the  term  "bicycle," 
either  by  peculiarity  of  construction 
or  by  undoubted  mechanical  advan- 
tages which  they  may  possess. 

Road  Racing.  The  League  of 
American  Wheelmen  regards  racing 
on  the  public  highways  as  an  unlaw- 
ful practice,  and  refuses  to  recognize 
and  legislate  for  such  form  of  the 
sport  except  to  forbid  the  competing 
together  therein  or  pacemaking  one 
for  the  other,  of  amateurs  and  pro- 
fessionals. 

Should  any  part  of  a  road  race 
be  run  upon  the  track,  such  part 


immediately    becomes    subject    to 
track  rules. 

TRA  CK  RULES. 

Officials;  their  Powers  and  Duties. 
The  officers  of  all  race  meetings 
and  cycling  events  shall  be  a  referee, 
who  must  be  an  amateur  wheelman, 
three  judges  at  the  finish,  three  time- 
keepers, one  starter,  one  scorer,  one 
clerk  of  the  course,  with  assistants 
if  necessary,  and  one  umpire  for  each 
turn  of  the  track,  or  more,  at  option 
of  the  referee.  The  referee,  judges, 
and  clerk  of  the  course  shall  consti- 
tute the  Executive  Board. 

The  referee  shall  have  general 
supervision  of  the  race  meeting. 
He  shall  give  judgment  on  protests 
received  by  him,  shall  decide  all 
questions  or  objections  respecting 
foul  riding  or  offenses  which  he  may 
be  personally  cognizant  of,  or  which 
may  be  brought  to  his  attention  by 
an  umpire  or  other  officer. 

The  judges  shall  decide  the  posi- 
tions of  the  men  at  the  finish.  In 
case  of  disagreement  the  majority 
shall  decide. 

The  timekeepers  shall  compare 
watches  before  the  races  are  started, 
and  shall  note  any  variance ;  they 
shall  each  time  every  event,  and  in 
case  of  disagreement  the  intermedi- 
ate time  of  the  three  watches  shall 
be  the  official  time.  Time  shall  be 
taken  from  the  flash  of  a  pistol.  In 
case  two  watches  of  the  three  mark 
the  same  time,  that  shall  be  the 
official  time. 

The  scorer  shall  record  the  laps 
made  by  each  competitor,  the  order 
of  the  men  at  the  finish  as  given  him 
by  the  judges,  and  the  time  as  given 
him  by  the  timekeepers.  He  should 
indicate  the  commencement  of  the 
last  lap  by  ringing  a  bell  as  the 
riders  pass  over  the  tape  for  the 
final  lap,  but  the  riders  must  keep 
count  of  the  laps  for  themselves. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  starter, 
when  it  has  been  reported  to  him  by 
the  clerk  of  the  course  that  all  the 
competitors  are  ready,  to  see  that 


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the  timekeepers  are  warned,  and, 
before  starting  the  men,  to  say, 
"  Mount " ;  in  a  few  seconds  after 
to  say,  "  Are  the  timers  ready  ? 
Are  the  starters  ready  ?  "  and,  if  no 
reply  to  the  contrary  be  given,  to 
effect  a  start  by  a  report  of  a  pistol. 
Should  the  pistol  miss  fire,  the  start 
may  be  made  by  the  word  "  Go." 
The  starter  shall  announce  to  the 
competitors  the  distance  which  they 
are  to  ride.  The  starter  may,  at  hi* 


Fig.  13.— Tool  Bag. 

discretion,  put  back  for  a  distance 
any  competitor  starting  before  the 
signal  is  given.  In  case  of  a  false 
start,  the  competitors  shall  be  called 
back  by  the  starter  by  the  ringing  of 
a  bell  or  pistol  fire  and  restarted. 

In  case  of  a  fall  or  accident  within 
thirty  feet  of  the  scratch  line,  the 
contestants  shall  be  recalled  by  the 
starter  by  the  ringing  of  a  bell  or 
pistol  fire,  and  the  race  started  over 
again. 

The  clerk  of  the  course  shall  call 
competitors  in  ample  time  for  each 
event,  and  see  that  they  are  provided 
with  numbers  properly  worn.  He 
shall  report  the  contestants  to  the 
scorers,  see  that  they  are  on  their 
appointed  marks,  and  call  the  num- 
bers for  the  scorers  as  they  cross 
the  line  at  the  end  of  each  lap. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  umpire 
to  stand  at  such  part  of  the  field  as 
the  referee  may  direct,  to  watch 
closely  the  riding,  and  immediately 
after  each  race  to  report  to  the 
referee  any  unfair  riding  he  may  see. 

Positions.  The  drawing  for  posi- 
tions in  each  event  shall  be  done  by 
the  promoters  of  the  meeting,  and 
the  positions  of  the  men  shall  appear 


on  the  programme.  When  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  draw  for  posi- 
tions on  the  grounds,  the  work  shall 
be  done  by  the  clerk  and  starter  in 
conjunction.  In  heat  races  the 
winner  of  a  heat  shall  take  the  pole 
(or  inside  position)  the  succeeding 
heat,  and  the  other  riders  shall  take 
their  positions  in  the  order  assigned 
them  in  judging  the  last  preceding 
heat.  When  two  or  more  riders 
make  a  dead  heat,  they  shall  start 
for  the  succeeding  heat  in  the  same 
positions  with  reference  to  the  pole 
that  they  occupied  at  the  finish  of 
the  dead  heat. 

When  races  are  run  in  heats  and 
a  final,  the  winner  of  the  fastest  heat 
shall  take  the  pole  in  the  final,  the 
winner  of  the  second  fastest  heat 
the  next  position,  and  so  on.  If 
more  than  one  qualifies  for  the  final 
from  each  heat,  the  second  man  in 
fastest  heat  shall  be  next  outside 
the  winner  of  slowest  heat,  and  so 
on.  Only  the  winners  of  positions 
in  the  trial  heats,  as  stipulated  by 
the  terms  of  the  race,  shall  compete 
in  the  final. 

No  one  shall  be  allowed  in  a  final 
because  of  a  foul  or  an  accident  in 
a  trial  heat. 

Should  two  or  more  riders  make 
a  dead  heat  of  any  qualifying  place 
in  a  trial  heat,  they  shall  both  be 
allowed  to  enter  the  final  heat,  ex- 
cept in  the  National  Championship. 
Should  two  or  more  riders  make  a 
dead  heat  of  any  final,  or  a  dead 
heat  for  second  or  any  lower  place 
for  which  there  is  a  prize,  they  may 
decide  by  lot  who  shall  take  the 
prize,  or  may  again  ride  the  distance 
to  decide  the  race,  at  the  discretion 
of  the  referee. 

Starts.  All  starts  shall  be  from 
the  inside  of  the  track,  and,  except 
in  a  flying-start  event,  shall  be  from 
a  standstill,  with  the  left  hand 
toward  the  curb,  and  the  machines 
shall  be  held  in  position  by  an 
attendant  (the  front  wheel  touching 
the  starting  line)  until  the  signal  is 
given  by  starter.  Attendants,  when 


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252 


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pushing  off  competitors,  must  keep 
behind  the  mark  from  which  the 
competitors  actually  start.  Should 
any  part  of  the  attendant  touch  the 
track  in  front  of  the  mark,  the  com- 
petitor may  be  disqualified.  Unless 
excused  by  the  referee,  every  rider 
who  enters  in  a  handicap  race  must 
start  in  same. 

Finish.  The  finish  of  all  races 
shall  be  judged  by  the  first  part  of 
the  front  wheel  which  touches  the 
tape  fastened  flat  on  the  ground  at 
the  winning  post,  and  no  rider 
shall  be  allowed  a  finishing  posi- 
tion who  abandons  the  track  and 
afterward  returns  and  crosses  the 
tape. 

Riding.  Riders  shall  pass  on  the 
outside  (unless  the  man  passed  be 
dismounted),  and  must  be  at  least 
a  clear  length  of  the  cycle  in  front 
before  taking  the  inside,  but  on 
entering  the  homestretch  in  the  last 
lap  of  a  race,  the  foremost  rider  or 
riders  must  keep  to  that  part  of  the 
track  first  selected  ;  and  the  hind- 
most rider  or  riders,  when  there  is 
sufficient  room  to  pass  on  the  inside 
or  anywhere  on  the  homestretch 
without  interfering  with  others,  shall 
be  allowed  to  do  so.  A  rider  shall 
not  change  from  the  inner  to  the 
outside  of  the  track  during  any  part 
of  a  race  when  another  rider  is  so 
near  that  in  altering  his  position  he 
interferes  with  or  impedes  the  prog- 
ress of  the  rider.  No  rider  shall 
touch  another. 

No  rider  during  a  race  shall  turn 
his  head  to  look,  backward,  remove 
his  hands  from  the  handle-bars,  or 
otherwise  ride  in  a  careless  or  un- 
skillful manner,  thereby  imperiling 
the  safety  of  other  riders. 

Competitors  may  dismount  dur- 
ing a  race  at  their  pleasure,  and  may 
run  with  their  cycles  if  they  wish  to, 
but  they  must  keep  to  the  extreme 
outside  of  the  path  whenever  dis- 
mounted. If  a  rider  be  dismounted 
by  accident,  or  to  change  his 
machine,  an  attendant  may  hold  his 
Machine  while  he  mounts  it,  and  he 


shall  so  mount  at  the  extreme  out- 
side of  the  path. 

Time  Limits.  The  referee  may 
place  a  time  limit  on  any  race  except 
handicap,  team,  and  lap  races.  The 
time  limit  shall  not  be  announced 
to  the  contestants  until  their  arrival 
at  the  tape,  preparatory  to  the  start 
of  the  race.  If  the  competitors 
finish  within  the  limit,  they  shall 
receive  the  prizes.  If  they  fail  to  so 
finish,  and  the  referee  is  convinced 
by  their  riding  and  the  time  that 
they  endeavored  to  reach  the  limit, 
he  may  award  the  prizes. 

Pacemaking.  A  general  pace- 
maker may  be  put  in  any  race  by 
the  race  promoter,  having  previously 
notified  the  referee  of  the  fact.  He 
shall  assist  no  single  rider,  but  shall 
act  to  increase  the  speed  of  the  race 
in  general.  He  shall,  if  a  single 
rider  only,  be  entitled  to  any  place 
or  prize  he  may  win,  if  he  starts 
from  the  scratch,  or  may  be  re- 
warded by  a  special  prize,  within  the 
limits  of  the  class. 

Tandems,  or  pacing  machines 
carrying  more  than  two  riders,  may 
be  put  in  to  pace  competitions  only 
by  -written  consent  of  the  member  of 
the  Racing  Board  in  charge  of  the 
district. 

Track  Privileges  and  Decoriim. 
No  person  whosoever  shall  be 
allowed  inside  the  track  except  the 
officials  of  the  meet.  The  handi- 
cappers  of  the  meet  shall  at  all 
times,  however,  have  track  privi- 
leges. Authorized  persons  shall 
wear  a  badge.  Competitors  or 
pacemakers  not  engaged  in  a  race 
actually  taking  place  shall  not  be 
allowed  inside  or  on  the  track.  No 
one  shall  be  allowed  to  "  coach " 
competitors  on  the  track.  No 
shouting  or  remarks  by  trainers  or 
attendants  to  encourage  certain 
riders  or  disconcert  others  shall  be 
permitted. 

Choice  of  Machines  and  Costumes. 
Choice  or  change  of  machine  and 
choice  of  costume  shall  not  be 
limited  except  that  shirt  shall  not 


253 


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bare  shoulders,  and  breeches  must 
reach  to  the  knees. 

In  races  distinctly  stated  on  the 
programme  of  events  to  be  for  a 
particular  class  of  machine,  this  rule 
shall  not  apply  so  far  as  choice  and 
change  of  machine  are  concerned. 
Safety  bicycle  races  shall  be  limited 
to  machines  whose  driving  wheel 
does  not  exceed  thirty-six  inches  in 
diameter. 

Competitors  to  Wear  Numbers. 
Every  competitor  shall  receive  in 
the  dressing-room  a  number,  •corre- 
sponding with  his  number  on  the 
programme,  which  must  be  worn 
on  his  back  or  right  shoulder  dur- 
ing the  race.  He  shall  inform  him- 
self of  the  times  at  which  he  must 
compete,  and  wait  the  call  of.  the 
clerk  in  the  dressing-room. 

Definition  of,  Races.  A  novice 
race  is  open  only  to  those  who  have 
never  won  a  prize,  in  a  track  race, 
and  shall  be  the  first  race  of  the 
meet.  A  novice  .race  is  a  class  race. 

A  class  race  is  only  open  to  those 
who,  *ip  to  date  of  the  closing  06  the 
entries,  have  not  won  the  first:  posi- 
tion in  a  track  race  or  trial ".  beat  in 
the  same  or  better  time  than  the 
class  under  consideration!  In  all 
class  races  the  time  limit-.shall  J^e 
the  time  of  the  class. .;  .If -the  com- 
petitors fail  to  finish  within  the  limit, 
and  it  is  a  good  day,  good  track,  and 
there  are  pacemakers,  the  referee 
shall  declare  it  no  race.  If  they  fail 
to  finish  in  the  time  limit,  and  there 
are  no  pacemakers,  or  it  is  not  (in 
the  judgment  of  the  refejee)  a  good 
day,  or  it  is  not  a  good  track,  and 
the  referee  is  convinced  by  their  rid- 
ing that  they  endeavored  to  reach 
the  limit,  and  were  not  able  to  do  so 
because  of  the  absence  of  any  one  or 
all  three,  conditions,  he  may  award 
the  prizes,  ; 

Jn  a  lap  race  the  position,  of  the 
first  three  men  shall  be.  taken  at  the 
finish  of  every  lap..  .The  first  i,nap 
shall  score  three  .points,  the  second 
man  shall  score  two  points,  and  the- 
third  man  shall  score  one  point,, arid 


no  others  shall  score.  The  contest- 
ant who  crosses  the  line  first  at  the 
finish  shall,  for  that  lap,  score  four 
points.  The  competitor  who  scores 
the  greatest  number  of  points  shall 
be  declared  the  winner,  but  any  con- 
testant, in  order  to  secure  a  prize, 
must  ride  the  entire  distance  and  be 
within  150  yards  of  the  finish  when 
the  first  man  crosses  the  tape  at  the 
end  of  the  last  lap.  The  i5O-yard 
mark  must  be  marked  by  a  flag. 

In  a  team  race  the  positions  of  all 
the  riders  starting  shall  be  taken  at 
the  end  of  the  race. 

The  first  man  shall  count  a  num- 
ber of  points  equal  to  the  number  of 
men  starting,  the  second  one  less, 
and  so  on. 

The  team  scoring  the  greatest 
number  of  points  shall  be  declared 
the  winner. 

A  team  shall  be  limited  to  three 
riders,  each  of  whom  shall  have  been 
a  member  of  the  club,  entering  the 
team  for  at  .least  three  months  pre- 
vious to  date  of  event.  Each  team 
member  must  also  have  resided 
within  five  miles  of  the  city  or  town 
where  the  club  has  its  headquarters 
for  at  least  six  months  previous  tp 
the  date  of  contest.  •.•  '  ,' 

In  a  heat  race  t(ie  position  of 
each  rider  must  be  taken  at  the 
finish  of  each  heat.'  The  first  man 
shall  count  a  number  equal  to  that 
of  the  contestants  in  the  first  heat, 
the  second  man  shall  count  one  less, 
the  third  two  less,  and  on  on.  The 
competitor  who  scores  the  greatest 
number  of  points  shall  be  declared 
the  winner. 

Or,  as  an  alternative,  which  must 
be  stated  on  the  programme  as  rule 
or  alternative,  in  running  a  heat 
race,  such  event  may  be  conducted 
under  the  rule  outlined  below: 

When  the  race  is  best  two  out 
of  three  heats,,  the  ;winner  is  .not 
reached. until  one  rider _has  won  two 
heats,  either  through  virtue  of  finish- 
ing first  or  by  the,  disqualification  of 
a  competitor,  or  competitors  who 
may  finish .  in ,  ,f  ront  and  Jose  such 


CYCLING 


254 


CYCLING 


position  or  positions  through  ruling 
or  rulings  of  the  referee.  The 
second  and  other  prizes  shall  be  dis- 
tributed according  to  the  standing 
of  the  rider  in  the  summary,  heat 
winners  to  be  placed  before  all  those 
who  have  occupied  lesser  positions, 
and  in  case  two  riders  are  tied  by 


finishing  an  equal  number  of  times 
in  the  same  position,  the  one  occupy- 
ing the  best  position  in  the  conclud- 
ing heat  shall  be  awarded  the  prize. 
In  every  heat  a  rider  must  finish 
within  150  yards  of  the  winner  or  be 
adjudged  distanced.  In  case  a  rider 
fails  to  win  one  heat  in  three,  he  will 


Fig,  14.— English  Cycle  Post, 


be  disqualified  from  any  subsequent 
heats  that  may  be  necessary  to  de- 
cide the  prizes. 

Entries  in  a  consolation  race  shall 
be  limited  to  those  who  have  not 
won  a  prize  in  any  event  of  the 
meeting ;  provided,  however,  if  only 
a  single  prize  is  given  in  the  team 
race,  members  of  the  winning  team 
shall  not  be  considered  to  have  won 
a  prize  and  shall  be  eligible  to  the 
consolation  race, 

In  a  pursuit  race  the  conditions 
must  be  printed  on  the  programme 
or  announced  to  the  spectators. 


In  a  handicap  race  the  marks 
must  be  printed  on  the  programme, 
and  the  men  must  start  from  the 
marks  assigned  by  the  hanclicapper 
in  trial  heats  and  finals. 

In.  middle-distance  races  (10  to 
100  miles)  the  terms  and  conditions 
must  be  printed  on  the  programme. 

Igntfra'nce  of  Rales  No  Excuse. 
Ignorance  of  any  of  the  foregoing 
rules  will  riot  he  considered  a  valid 
excuse  for  violation. 

ff&ferpi  The  early  history  of  the 
bicycle  and  the  tficycle  is  given  in 
the  article  Velocipede,  in  C.  C.  T. 


CYCLING 


DANCING  IMP 


Since  the  introduction  of  the  bicycle 
proper  (about  1876),  so  many  im- 
provements have  been  made  in  it  that 
it  is  now  a  very  impor- 
tant machine  and  has 
found  many  uses  which 
were  once  scaicely 
thought  of.  One  of  the 
greatest  differences  be- 
tween the  modern  bicycle 
and  the  old  velocipede 
is  in  the  construction  of 
the  wheels.  They  were 
formerly  made  like  those 
of  a  carriage,  with 
stout  wooden  spokes,  the 
weight  resting  on  each 
spoke  in  turn  as  it  came 
underneath  the  hub.  Now 
the  spokes  are  of  steel 
wire,  and  the  weight  is 
supported  by  the  spokes  above  the 
hub,  which  is  hung,  as  it  were,  from 
the  rim  of  the  wheel.  Thisplan,  which 
is  called  the  "  suspension  principle," 
by  enabling  the  builders  to  make 
light  wheels,  has  done  much  toward 
perfecting  the  modern  bicycle. 
Many  grown  people  use  cycles  now 
for  health  as  well  as  recreation ; 


many  travel  long  distances  on  them  ; 
they  are  used  in  delivering  letters 
and  parcels,  and  in  England  and 


IS-  —  Military  Cycle. 


Germany  soldiers  are  trained  to  ride 
the  military  cycle.  Cycling  has  be- 
come a  very  popular  pastime,  and 
has  grown  to  be  something  beyond 
mere  boy's  sport.  Bicycles  were 
first  made  in  the  United  States  in 
1878,  and  hundreds  of  bicycle 
manufactories  are  now  situated  in 
this  country. 


D 


DANCING 
IMP.  Join  tight- 
ly with  sealing 
wax  the  halves 
of  a  walnut  shell 
from  which  the 
kernel  has  been 
removed.  Fast- 
en alittle  wooden 
doll,  three  or 
four  inches  long, 
by  threads  to  the 
nut,  weighting 
the  doll  frith  shot 
or  otherwise,  so 
that  the  nut  will 
float  in  water 
with  as  little  of 
its  shell  above 
the  surface  as  possible.  Make  a 


Dancing  Imp. 


hole  with  an  awl  in  the  lower  side 
of  the  nut  and  float  it  in  a  jar  of 
water,  filled  within  an  inch  or  two  of 
the  top.  Tie  a  piece  of  India-rubber 
cloth  tightly  over  the  top  of  the  jar. 
If  the  India-rubber  be  now  pressed 
with  the  finger  the  doll  will  sink,  and 
when  the  pressure  is  removed  it  will 
rise  again.  This  is  because  the  pres- 
sure forces  some  water  into  the  nut 
through  the  hole  in  the  bottom,  and 
the  additional  weight  is  just  enough 
to  sink  it.  This  toy  is  called  also 
Ludion  or  Bottle  Imp,  and  small 
ones  were  sold  on  the  streets  of  New 
York  in  1889  under  the  name  of 
"  McGinty,"  being  supposed  to  il- 
lustrate the  popular  song  "  Down 
went  McGinty  to  the  Bottom  of 
the  Sea." 


DICE 


256 


DICE 


DEVIL  ON  TWO  STICKS.      See 

FLYING  CONE. 

DIBS.    See  JACK  STONES. 

DICE  (plural  of  die),  small  white 
cubes  of  ivory,  bone,  or  celluloid, 
used  in  gaming.  Each  of  the  six 
faces  or  sides  of  a  die  is  marked  by  a 
different  number  of  black  spots  or 
dots,  from  i  to  6.  The  dots  are  so 
arranged  that  the  sum  of  the  dots  on 
opposite  sides  is  always  seven  ;  that 
is,  the  One  and  Six,  the  Two  and 
Five,  and  the  Three  and  Four  are 
opposite  each  other.  As  in  cards, 
the  one,  two,  and  three-spots  are 
often  called  respectively,  the  Ace, 
Deuce,  and  Tray.  In  playing,  one  pr 
more  of  the  dice  are  shaken  and 
thrown  from  a  dice-box  upon  a  table. 
This  is  called  a  throw,  and  the  num- 
bers on  the  uppermost  faces  of  the 
dice  are  said  to  have  been  thrown. 
The  throw  is  unfair  if  a  die  rolls  on 
the  floor ;  if  any  one  touches  it  while 
it  is  rolling  on  the  table ;  if  it  is 
tilted  on  edge  against  some  obstacle  ; 
or  if  one  die  rests  on  the  top  of 
another. 

Dice  are  used  to  determine  the 
moves  in  games  like  Backgammon 
and  Parchesi,  but  several  games  may 
be  played  with  them  alone. 

Raffling  or  Raffles,  a  game  of 
dice,  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons with  three  dice.  Each,  in  turn 
throws  till  he  throws  two  numbers 
alike,  called  a  Pair.  When  all  have 
thrown,  he  who  made  the  highest 
throw  wins.  Pairs  rank  according 
to  the  number  of  spots  on  the  paired 
dice,  and  a  triplet,  or  three  of  a  kind 
ranks  higher  than  any  Pair.  Thus, 
a  pair  of  Fives  is  higher  than  a 
pair  of  Fours,  but  three  Twos  is 
still  higher. 

Centennial,  a  game  of  Dice  played 
by  two  or  more  persons,  each  for 
himself,  or  by  partners,  two  or  three 
on  a  side.  The  players  use  three 
dice  at  a  time,  and  not  only  the 
numbers  thrown,  but  the  sum  of  any 
two  or  of  all  of  them  counts  toward 
the  score.  The  object  is  to  score  the 
lumbers  from  I  to  12  in  order,  and 


then,  the  numbers  in  reverse  order 
back  to  i.  Each  player  may  throw 
until  he,  fails  to  score,  when  the 
turn  passes  to  the  left.  Each  player 
keeps  his  score  by  writing  the  num- 
bers on  paper  as  he  makes  them, 
and  then  crossing  them  out  in  re- 
verse order.  He  whose  numbers  are 
crossed  out  first  wins  the  game. 
Several  numbers  may  be  scored  in 
one  throw  :  thus  I,  2,  and  3  score 
all  the  numbers,  up  to  6.  Part- 
ners have  only  one  score  between 
them,  and  the  numbers  thrown 
by  each  count  toward  it. 

Help  Your  Neighbor,  a  game  of 
dice  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons, with  one  die.  Each  player 
marks  the  numbers  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  on 
paper.  The. one  who  begins  the 
game  then  throws  the  die  and  marks 
out  of  his  figures  the  number  he 
throws  ;  and  he  continues  throwing 
as  long  as  he  can  mark  off  the  number 
thrown.  When  he  throws  a  number 
that  he  has  already  marked  off,  the 
player  on  his  left  crosses  it  off  his  own 
score,  and  then  takes  his  turn.  Each 
player  does  likewise,  and  he  whose 
score  is  all  crossed  off  first  wins. 
If,  in  the  course  of  the  game,  neither 
a  player  nor  his  left-hand  neighbor 
have  the  number  that  is  thrown, 
the  nearest  player  on  the  left  who 
has  it  marks  it  off. 

Draw  Poker.  The  players  use  five 
dice,  which  are  first  thrown  at  one 
cast,  and  then  any  or  all  of  them 
may  be  thrown  again  ;  just  as  in  the 
card  game  each  player  may  draw 
new  cards.  The  "  hands  "  are  the 
same  as  in  ordinary  DRAW  POKER, 
save  that  there  is  no  Flush  and 
that  there  can  be  five  of  a  kind, 
which  ranks  above  four  of  a  kind 
and  is  the  highest  possible  hand. 
The  highest  hand  wins  the  pool. 
As  every  one  sees  the  hands  of  all 
1  the  other  players,  there  is  no  "  bet- 
ting." 

Multiplication.  Three  dice  are 
thrown  by  each  player,  who,  leaving 
the  highest  on  the  table,  throws  th« 
other  two  again,  and  then  the  low- 


DICE 


257 


DICTIONARY 


est  of  these  is  thrown  a  third  time. 
The  sum  of  the  first  two  is  multiplied 
by  the  third,  and  the  player  whose 
result  is  the  highest  wins  the  game. 

Vingt-et-Un.  Two  dice  are  used, 
and  each  player  throws  as  many 
times  as  he  wishes.  He,  the  sum  of 
whose  throws  is  nearest  21,  is  the 
winner.  But  if  any  one  throw  more 
than  21  he  loses.  Vingt-et-Un  is 
French  for  Twenty-one. 

Dice  with  Eight  Sides.  Dice 
formed  of  four-sided  pyramids,  fas- 
tened base  to  base,  have  recently 
been  invented  in  France.  Each  die 
has  thus  eight  sides,  on  which  are 
marked  numbers  from  two  to  nine. 
The  value  of  a  throw  is  the  product 
of  the  numbers  thrown  ;  thus,  with 
two  dice  it  may  be  anywhere  from 
four  to  eighty-one.  These  dice 
are  intended  to  be  used  by  children, 
to  make  them  familiar  with  the  multi- 
plication table.  They  are  called  also 
octahedral  dice,  from  the  Greek 
okto,  eight,  and  hedron,  side. 

History.  Dice  have  been  known 
since  the  earliest  times.  The  Greeks 
said  that  they  were  invented  by 
Palamecles  at  the  siege  %of  Troy. 
Plutarch  says  they  were  devised  by 
the  Egyptians  ;  and  bone  or  ivory 
dice  have  been  found  in  Thebes, 
Egypt,  similar  to  those  now  in  use. 
They  are  mentioned  by  Homer  in  the 
Odyssey,  in  the  Rig  Veda  (one  of  the 
sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos),  and  in 
other  ancient  writings.  The  Greeks 
and  Romans  gave  to  the  various 
throws  the  names  of  heroes  and 
gods,  the  best  being  called  Venus, 
after  the  goddess  ,of  love.  The 
game  was  very  popular  in  Rome, 
where  rich  men,  in  the  latej  days  of 
the  empire,  sometimes  staked  their 
fortunes  on  a  single  throw.  The 
Romans  used  two  kinds  of  dice ; 
tali,  made  of  the  huckle  bones  from 
the  legs  of  sheep  and  goats,  or  to 
imitate  them,  and  tessercz,  cubical 
like  our  dice.  The  ends  of  the  tali 
were  left  blank  because  they  were 
so  narrow,  and  the  four  other  sides 
Were  numbered  I,  3,  4  and  6.  With- 


out the  numbers  the  tali  were  played 
like  our  JACK  STONES.  Dice  con- 
tinued to  be  played  so  widely  in 
Europe  that  in  the  Middle  Ages  there 
were  in  France  academies  where 
dice  games  were  taught,  and  the 
makers  of  dice  formed  a  separate 
company.  They  were  many  times 
forbidden,  because  used  for  gamb- 
ling, and  it  is  said  that  CARDS  were 
originally  devised  to  turn  people's 
attention  from  them.  A  curious  dice 
box  once  in  use  in  England  is  shown 


Old  English  Dice-box. 

in  the  illustration.  The  dice  used  in 
it  had  no  spots  at  all,  and  the  value 
of  the  throw  depended  on  where  they 
fell  when  put  into  the  funnel-shaped 
tube  at  the  top. 

Dice  made  of  huckle  bones,  or  to 
imitate  them,  are  still  used  in  Eastern 
countries,  where  the  different  throws 
are  given  names,  as  among  the 
ancients.  Thus  the  Arabs  call  the 
Ace  "  Thief,"  the  Three  "  Lamb," 
and  the  Six  "  King  ";  and  the  Turks 
call  the  Three  "  Peasant "  and  the 
Four  "  Knight." 

The  origin  of  the  word  die  is  not 
certainly  known,  though  in  some 
form  it  appears  in  every  language  in 
Europe.  The  late '  Latin  form  was 
dadus,  which  some  think  is  from 
datus  (a  thing  given  or  thrown  forth) 
and  some  from  the  Arabic  dadd,  a 
die. 

DICTIONARY  or  VERBARIUM,  a 
game  played  with  pencil  and  paper, 
by  any  number  of  persons,  who  try 
to  see  which  can  make  the  largest 
number  of  words  from  the  letters 
composing  a  larger  word,  called  the 
Head-word.  The  word  to  be  used, 


DICTIONARY 


258 


DISTILLATION 


which  should  contain  as  many  vowels 
and  as  few  double  letters  as  possi- 
ble, is  first  agreed  upon,  and  each 
player  writes  it  plainly  at  the  head  of 
his  sheet  of  paper.  Each  then  writes 
all  the  words  he  can  think  of,  that 
can  be  made  from  letters  in  the 
Head-word.  Those  beginning  with 
its  initial  letter  are  taken  first,  and  a 
given  time  (usually  from  two  to  five 
minutes)  is  allowed  in  which  to  write 
them.  At  the  end  of  that  time  the 
players  count  their  words,  and  he 
who  has  made  the  longest  list  reads 
it.  Any  word  that  is  on  all  the  lists 
counts  nothing,  but  other  words 
count  each  as  many  points  as  the 
number  of  players  who  have  omitted 
it.  Afterwards  each  of  the  other 
players  reads  any  words  on  his  list 
that  have  not  been  marked.  All 
words  are  crossed  out  as  they  are 
read.  After  this,  words  beginning 
with  the  second  letter  of  the  Head- 
word are  written,  and  so  on  till  the 
last  letter  has  been  reached.  The 
player  who  scores  the  greatest 
number  of  points  wins. 

The  game  may  often  be  made 
more  interesting  by  choosing  sides, 
but  the  sides  should  contain  the 
same  number  of  players,  otherwise 
an  omission  would  add  more  to  the 
score  of  one  side  than  to  that  of  the 
other.  The  game  is  excellent  train- 
ing for  rapidity  of  thought.  The 
player's  ability  to  write  long  lists  of 
words  quickly,  increases  greatly  with 
practice,  so  that  a  beginner  is  almost 
always  defeated. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

I.  At  the  beginning  the  players 
must  agree  as  to  what  classes  of 
words  are  allowable.  One  of  the 
standard  dictionaries  may  be  selected, 
and  any  word  allowed  that  can  be 
found  in  it ;  or,  no  word  may  be 
allowed  that  the  writer  cannot  de- 
fine correctly.  This  prevents  put- 
ting down  groups  of  letters  that 
sound  like  words,  in  hope  that  they 
may  be  in  the  dictionary.  It  must 
also  be  settled  whether  plurals  in  s 
and  different  moods  and  tenses  of  the 


same  verb  are  to  count  as  separate 
words  or  not. 

2.  No  letter  may  be  repeated  in 
any  of  the  words,  unless  it  is  also  re- 
peated in  the  Head-word. 

3.  A  time-keeper  shall  be  selected 
who  shall  keep  his  watch  open  before 
him.     No  one  shall  write  before  the 
time-keeper  says  "  begin,"  nor  after 
he  says  "  stop. " 

The  word  Verbarium  is  Latin  and 
means  a  place  where  words  abound. 
The  game  is  sometimes  called  in 
New  England  "  Androscoggin." 

DIFFRACTION  GRATING,  Ex- 
periment with  a.  Paint  one  side  of 
a  square  of  glass  with  India  ink  or 
liquid  blacking,  so  that  light  cannot 
shine  through  it,  and  then,  with  the 
point  of  a  needle,  rule  parallel  lines  on 
it  about  one-tenth  of  an  inch  apart, 
scratching  quite  through  the  layer  of 
black.  Look  through  this  glass  at  a 
candle  flame,  or  the  edge  of  any 
bright  object,  standing  about  twenty 
feet  from  it.  Move  the  glass  toward 
the  eye  and  from  it  till  it  is  at  the 
proper  distance,  when  one  or  more 
rainbow  colored  spots  will  be  seen 
on  each  side  of  the  flame.  These 
spots  can  often  be  seen  by  half  clos- 
ing the  eyes,  and  looking  at  the  flame 
through  the  eyelashes,  which  thus 
take  the  place  of  the  grating.  The 
colors  are  produced  by  the  interfer- 
ence of  the  light  passing  through  the 
various  scratches  in  a  way  which  can- 
not be  explained  here,  for  want  of 
room. 

DISTILLATION.  The  process  of 
distillation  is  described  in  C.  C.  T. 
under  ALCOHOL.  To  make  a  sim- 
ple still  to  distill  water  (See  CHEMI- 
CAL EXPERIMENTS)  fit  a  flask  or 
test-tube  with  a  stopper  and  de- 
livery tube  connecting  with  a  flask  or 
bottle  (Fig.  i).  The  first  flask  or 
tube  is  partially  filled  with  water  and 
supported  or  held  over  an  alcohol 
lamp,  and  the  second  stands  in  a 
basin  of  cold  water.  The  water 
should  come  up  much  farther  around 
the  bottle  than  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. When  the  water  in  the  first  flask 


DISTILLATION 


259 


DISTILLATION 


begins  to  boil,  the  steam  passes  over 
to  the  second  flask,  where  it  con- 
denses. The  cold  water  in  the  basin 
must  be  replaced  as  fast  as  it  begins 
to  get  warm. 

A  better  way  is  to  keep  the  cold 
water  continually  changing  so  that 


it  will  never  grow  warm.  This  can 
be  arranged  as  follows.  Fasten  to- 
gether two  or  three  argand  lamp- 
chimneys  with  putty  or  plaster  of 
Paris,  so  as  to  form  a  long  tube  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  Close  each  end  with 
two-holed  rubber  stopper  or  cork. 


Fig.  i. — Simple  Still. 


Through  one  of  the  holes  in  each 
pass  a  glass  tube  so  that  it  runs 
through  the  lamp  chimneys  with- 
out touching  the  sides.  Support 
this  arrangement  about  six  inches 
from  the  table  by  placing  it  on  two 


blocks  of  wood.  Connect  one  end 
of  the  glass  tube  with  a  kettle  in 
which  the  water  is  to  be  boiled,  and 
under  the  other  place  a  cup  to 
receive  the  distilled  water.  The 
tube  should  incline  a  little  toward 


Fig.  2. — Home-made  Still. 


this  cup.  In  the  other  hole  of 
each  stopper  put  a  short  glass  tube, 
connecting  the  lower  one  with  a  cold 
water  faucet  and  the  other  with  a  sink. 
The  lamp  chimneys  will  thus  be  kept 
full  of  cold  water,  constantly  chang- 


ing. A  bath  tub  is  a  good  place  in 
which  to  set  up  the  still,  for  then  the 
escaping  cold  water  cannot  possibly 
harm  anything. 

For  method  of  distilling  alcohol, 
See  ALCOHOL, EXPERIMENTS  WITH. 


DOI.LS 


260 


DOMINOES 


DOLLS.  The  manufacture  of 
dolls  is  described  in  C.  C.  T.  Many 
games  can  be  played  with  dolls,  some 
of  which  will  be  described. 

Doll     Show.       Several     children 
meet  in  one  place,  each  bringing  her 
dolls.     Prizes  should  be  offered  for 
the   prettiest   doll,  the   most   neatly 
dressed  doll,  the  doll  who  has  trav-  I 
eled   farthest,   and    so    on,  at     the  i 
pleasure     of    the    exhibitors.       All  i 
present   should  vote  on  the  award,  | 
and   the  doll  receiving  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  is  given  the  prize. 

Paper    Dolls.     The    paper    dolls 
sold  at  toy  shops  are  merely  colored 
pictures     printed    on    thick    paper, . 
which  are  to  be  cut  out  with  scis- 
sors.    Any   picture  can   be  cut  out 
and  used  as  a  paper  doll,  but  if  it  is 
not    on    stiff    paper    it   must    have  j 
another  thickness   fastened  to  it  to 
stiffen  it.     Paper  soldiers,  bought  at 
the  stores  in  sheets,  may  be  cut  out 
and    stiffened    in    the    same    way. 
Paper  dolls    and    soldiers    may  be 
made  to  stand  up  by  fastening  them 
with  glue  or  brads  to  the  side  of  a 
small    block     of    wood.       Wooden 
button-molds  make  the  best  stands  : 
stick  a  thin  sliver  of  wood  into  the 
hole  and  then  glue  the  paper  doll  to 
it.      Paper  furniture    also    may   be  | 
bought  at  toy   shops.      After  it    is  i 
cut  out  it  must  be  bent  into  shape 
and  fastened  by  pasting  down  flaps  ] 
which  are  cut  out  with  it.     Simple  i 
articles  of  furniture  can  be  made  by  | 
drawing  them  on  thick  paper,  Bristol 
board,  or  card-board,  and  then  cut- 
ting them  out.     The  places  for  bend- 
ing are  cut  half  through  with  a  sharp 
knife.     The  cut  must   be   made  in 
each  case  on  what  is  to  be  the  out- 
side of  the  corner. 

Vegetable  Dolls,  Dolls  can  be 
made  of  corn  husks  by  putting  a 
number  of  them  together  and  tying 
thread  around  the  neck  and  waist. 
The  arms  are  formed  of  a  separate 
piece  of  twisted  husk  drawn  through 
the  body  crosswise,  and  both  arms 
and  legs  are  wound  with  thread  to 
make  them  stiff.  Another  kind  of 


doll  may  be  made  with  an  ear  of 
corn  for  a  body,  a  small  green  apple 
for  a  head,  hair  of  corn  silk,  and 
bonnet  and  dress  of  husks. 

Still  other  kinds  are  formed  with 
inverted  flowers  for  dresses  and  seed 
vessels  for  heads,  fastened  together 
with  thread.  In  all  these  cases,  the 
eyes,  nose,  and  mouth  must  be 
marked  with  ink. 

DOMINOES,  flat  pieces  of  ivory  or 
bone,  generally  backed  with  ebony, 
used  in  playing  various  games. 
They  are  usually  about  two  inches 
long,  one  inch  wide,  and  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  thick.  The  face,  which  is 
commonly  white,  is  divided  by  a  line 
into  two  squares;  each  of  which  either 
is  blank  or  has  on  it  from  one  to  six 
round  spots  or  pips,  grouped  like 
those  on  DICE.  A  domino  having 
the  same  number.of  spots  in  each  of 
its  squares  is  called  a  doublet. 
Others  are  named  from  the  number 
of  spots  in  both  squares  :  thus,  the 
Four-six  has  four  spots  in  one  square 
and  six  in  the  other.  A  single  spot 
is  often  called  Ace,  and  two  and 
three  spots  are  called  Deuce  and 
Tray,  as  in  CARDS. 

Twenty-eight  Dominoes  are  used 
in  playing  games,  the  spots  being 
arranged  as  follows  :  Double-blank, 
Blank-ace,  Blank-two,  Blank-three, 
Blank-four,  Blank-five,  Blank-six ; 
Double-Ace,  Ace-two,  Ace-three, 
Ace-four,  Ace-five,  Ace-six  ;  Double- 
Two,  Two-three,  Two-four,  Two 
five,  Two-six  ;  Double  Three,  Three- 
four,  Three-five,  Three-six ;  Double- 
Four,  Four-five,  Four-six ;  Double- 
Five,  Five-six ;  Double-six.  The 
picture  shows  them  all  but  the 
blanks. 

In  the  ordinary  game  of  Dominoes, 
which  can  be  played  by  from  two  to 
four  persons,  the  Dominoes  are  first 
mixed  as  they  lie  on  the  table  backs 
upward,  and  then  each  player  draws 
seven.  If  any  are  left,  they  form 
what  is  called  the  "pool."  Each 
usually  stands  his  Dominoes  on  their 
sides  in  front  of  him  on  the  table, 
placing  them  in  a  curved  line,  spots 


DOMINOES 


261 


DOMINOES 


inward,  so  that  the  other  players  can- 
not see  them.  The  player  having 
the  highest  doublet  leads  by  placing 
any  Domino  he  pleases  on  the  table, 
face  upward.  The  player  on  his  left 
must  then  play  a  Domino  one  of 
whose  squares  matches  one  of  its 
squares.  The  two  are  placed  in 
line,  with  the  matched  ends  touch- 
ing, and  then  each  player  in  order  to 


the  left  must  match  in  like  manner 
one  of  the  ends  of  the  line  thus  formed, 
as  in  the  illustration.  If  a  doublet  is 
played,  it  is  often  placed  crosswise 
instead  of  endwise  in  the  line.  If 
any  one  cannot  play,  and  any  Domi- 
noes remain  in  the  pool,  he  must  draw 
them,  one  by  one,  before  his  neigh- 
bor's turn,  till  he  can  play  or  till  the 
pool  is  gone.  The  player  who  first 


Dominoes. 


gets  rid  of  all  his  pieces  cries  "  Domi- 
no "and  scores  the  sum  of  the  spots 
on  his  opponents'  remaining  Domi- 
noes. If  it  happens  that  no  one  can 
play,  while  each  has  Dominoes  left, 
the  game  is  said  to  be  blocked,  and 
he  who  has  the  smallest  number  of 
spots  on  his  remaining  Dominoes 
scores  as  before.  When  "  Domino  " 
is  announced,  or  the  game  is  blocked, 


the  Dominoes  are  mixed  again,  each 
draws  seven,  as  before,  and  the  game 
goes  on.  He  whose  score  firs* 
reaches  100  usually  wins  the  game; 
but  the  necessary  number  may  be 
made  greater  or  less  by  agreement. 
Sometimes  the  game  is  varied  by 
allowing  no  drawing  after  each  has 
taken  his  seven  Dominoes. 

Muggins,     a  game   of  Dominoes 


Domino  Game. 


in  which  each  player  draws  five  at 
the  beginning.  If  any  one  plays  so 
that  the  sum  of  the  spots  on  the  end 
squares  of  the  line  is  5,  10,  15,  or  20, 
he  scores  that  number  of  points.  If 
the  leader  play  a  Domino,  the  sum  of 
whose  spots  is  five  or  ten,  he  scores 
in  like  manner.  Thus  if  a  Four  is  at 
one  end  and  a  Two  at  the  other  he 
who  can  match  the  Two  with  a  Two- 


six  scores  to,  since  the  sum  of  the 
end  spots  will  equal  that  number 
after  his  play.  So  also  if  a  Double- 
four  is  sfl*one  end  and  any  one  plays 
a  Double-six  on  the  other  he  scores 
20.  In  other  respects  Muggins  is 
like  the  ordinary  game. 

Bergen  Game,  a  game  of  Domi- 
noes in  which  each  player  draws  six 
at  the  beginning.  When  a  player 


DOMINOES 


262 


DOMINOES 


makes  both  ends  of  the  line  alike,  he 
is  said  to  make  a  Double  Header, 
and  scores  two.  When  he  plays  so 
that  there  is  a  doublet  on  one  end, 
and  the  other  end  is  of  the  same 
value  he  is  said  to  make  a  Triple 
Header,  and  scores  three.  He  who 
announces  "  Domino,"  scores  one. 
If  the  game  is  blocked,  the  player  with 
the  smallest  number  of  spots  on  his 
remaining  Dominoes  scores  one,  but 
the  holder  of  a  doublet  cannot  score, 
even  if  he  have  less  spots  than  the 
others,  unless  all  have  doublets,  when 
he  who  has  the  smallest  number  of 
doublets  scores.  If  all  have  the 
same  number  of  doublets,  he  scores 
that  has  the  lowest.  The  number  of 
points  in  this  game  is  small,  usually 
10  or  15. 

Matadore,  a  game  of  Dominoes  in 
which  the  pieces,  instead  of  being 
matched,  are  placed  so  that  the  sum 
of  the  spots  on  touching  ends  of  two 
Dominoes  is  always  seven.  Thus  a 
Five  must  join  a  Two,  a  Six  an  Ace, 
and  so  on.  The  Double-blank,  and 
the  three  Dominoes  with  seven  spots 
(the  Six-ace,  Five-two,  and  Four- 
three)  are  called  Matadores,  and  can 
be  played  at  any  time.  It  will  be 
noted  that  only  a  Matadore  can  be 
played  to  a  blank.  Each  playe/ 
draws  three  Dominoes  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  game,  and  he  who  has  the 
highest  doublet,  or  the  highest  piece, 
if  there  are  no  doublets,  leads.  If  any 
one  cannot  play,  he  must  draw  Domi- 
noes one  by  one  in  succession  from 
the  pool  till  he  can  play,  or  till  the 
pool  is  gone.  He  must  play  if  he  can. 
But  when  only  two  persons  play  the 
game,  three  Dominoes  must  be  left 
in  the  pool,  so  that  neither  player 
may  know  exactly  what  the  other  has. 
The  scoring  is  the  same  as  in  the 
ordinary  game.  In  Matadore  the 
player  with  the  smallest  number  of 
Dominoes  usually  tries  to  block  the 
game  by  playing  blanks.  Has  oppo- 
nents can  prevent  him  by  playing 
only  Dominoes  that  match  blanks 
already  on  the  table. 
Tidley-Wink,  a  game  cf  Domi- 


noes, played  by  four,  six,  or  eight  per- 
sons. Each  draws  three  Dominoes 
to  begin  with,  and  the  one  with  the 
highest  double  leads  it.  The  other 
players  follow,  in  order,  each  match- 
ing the  Domino  played  just  before 
him,  as  in  the  ordinary  game.  Any 
one  who  cannot  play  must  wait  till 
his  turn  comes  again.  Any  one  who 
plays  a  Double  is  allowed  to  play 
another  Domino  to  it,  if  he  can,  be- 
fore the  next  player  takes  his  turn. 
He  who  first  gets  rid  of  his  three 
Dominoes  calls  out  "  Tidley-Wink," 
and  wins  the  game. 

Poker.  Each  player  is  given  five 
Dominoes  and  the  game  proceeds  as 
in  DRAW  POKER  with  cards,  save 
that  there  is  no  drawing.  The 
hands,  in  the  order  of  their  value,  be- 
ginning with  the  highest,  are 

1.  An  Invincible. — Five  Doubles, 
or  Four  Doubles  and  a  Six. 

2.  A  Straight  Six. — A  sequence  of 
sixes,  as  Six-Two,   Six-Three,  Six- 
Four,  Six-Five. 

3.  Four  Doubles. 

4.  A  Straight  Five. 

5.  A   Full.— Three  Doubles   and 
two  of  a  suit. 

6.  A  Straight  Four. 

7.  Three  Doubles. 

8.  A  Flush. — Five  of  a  suit  not  in 
sequence. 

9.  A  Pair. — Two  Doubles. 

10.  The  highest  Domino  in  a  hand 
that  is  none  of  the  above.     A  Double 
always  ranks  above  any  other. 

Card-games  with  Dominoes.  Sev- 
eral games  commonly  played  with 
cards  may  also  be  played  with  Domi- 
noes. In  this  case  the  larger  num- 
ber on  each  Domino  shows  the  suit, 
and  the  other  number  the  rank  in 
the  suit.  Thus,  a  doublet  stands  at 
the  head  of  each  suit,  and  the  suits 
do  not  contain  the  same  number  of 
Dominoes.  The  Five-suit  consists 
of  Double-five,  Five-four,  Five-three, 
Five-two,  Five-ace,  Five-blank,  and 
the  Two-suit  contains  only  Double- 
two,  Two-ace,  Two-blank.  But  the 
trump-suit  contains  all  the  Dominoes 
that  bear  the  number  of  that  suit, 


DOMINOES 


663 


DOMINOES 


whether  the  other  number  be  smaller 
or  larger ;  thus,  if  the  Three-suit 
is  trumps  the  cards  in  it  rank  as 
follows :  Double-three,  Three-six, 
Three-five,  Three-four,  Three-two, 
Three-ace,  Three-blank.  Of  course 
those  trump-cards  that  would  ordi- 
narily be  counted  in  other  suits  must 
be  omitted  from  these  suits;  thus,  in 
the  case  just  given,  the  card  next  be- 
low the  Six-four  is  the  Six-two,  be- 
cause the  Six4hree  (or  Three-six)  Is 
a  trump. 

Domino  Euchre,  the  doublet  of 
the  trump  suit  is  Right  Bovver ;  the 
next  lower  doublet  is  Left  Bovter; 
but  when  Blank  is  trump  the 
Double-Six  is  Left  Bbwef;  the 
player  who  draws  the  lowest  Domino 
is  termed  the  dealer.  After  th'e 
drawing  for  deal  the  Dominoes  are 
mixed  again  and  each  player  in  turn, 
beginning  at  the  dealer's  left-,  draws 
five,  The  dealer  then  turns  face  Up* 
ward  one  of  the  Dominoes  that  fe-- 
main,  and  its  lafger  number  sh6fl% 
the  trump'SUit,  He  that  orders  up, 
takes  up,  assists,  or  makes  the  trump, 
always  leads,  but  in  other,  respects 
the  game  is  played  as  it  is  with  Cards. 

Domino  Rouhc6i  This  can  .be 
played  by  not  more  than  four  per- 
sons. When  two  or  three  play,  the 
Dominoes  in  the  po6l  are  ofteVi 
divided  in  more  than  one  Dummy  or 
Dumby  (that  is— extra  hand),  so  that 
each  has  the  privilege  of  taking  one, 
even  if  the  player  before  him  has 
already  done  so.  When  four  play* 
there  is  only  one  Dummy,  but  it  con- 
sists of  seven  pieces.  The  dealer  is 
chosen,  the  trump  'turned,  and  the 
Dominoes  drawn  as  in  Domino 
Euchre ;  in  other  respects  the  game 
^s  played  as  it  is  with  cards, 

Bingo,  the  game  of  SiXTV-^SlX 
played  with  Dominoes  by  two  per- 
sons. Each  player  draws  seven 
Dominoes  at  first,  and  orte  more 
after  each  trick,  as  in  the  (rard-'game. 
The  blanks  count  as  seven  spots; 
and  the  Double^blank,  tfhich  is 
called  Bingo,  is  the  highest  Domino, 
taking  even  the  Double  of  trumps. 


The  game  consists  of  seven  points. 
He  who  first  makes  70,  scores  one 
toward  game.  If  he  make  70  before 
his  opponent  make  30,  he  scores  2, 
and  if  he  make  70  before  his  oppo- 
nent has  won  a  trick,  he  scores  3. 
If  a  player  capture  the  Double  of 
trumps  with  Bingo  he  scores  one. 

In  reckoning  the  70  points,  the 
Double  of  trumps  counts  28,  and  all 
Other  doubles  and  trumps  according 
to  the  total  number  of  the  spots,  but 
the  remaining  Dominoes  have  no 
value,  The  winner  of  a  trick  may 
announce  or  declare  certain  combi- 
nations a$  in  the  card  game,  These, 
With  the  points  they  count  toward  70, 
are  as  follows  t 

Two  Doubles,  20 

Three       "      40 

Four        "       $0 

Five          •*       6b 

Six  "      70 

if  Bingo  be  among  the  doubles, 
the  group  counts  to  more,  In  other 
respects  the  game  is  played  like 


History  t  Dominoes  are  said  by 
different  writers  to  haVe  been  in- 
vented by  the  Hebrews,  Greeks,  or 
Chinese;  They  were  introduced  into 
France  from  Italy  about  1750,  and 
irnto  England  some  years  later,  A 
ctomiho  was  a  black  cloak  or  hood 
worn  by  monks*  and  some  think  the 
name  of  the  game  is  derived  from 
the  fact  that  one  side  of  the  Domino 
is  usually  black.  Other  writers  sug- 
gest that  the  game  was  allowed  in 
convents,  because  it  was  so  simple, 
and  that  the  monks,  on  playing  their 
last  piece,  said  in  Latin  "  Benedica- 
mat  Domino"  (bless  the  Lord), 
which  was  afterward  shortened  into 
Domino.  A  story  is  told  also  of  a 
monk  who  played  the  game  against 
the  commands  of  his  superior,  and 
for  punishment  was  obliged  to  re- 
peat a  Latin  psalm,  and  from  the 
word  Dommo  in  it,  he  afterwards 
named  the  game  ;  but  all  these  deri- 
vations seem  rather  fanciful. 

Domino  Whist.  See  SEVENS  AND 
EIGHTS. 


DONKEY 


264 


DOUBLE   PENDULUM 


DONKEY,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  people,  who  try,  blind- 
fold, to  fasten  a  tail  on  the  picture  of 
A  tailless  donkey.  The  picture, 
which  is  about  four  feet  square,  is 
Dinned  on  the  wall  at  one  end  of  a 
room,  and  each  player  in  turn,  stand- 
ing at  the  other  end,  is  blindfolded 
Mnd  given  a  cloth  tail  and  a  pin  with 
'vhich  to  fasten  it  to  .the  picture.  He 
who  first  fastens  the  tail  in  the  right 
place  wins.  This  is  a  difficult  feat, 
and  the  sight 'of  the  donkey 
covered  with  tails, 'some  pinned 
to  his  head  and  others  to  his 
legs,  creates  a  great  deal  of 
amusement.  Donkey  Parties 
are  sometimes  given,  at  which 
this  game  is  the  principal  enter- 
tainment. The  player  is  some- 
times informed  by  the  laughter 
of  the  company  as  to  whether 
he  is  at  the  right  place  or  not 
and  hence  may  be  guided  to 
the  proper  spot,  so  sometimes 
the  game  is.  made  more  difficult 
by  requiring  him  to  pin  the  tail  ^ 
to  the  part  of  the  donkey  he 
touches  first.  .  .  ^ 

DO.UBL£  JUMP,  a  •  SOLI-  Vj| 
TAIRE  game  of  CARDS,  played  ' 
with  onq  full  pack.  The  cards 
are  laid  down  in  one  long  row.  ^ 
Whenever  the  player  sees  two 
cards  of  the  same  suit,  or  of  the 
same  value,  separated  by  two 
other  cards, -he  may  take  up 
the  one  toward  the  left,  and 
place  it  on  the  other.  This  is 
called  a  double  jump,  since  the  . 
two  cards  between  are  passed 
over.  A  jump  brings  new  cards 
next  one  another  and  may  giv.e 
at  once  an  opportunity  for  another 
jump.  ,  When  the  top  car.d  of  a  pile 
thus. corresponds  with  another,  two 
cards  distant,  the  whole  pile  goes 
with  the  top  card  in  its  jump.  .  .The 
object,  is.  thus  to. .bring  all  the  cards, 
into  one  pile.  When  but..three  piles 
are., -left,  only  one  need,  be  jumped, 
and  when -but  two,  one  can  be  placed 
OB. the  other. if  the  top  cards  corre- 
spond in  suit  or  value. 


DOUBLE  PENDULUM,  Experi- 
ments with  the.  Suspend  a  small 
glass  funnel  by  setting  it  in  a  hole  in 
a  board  or  flat  cork  about  three 
inches  in  diameter,  hung  by  strings 
as  in  the  picture.  These  strings  are 
united  above  the  funnel  at  r.  The 
whole  arrangement  is  suspended 
from  the  ceiling  or  from  a  frame,  by 
two  strings,  tied  to  hooks  about  four 
feet  apart,  and  united  below  at  the 
funnel.  The  funnel  should  hang  as 


Double  Pendulum. 

closely  to  the  table  as  possible  at  its 
centej.  Tie  the  two  supporting 
strings  together  frrmly  at  one  fourth 
thejr  length  from  the  funnel.  Fill 
the'funnel  with  sand,  and  then  hold 
it  a'tpne  corner  of  the.table,  stopping 
up  the  tube  with  one  finger.  Let  it 
g6  and  -it  will  swing  off  in  a  curve, 
which  .will  be  marked  on  the  table 
by  the  sand.  Tie-the  strings  in  a 
different  place. and.  the  curve  will"  be 
different.  By  careful  trial,- 


DOUBLETS 


265 


DOUBLETS 


curious  curves  can  thus  be  traced. 
These  curves  are  called  Lissajous's 
curves,  after  the  Frenchman  who  dis- 
covered them.  They  are  the  same 
that  are  produced  in  the  experiment 
of  VIBRATING  RODS. 

DOUBLETS,  a  writing  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons. 
Two  words  of  the  same  number  of 
letters  are  first  agreed  upon,  and  each 
of  the  players  endeavors  to  connect 
them  by  a  column  of  other  words 
called  "  links,"  each  of  which  shall 
differ  from  the  one  before  it  by  only 
a  single  letter.  Thus  "  Cat  "  and 
"  Dog  "  may  be  connected  in  many 
ways,  of  which  two  examples  fol- 
low: 

Cat  Cat 

Cot  Pat 

Cog         '    Put 

Dog  Pug 

Dug 

Dog 

The  object  of  the  game  is  to  make 
as  few  links  as  possible.  There  are 
several  methods  of  scoring.  Thus, 
the  player  who  makes  the  greatest 
number  of  links  may  score  nothing 
and  each  of  the  others  one  point  for 
each  link  less  than  this ;  or,  the  one 
who  has  the  least  number  of  links 
may  score  a  number  previously 
agreed  on,  and  each  of  the  others  as 
many  points  less  as  he  has  less  links. 
The  best  plan  in  joining  the 
doublets  is  to  write  them  side  by 
side  and  then  work  downward  from 
each.  Thus,  suppose  the  words 
agreed  on  are  Hand  and  Legs. 
When  these  are  written  side  by  side, 
it  is  seen  that  the  H  in  Hand  must 
be  turned  into  an  L,  which  is  done  by 
writing  "  Land."  The  G  in  Legs 
must  become  an  N,  so  "  Lens  "  is 
written  underneath.  The  word 
"  Lend  "  now  completes  the  chain, 
which  reads 

Hand 

Land 

Lend 

Leans 

Legs 
In  this  case,  as  in  the  first  example 


given,  each  link  forms  a  step  to- 
ward the  desired  end,  every  change 
being  from  one  of  the  letters  of  the 
first  doublet  to  the  corresponding 
one  of  the  second  ;  but  sometimes 
this  is  impossible.  Thus  if  Chin  and 
Head  are  the  Doublets  only  one  of 
the  letters  of  either  can  be  substi- 
tuted at  once  for  the  corresponding 
one  of  the  other.  This  is  the  N  in 
Chin,  which  can  be  changed  to  D,  so 
that  the  words  stand  : 

Chin  Head 

Chid 

Looking  now  at  the  word  Head,  it 
is  seen  that  the  letter  E  must  be 
turned  into  H.  The  first  letter  of 
a  word  whose  second  is  H,  is  likely 
to  be  S  or  T.  Take  the  word  Shed 
and  it  can  be  connected  with  Head 
as  follows : 

Head 

Heed 

Seed 

Shed 

After  trying  in  vain  to  connect 
chid  and  shed  the  former  link  is 
rejected,  and  a  new  road  tried.  The 
first  letter  of  chin  is  turned  to  S  mak- 
ing Shin,  and  the  connection  is  soon 
made  as  follows : 

Chin 

Shin 

Ship 

Shop 

Shod 

Shed 

Seed 

Heed 

Head 

The  game  of  Doublets  makes  also 
an  interesting  SOLITAIRE  game.  The 
easiest  doublets  to  connect  are  those 
in  which  the  vowels  in  one  corre- 
spond in  position  to  vowels  in  the 
other,  and  consonants  to  consonants. 
The  difficulty  increases  also  with  the 
length  of  the  words. 

Doublets  was  invented  and  named 
by  the  author  of  "  Alice  in  Wonder- 
land," whose  assumed  name  was 
"  Lewis  Carroll."  He  wrote  a  book 
on  the  subject,  giving  many  interest- 
ing examples  of  doublets  connected 


DRAUGHTS  OF  AIR 


266 


DRAUGHTS  OF  AIR 


by  links.  It  is  said,  however,  that  a 
similar  game  was  played  in  this 
country  before  the  appearance  of 
this  book. 

DRAMATICS.  See  PRIVATE 
THEATRICALS. 

DRAUGHTS.    See  CHECKERS. 

DRAUGHTS  OF  AIR,  Experi- 
ments on.  i.  Open  on  a  crack  the 
door  between  a  cold  room  and  a 
warm  one,  and  hold  a  lighted  candle 
at  various  heights,  close  to  the 
crack.  No  windows  must  be  open 
in  either  room.  At  the  top  of  the 
door  the  flame  will  be  blown  toward 
the  cold  room,  and  at  the  bottom 
toward  the  warm  room.  About 
half-way  up  there  will  be  a  place 
where  the  flame  is  blown  very  little, 
or  not  at  all.  The  reason  is  that 
cold  air,  being  heavier  than  warm 
air,  flows  into  the  warm  room  along 
the  floor,  and  forces  the  warm  air 
out  at  the  ceiling.  Instead  of  a 
candle  flame,  smoke  from  what  is 
called  "  touch  paper  "  may  be  used 
to  show  the  direction  of  the  currents. 
Touch  paper  is  made  by  dipping  un- 
glazed  paper  in  a  solution  of  salt- 
petre. When  dry,  it  burns  with 
smoke  but  not  with  flame. 

2.  Cut  in  the  top  of  a  tight  shal- 
low pasteboard  box  two  holes,  each 
about  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  place 
over  each  an  argand  lamp  chimney. 


Experiment  2. 

In  one  hole  stand  a  candle  cut  to 
such  a  length  that  it  will  project 
about  half  an  inch  above  the  top. 
Light  the  candle,  and  then  hold 


burning  touch  paper  over  the  other 
lamp-chimney.  The  smoke,  instead 
of  rising,  will  go  down  one  chimney, 
and  after  it  has  filled  the  box  will 
rise  through  the  other.  The  reason 
is  that  the  burning  candle  makes  a 
draught  up  its  chimney  and  if  the 
box  is  tight  so  that  no  air  can  get  in 
through  cracks,  to  supply  the  place 
of  what  is  going  out,  air  must  come 
down  the  other  chimney. 

3.  Hold  the  hand  tightly  over  the 
chimney  where  the  draught  is  down- 
ward. The  candle  in  the  other 
chimney  will  begin  to  burn  feebly 


Experiment  3. 

and  smoke,  and  will  go  out  if  there 
are  no  cracks  for  air  to  get  in.  The 
reason  air  does  not  get  to  it  down  its 
own  chimney  is  that  the  upward 
draught  there  is  too  strong. 

4.  Another  way  of  trying  Experi- 
ments 2  and  3,  is  to  hang  in  an  ordi- 
nary lamp  chimney  a  partition  cut 
out  of  tin,  shaped  as  in  the  picture. 
The  candle  is  set  a  little  to  one  side 
of  (he  chimney,  and  there  is  then  an 
upward  draught  on  one  side  of  the 
partition,  and  a  downward  draught 
on   the  other.     The  candle  may  be 
put  out  as  in  Experiment  3. 

5.  Bore  several  holes   through  a. 
board,  and  enlarge  some  of  them  at 
one  end  so  that  they  will  be  conical 
in  form.     Suspend  a  square  of  paper, 
by  a  string,  two  or  three  inches  from 
the  board,  and  from  the  other  side 


DRAUGHTS   OF   AIR 


267 


DRAW   POKER 


blow  through  the  holes  at  it.  On 
blowing  through  a  straight  hole,  the 
paper  will  be  carried  back,  but  on 


Experiment  5. 

blowing  through  a  conical  hole  from 
the  small  end,  the  paper  will  hang 


Experiment  6. 

perfectly  still.  If  a  lighted  candle 
be  used  instead  of  the  paper,  the 
flame  will  even  be  directed  toward 


the  board  when  blown  at  through  a 
conical  hole.  The  reason  is,  that 
the  breath  is  kept  together  in  a 
stream  by  the  straight  hole,  whereas 
it  disperses  to  all  sides  in  the  conical 
hole,  and  carries  with  it  some  of  the 
air  on  the  other  side  of  the  board  so 

I  that  a  slight  return  current  is  caused. 

I  This  principle  is  used  in  ventilating 
rooms  where  it  is  desirable  to  avoid 
a  direct  draught. 

6.  Cut  out  a  spiral  like  the  one  de- 
scribed in  the  article  FOURTH  OF 
JULY,  and  suspend  it  over  a  lamp 


Experiment  7. 

as  shown  in  the  illustration.  The 
up-rush  of  hot  air  will  cause  it  to 
twirl. 

7.  A  wheel  cut  out  of  paper  in  the 
shape  shown  above  will  also  twirl  in 
a  draught  of  hot  air,  or  when  fanned 
as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

DRAW  POKER,  a  game  of  cards, 
played  by  from  two  to  six  persons, 
with  a  full  pack.  Five  cards  are 
dealt  to  each,  one  at  a  time,  and  then 
each  in  turn,  beginning  at  the  deal- 
er's left,  may  discard  any  or  all  of 
these,  and  call  for  as  many  new  ones 
as  he  discards,  which  the  dealer 
must  give  him  from  the  top  of  the 


DRAW   POKER 


268 


DRAW   POKER 


stock.  This  is  called  drawing.  The 
player  who  holds  in  his  hand  the 
highest  group  of  cards,  after  draw- 
ing, is  the  winner. 

The  groups  are  as  follows,  begin- 
ning with  the  lowest : 


* 

4*4 

+  *  + 
4*4 


i.  A  Pair.  Two  cards  of  the 
same  rank  (accompanied,  of  course, 
by  three  other  cards,  as  each  player 
holds  five). 


2.    Two  Pairs   (accompanied   by 
one  other  card). 


X 

' 

4.  4. 

*    * 


O     0 


3.  Three  of  a  Kind,  or  a  Triplet. 
Three  cards  of  the  same  rank  (with 
two  other  cards). 


S0 

*** 

0    0 

*  + 

0     0 

+** 

o    o 
o0o 

0°0 

o   o 


:*: 
:*: 


4.  A  Straight.  Five  cards  in  regu- 
lar order,  not  all  of  the  same  suit. 
In  counting  straights,  the  ace  ranks 
either  below  the  Two  or  above  the 
King,  but  must  stand  at  the  end. 
Queen,  King,  Ace,  Two,  Three  is, 
therefore,  not  a  straight. 


*«* 

0    0 
0     0 


o    o 


5.  A   Flush.    Five   cards   of   the 
same  suit,  not  in  regular  order. 


6.  A  Full  House,  Full  Hand,  or 
full.  Triplets  and  a  Pair  together. 


*    * 

4* 
^. 


O     0 


o   <:> 


4  4 
4.4 
4*4 
4  4 


7.  Four  of  a  Kind. 


*** 

*** 

*    4- 

8.  A  Straight  Flush.  A  Straight, 
with  cards  all  of  the  same  suit. 

When  Straights  are  not  counted, 
as  is  very  rarely  the  case,  a  Straight 
Flush  ranks  as  a  common  Flush,  and 
is  beaten  by  a  Full  and  by  Fours. 
Of  two  groups  of  the  same  kind, 


9 

-      4 

*    * 

<? 

*    4 

<? 

4     4 

*    4 

BEATS 


+*+ 

*4.* 

*** 


4     4 


that  containing  the  highest  card  is 
the  higher,  If  the  two  highest  cards 
are  the  same,  then  the  next  to  the 
highest  decide  the  rank,  and  so  on. 
If  the  groups  be  exactly  the  same, 
the  other  cards  of  the  hand  deter- 
mine which  shall  win.  When  there 
is  no  group,  the  hand  having  the 


highest  card  wins,  if  the  two  highest 
are  the  same  ;  then  two  next  highest, 
etc. 

The  score  in  Poker  is  kept  with 
counters,  or  "chips,"  usually  round, 
flat  pieces  of  ivory  or  bone.  There 


DRAW   POKER 


269 


DRAW   POKER 


are  several  methods,  but  the  follow- 
ing is  the  simplest : 

At  the  beginning  of  the  game,  the 
counters  are  divided  equally  among 
the  players.  Each,  before  looking  at 
his  hand,  must  put  in  the  middle  of 
the  table  a  number  of  counters,  agreed 


O     0 

0     0 

o 

0 

0 

o°o 

?0? 

0 

O  /s  v 

0     O 

0     O 

o 

0 

BEATS 

* 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*** 

*4.4> 

X 

*** 

A     A 

*   * 
* 
*  * 

on  beforehand,  and  which  is  the 
same  for  each  hand  during  the  game. 
This  is  called  the  "ante"  (Latin 
ante,  before),  and  the  antes  together 
form  the  pool.  When  the  drawing 
is  finished,  the  eldest  hand  may 
either  say,  "  I  stay  out,"  in  which 
case  he  takes  no  further  part  -in  the 
hand,  or.  he  may  place  any  number 
of  counters,  up  to  a  limit  agreed  on 
before  the  game, commences,  in  the 
pool;  more  or  less  according  to  the 
_strengttj  of  his  hand^.  This  is  called 
lii$  "bet."  The  player"  at  his  left 
'jnay  stay  out,  .or  he  may  place  in  the 
'pool  the  same  number  of  chips  as 
nis  neighbor  (which  is  called  "  see- 


BEATS 


"A  pair  of  Kings. 


A  pair  of  Tens. 


ing"),  or  he  may  put  in  more  (which 
is   called  "raising"  or  "  going  bet- 
ter ").     The  third   piayer   may  stay 
•out,  see*  or  raise  the  second  player, 
and  so  on,  with  each  in  turn,   one 
.or  more  times  around, 'either-  till  all 
*  but  one  of  the  players  stay  out, .when 
~*that  one  takes  the  pool  without-show- 
•ing  his  hand,  or  till'  all  the4  playe-rs 
in  the  game   have  "seen  "  the  one 
1  'that  raised  last.     In  the  latter  case, 
they  are  said   to  "  call "  the  player 
that  made  the  last  raise  (or  the  eldest 


hand,  if  no  raise  was  made),  who 
must  then  show  his  hand.  If  none 
of  the  others  has  a  better  hand,  they 
let  him  take  the  pool  without  show- 
ing their  hands ;  otherwise  the  higher 
hands  are  shown  and  the  winner 
takes  the  pool.  The  game  may  be 
played  a  certain  length  of  time,  and 
when  it  is  over  he  wins  that  has 
most  counters. 

Sometimes  they  who  wish  cards 
in  the  beginning  of  the  game  are  re- 
quired to  add  to  their  antes.  Some- 
times "the  players  also  make  bets 
before  they  have  drawn.  Sometimes 
the  ante  is  large  or  small,  as  the 
eldest  hand  chooses.  A  common 
method  is  to  require  each  to  ante 
twice  as  much  as  the  eldest  hand, 
who  makes  good  the  rest  of  the  ante 
at  his  next  turn,  unless  he  stays  out. 

A  player  often  bets  high  on  a 
weak  hand,,  in  hope  that  the  others, 
thinking  he  has  a  strong  one,  will 
prefer  to  stay  out.  This  is  called 
"bluffing."  -It  is  often  possible  to 
detect  a  bluff- by  watching  a  player's 
expression,  unless  he  be -very  skillful 
at  concealing  his  thoughts.  The 
only  part  of  Poker  in- which  skill  can 
be  shown  is  in  discarding.  If  a  pair 
is  dealt  to  a  player,  he  should  gener- 
ally discard  the  other  three  cards, 
hoping  to  dra~w  another  of  the  same 
kind.  If  he  hold  four  of  a  suit,  he 
should  often  discard  the  fifth,  hoping 
for -a  Flush.  By  noticing  how  many 
cards  a  player  calls  for,  some  idea 
may  often  be  gained  of  the  strength 
of  his  hand. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  If  any  player  be  given  more  or 
less  -than  five  cards  there  must  be  a 
new   deal,   provided  the  mistake  is 
noticed  before  -that  player  looks  at 
his-handi  otherwise,  the.deal  is  good, 
and  the  player  whose  hand  is  .wrong 
must  stay  out.- 

2.  A41  the  players   must   discard 
before  cards  are  given  to  any  one. 

3.  Discarded  cards  must  be  piled 
face  downward  in*  front  ofthe  next 
dealer,  and  must  not  be  touched. 

4.  If  any  player  be  given   more 


DRIVING 


270 


DRIVING 


cards  than  he  asked  for,  the  dealer 
must  draw  one  of  them  and  return 
it  to  the  stock ;  but  if  the  player  look 
at  his  hand  before  noticing  the  mis- 
take, he  must  stay  out. 

History.  Poker  is  derived  from 
Primero  or  Prime,  one  of  the  oldest 
card  games,  which  was  a  favorite  as 
early  as  1500.  It  was  played  in  vari- 
ous ways,  but  generally  four  cards 
were  dealt  to  each  player,  and  the 
principal  groups  were  Flush,  Prime, 
and  Point.  '  Flush  was  the  same  as 
in  Poker,  Prime  was  one  card  of 
each  suit,  and  Point  was  reckoned 
as  in  PlQUEl\  but  with  different 
values  for  the  cards.  When  a  player 
"raised  the  ante"  he  Was  said  to 
"vye."  Shakespeare  represents  King 
Henry  VIII.  as  playing  Primero  with 
the  Duke  of  Suffolk.  Primero  was 
elaborated  in  France,  in  the  I7th  cen- 
tury, into  Ambigu,  in  which  the 
Straight,  the  Straight  Flush,  Four  of 
a  kind,  and  Three  of  a  kind,  were  in- 
troduced. About  this  time  a  game 
called  Post  and  Pair,  derived  from 
Primero,  was  played  in  the  west  of 
England,  and  from  this  came  Brag, 
on  which  Hoyle  wrote  a  treatise  in 
1751.  In  the  game  of  Brag  each 
player  said  "  I  brag,"  as  he  raised 
another  player.  Our  Poker  is  siniply 
the  English  Brag  with  variations. 

DRIVING.  The  beginner  should 
practice  with  a  single  horse.  The 
driver  in  America  sits  on  the  right 
side  of  the  vehicle,  and  if  entering 
from  the  left  should  get  in  before  his 
companion  to  avoid  passing  over  or 
under  the  reins,  which  should  always 
be  in  some  one's  hands  unless  an  at- 
tendant be  at  the  horse's  head. 

The  horse  should  always  be  re- 
strained from  moving  off  Until  the 
driver  gives  him  an  indication  to 
start.  Many  horses  acquire  the 
habit  of  starting  when  they  hear  any 
one  get  into  the  vehicle,  from  being 
struck  with  the  whip  by  the  driver 
as  soon  as  he  starts»  The  horse, 
expecting  the  lash,  starts  up  to 
avoid  it.  To  drive  in  the  English 
style  the  driver  should  hold  the 


reins  in  his  left  hand,  leaving  the 
right  free  to  hold  the  whip  or  to 
assist  in  turning  or  guiding  the  horse, 
or  when  a  strong  pull  is  necessary. 
The  right  rein,  D,  should  be  held  be- 
tween the  first  and  second,  or  second 
and  third  fingers,  and  the  left,  N,  be- 
tween the  forefinger  and  thumb,  the 
ends  passing  through  the  palm  of  the 
hand  under  the  fingers.  (See  Fig.  i») 
The  knuckles  of  the  hand  should 
be  turned  to  the  left,  The  horse  is 
guided  by  pulling  the  rein  on  the  side 
toward  which  he  is  to  turn,  which 
may  be  doiie  by  twisting  the  hand 
Up  Or  down,  or  by  pulling  the  re- 
quired rein  with  the  right  hand, 

The  reins  should  be  held  short 
enough  to  enable  the  driver  to  check 
the  horse  quickly  without  leaning 


fa"r  back  or  taking  a  fresh  hold,  but 
not  so  short  that  he  is  obliged  to 
lean  too  far  forward  or  extend  his 
arm  awkwardly.  The  left  elbow 
should  be  held  Well  back  and  low 
down  and  the  arm  allowed  to  play 
lightly  from  the  shoulder.  The  right 
hand  is  used  to  hold  the  whip  and  to 
steady  and  guide  the  horse.  It  is 
best  for  the  driver  to  sit  high,  .for 
this  enables  him  to  give  a  steady  pull 
on  the  reins  when  necessary.  To 
make  the  horse  go  faster,  he  should 
be  encouraged  with  the  voice,  the 
Whip  being  used  only  when  neces- 
sary. The  use  of  the  whip  depends 
a  great* deal  on  the  horse;  some  ani- 
mals will  not  bear  it  at  all,  while 
others  cart  Scarcely  be  made  to  go 
Without  it.  Some  horses'  Will  go  best 
With  a  tight  rein,  and  some  with  a 
loose  one ;  but  the  driver  should 


DRIVING 


271 


DRIVING 


always  "feel"  the  horse's  mouth. 
To  stop  a  horse  the  word  "  whoa ! " 
is  generally  used,  the  driver  at  the 
same  time  pulling  steadily  on  the 
reins.  All  sudden  starts  and  stops 
should  be  avoided,  as  the  result  is  to 
give  those  in  the  vehicle  an  un- 
pleasant jerk. 

Driving  a  Pain  The  horse  on  the 
right  is  called  the  off  horse  and  the 
one  to  the  left  the  near  horse.  These 
terms  arose  from  the  custom  of  the 
driver's  walking  on  the  left  hand 
side  of  his  team,  whence  the  left 
horse  was  near  him  and  the  right 
one  farther  off.  Most  of  what  has 
been  said  above  applies  also  to  driv- 
ing a  pair,  but  in  addition  the  driver 
must  see  that  each  horse  does  his 
share  of  the  work,  as  some  horses 
have  a  habit  of  shirking.  The  driver 
should  watch  the  traces,  and,  if  he 
sees  that  one  of  the  team  keeps  his 
side  loose,  while  the  other's  are  tight, 
the  offender  should  be  touched  with 
the  whip. 

Driving  Tandem.  Two  or  more 
horses  are  sometimes  driven  one  in 
front  of  the  other.  The  forward 
horse  in  this  case  is  called  the  leader, 
and  the  one  next  the  carriage  the 
wheeler.  A  horse,  to  make  a  good 
leader,  must  be  specially  trained, 
otherwise  he  is  apt  to  step  over  the 
traces  or  to  turn  around  and  face 
the  wheel-horse.  Tandem  driving 
is  the  most  difficult  kind  and  should 
not  be  attempted  by  a  beginner. 

Four-in-Hand.  Fig.  2  shows  the 
method  of  holding  the  reins  in  driv- 
ing four-in-hand.  N  L  is  the  near 
leader's  rein,  O  L  is  the  off  leader's, 
N  W  the  near  wheeler's,  and  O  W 
the  off  wheeler's.  Directions  for 
driving  four-in-hand  cannot  easily  be 
given  in  print,  but  showing  the 
method  of  holding  the  reins  may  be 
worth  while.  The  guiding  and 
steadying  is  done  with  the  right 
hand  as  in  pair  horse  driving. 

Rule  of  the  Road.  When  two 
vehicles  meet,  each  turns  to  the 
right.  In  England  the  rule  is  to 
turn  to  the  left,  thus  giving  the  driver 


who  sits  on  the  right  a  full  view  of 
the  vehicle  he  passes,  so  as  to  avoid 
collision.  It  may  be  that  the  opposite 
rule  was  adopted  in  America  because 
when  the  country  was  newly  settled, 
the  roads  were  narrow  and  poor,  so 
that  it  was  more  necessary  for  the 
driver  to  see  to  his  outer  wheels  than 
his  inner.  It  is  always  better  for 
a  beginner  to  turn  too  soon  rather 
than  to  wait,  for  sometimes  the 
vehicles  are  approaching  each  other 
faster  than  he  thinks.  If  one  of  the 
drivers  sees  that  the  spot  where  the 
vehicles  are  likely  to  meet  is  bad  for 
passing,  he  should  stop  at  the  right 
side  of  the  road,  and  the  other  should 
then  drive  quickly  past  him,  so  that 
he  will  have  to  wait  as  short  a  time 
as  possible.  Care  must  be  taken  in 
turning  corners,  or  in  passing  a  cross- 
road, lest  there  be  a  collision.  When 
a  vehicle  is  overtaken,  it  should  be 
passed  to  the  left,  unless  it  is  a 
heavily  laden  wagon  on  the  left  of 
the  road,  and  no  other  vehicle  is  ap- 
proaching, when  it  may  be  passed  on 
the  right.  If  a  vehicle  overtake 
another  in  a  narrow  road,  the  for- 
ward one  should  either  keep  ahead, 
or,  if  the  driver  does  not  wish  to  do 
so,  he  should  turn  to  the  right  and 


let  the  other  pass.  If  he  does  neither, 
the  one  in  the  rear  should  call  to  him 
and  ask  him  politely  to  do  one  or  the 
other. 

Accidents.  Collisions  will  usually 
be  avoided  if  the  above  directions  are 
followed.  The  other  common  acci- 
dents are  runaways,  and  the  giving 
way  of  some  part  of  the  harness. 


DRIVING 


272    DROP  THE  HANDKERCHIEF 


The  reader  is  referred  to  what  is  said 
of  runaways  in  the  article  on  RIDING. 
When  a  horse  runs  it  is  usually  safer 
to  remain  in  the  vehicle  than  to  jump 


out ;  many  more  people  have  been 
injured  by  the  latter  than  by  the 
former  course.  If  a  horse  acts  un~ 
easy  or  stops  without  apparent  rea- 


son,  it  is  very  likely  that  something  is 
the  matter  with  the  harness.  In  such 
a  case  the  driver  should  alight  at  once 
and  see  what  the  matter  is.  If  the 


harness  breaks,  it  may  usually  be 
fastened  with  twine,  so  that  it  will 
hold  till  he  can  drive  home,  or  if 


not  to  be  had  the  check  rein  may  be 
taken  off  and  utilized,  or  the  throat 
lash  even  may  be  useful. 

Figs.  3  and  4  show  two  curiosi- 
ties of  driving,  the  first  a  proposed 
vehicle  where  the  horse  is  beneath 
the  cart ;  the  second  a  proposed 
chaise  to  be  run  by  a  spring  or  other 
motor  attached  to  the  rear  wheels. 

DROP  THE  HANDKERCHIEF,  a 
game  played  by  any  number  of  chil- 
dren, who  stand  in  a  ring,  facing 
inward.  One  of  the  boys,  chosen  for 
the  purpose,  walks  or  runs  around 
the  outside  of  the  ring,  holding  a 
handkerchief  in  his  hand,  which  he 
drops  behind  some  girl.  As  soon  as 
she  sees  it,  she  must  pick  it  up  and 
run  after  him.  If  she  catches  him, 
they  kiss,  and  she  returns  the  hand- 
kerchief for  him  to  drop  again ;  but 


DUCHESS   OF    LUYNES 


273 


DUCK   AND   DRAKE 


if  he  can  make  the  circuit  of  the  ring 
and  stand  in  the  space  she  left,  she 
must  take  his  place.  She  then  drops 
the  handkerchief  behind  some  boy, 
who  runs  after  her,  and  the  game 
goes  on  as  before,  a  girl  always  drop- 
ping the  handkerchief  behind  a  boy, 
and  a  boy  behind  a  girl.  The  player 
who  drops  the  handkerchief  may  run 
around  the  circle  in  either  way,  and 
the  one  behind  whom  it  is  dropped 
must  always  follow  in  the  same 
direction.  Sometimes  a  player  does 
not  see  that  the  handkerchief  is  lying 
behind  him,  in  which  case  the  drop- 
per simply  runs  around  the  circle, 
picks  up  the  handkerchief,  and  hand-  ] 
ing  it  to  him,  takes  his  place.  No 
player  may  tell  another,  by  word  or 
sign,  that  the  handkerchief  is  lying 
behind  him.  The  player  who  drops 
the  handkerchief  sometimes  says,  as 
he  runs  around  the  circle, 
"  I  dropped  my  handkerchief  yester- 
day, 

I  found  it  to-day, 

I  list  it,  I  lost  it, 

I  threw  it  away." 
DUCHESS  OF  LUYNES,  a  SOLI- 
TAIRE game  of  CARDS,  played  with 
two  packs.  The  first  four  cards 
dealt  from  the  pack  are  placed  in  a 
row,  face  upward,  and  the  fifth  and 
sixth  are  laid  aside  to  form  Stock. 
Four  more  are  laid  on  the  first  four, 
and  two  more  in  the  Stock,  and  so  on 
till  the  pack  is  used.  The  player's 
object  is  to  form  eight  piles  of  fami- 
lies, downward  from  four  Kings,  and 
upward  from  four  Aces,  following 
suit.  For  this  purpose  the  top  card 
of  any  pile  may  be  used  in  course  of 
play,  or  the  top  card  of  the  Stock. 
But  when  the  top  card  of  a  pile  is 
used,  its  place  is  not  supplied  from 
the  pack,  the  next  card  being  placed 
where  it  would  have  been  if  the  pre- 
ceding had  not  been  used.  When 
the  pack  is  exhausted,  the  Stock  can 
twice  be  shuffled  and  relaid,  and  then 
Stock  and  piles  can  be  shuffled  and 
relaid  in  four  piles, omitting  the  Stock. 
DUCK,  or  DUCK  ON  THE  ROCK, 
a  game  played  by  any  nunlber  of 


persons,  each  with  a  stone,  about  the 
size  of  a  man's  two  fists,  called  a 
Duck.  One  of  the  players,  chosen 
by  lot,  places  his  Duck  on  a  stone 
with  a  smooth  top,  and  stands  near 
it,  while  the  others  take  their  position 
behind  a  line  eight  or  ten  yards  dis- 
tant, and  try  to  knock  it  off  with 
their  Ducks,  each  in  turn.  As  soon 
as  each  has  thrown  his  Duck,  he 
runs  up  to  it  and  watches  his  chance 
to  carry  it  back  to  the  line.  If  the 
one  whose  Duck  is  on  the  rock  can 
touch  any  of  the  others  while  carry- 
ing back  his  Duck,  before  he  reaches 
the  line,  the  one  so  caught  must  take 
the  catcher's  place,  putting  his  own 
Duck  on  the  rock.  But  if  the  Duck 
is  knocked  from  the  rock,  its  owner 
must  replace  it  before  he  can  touch 
any  one. 

In  playing  this  game,  if  the  owner 
of  the  Duck  on  the  rock  is  skillful,  he 
can  often  keep  three  or  four  of  the 
other  players  out  of  the  game  by 
preventing  them  from  picking  up 
their  Ducks.  In  this  case  the  only 
means  of  relief  is  for  some  one  to 
strike  the  Duck  from  the  rock,  for 
then  its  owner  is  helpless  till  he  has 
put  it  back. 

Emperor,  a  kind  of  Duck,  in  which 
a  wooden  figure  called  the  Emperor 
is  placed  on  the  top  of  a  post  about 
1 8  inches  high.  A  player  called  the 
Prime  Minister  stands  near  it.  The 
;  .other  players  have  each  a  wooden 
ball  like  a  croquet  ball.  The  game 
j  is  played  exactly  like  Duck,  the  play- 
j  ers  trying  to  knock  the  Emperor  off 
|  his  post  by  throwing  or  pitching  balls 
at  him.  The  game  can  be  continued 
for  a  specified  time,  at  the  end  of 
which  he  who  has  been  Prime  Min- 
ister the  least  number  of  times,  or 
has  hit  the  Emperor  the  greatest 
number  of  times,  is  victor. 

DUCK  AND  DRAKE,  or  Skipping 
Stones,  a  game  played  by  any  num- 
ber of  persons,  each  of  whom  throws 
a  flat  stone  into  the  water  so  that  it 
will  rebound.  He  whose  stone  skips 
the  greatest  number  of  times  is  the 
winner.  The  stone  should  be  held 


DWARF 


274 


EARL  OF  COVENTRY 


between  thumb  and  forefinger  and 
given  a  slight  whirling  motion  so 
that  it  will  strike  the  water  with  its 
flat  side  and  not  edgewise.  The 
Greek  boys  played  this  game  with 
flat  shells  or  pieces  of  tile,  and  called 
it  epostraktsmos  (Tile  Skipping).  In 
English,  "  to  play  at  ducks  and 
drakes,"  has  come  to  mean  spend- 
ing one's  money  extravagantly. 

DUMBBELLS.  See  GYMNASTICS. 

DUMB  CRAMBO.    See  CRAMBO. 

DWARF,  THE,  an  amusement 
in  which  two  persons  take  part. 
One  of  them  stands  behind  a  table 
and  places  his  hands  on  it,  while  the 
other  stands  behind  the  first  and 
passes  his  arms  around  him  as  in 
Fig.  i.  The  head  and  body  of  the 
second  person  and  the  legs  of  the 
first  are  hidden  by  curtains,  which 
is  easily  managed  if  the  table  be 
placed  in  a  doorway.  Shoes  are 


Fig.  i. 

then  placed  on  the  hands  of  the 
first  player,  and  a  •  child's  trousers, 
or  kilt  skirt  over  his  arms.  A 
jacket  is  put  on  over  his  shoulders 


and  the  arms  of  the  hidden  player, 
and  an  excellent  imitation  of  a  dwarf 
is  thus  formed.  (Fig  2.)  The  face 
should  be  disguised  as  much  as  pos- 


Fig.  2. 

sible,  and  the  dwarf  may  be  dressed 
fantastically  to  represent  a  Turk  or 
Moor.  A  third  person  should  act 
the  part  of  exhibitor,  giving  a  comic 
account  of  the  dwarf's  history.  The 
dwarf  may  deliver  a  speech,  appro- 
priate gestures  being  made  by  the 
player  who  furnishes  the  arms.  The 
gestures  are  apt  to  be  ludicrous,  as 
the  second  player  usually  has  trouble 
in  fitting  his  action  to  the  words  of 
the  first.  The  dwarf  can  dance  and 
perform  many  remarkable  feats, 
such  as  rubbing  his  head  with  his  toe, 
or  putting  both  feet  in  his  mouth  at 
once. 


E 


EARL  OF  COVENTRY,  THE,  a 

game  of  CARDS,  played  with  a  full 
pack.  All  the  cards  are  dealt.  The 
eldest  hand  leads  any  card  he 


chooses,  saying  "There's  a  good 
King,"  or  "  There's  a  good  five"  (or 
whatever  card  it  may  be).  The 
next  player  to  the  left  who  has  a 


EARS 


275 


EASTER   EGGS 


card  of  the  same  rank  plays  it  saying 
"  There's  another  good  as  he."  The 
third  and  fourth  are  then  played  in 
like  manner,  with  the  words  : 
"There's  the  best  of  all  the  three," 
and  "  There's  the  Earl  of  Coventry." 
The  player  of  the  fourth  card  leads, 
and  so  the  game  goes  on,  the  player 
who  first  gets  rid  of  all  his  cards 
being  the  winner. 

EARS,  Experiments  with  the.  i. 
Let  one  person  be  blindfolded  and 
sit  in  a  chair,  folding  his  arms.  Let 
another  hold  two  coins  between  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  right 
hand,  and  put  the  left  forefinger  be- 
tween them  so  that  they  will  click 
together  when  the  finger  is  suddenly 
pulled  out.  Let  him  thus  make  a 
click  in  various  places  near  the 
blindfolded  person,  while  the  latter 
guesses  the  direction  from  which 
the  sound  comes.  It  will  be  found 
that  he  can  tell  easily  so  long  as  the 
sound  is  nearer  one  ear  than  the 
other,  but  whenever  it  is  made  in 
any  spot  equally  distant  from  both, 
he  cannot  tell  where  it  is. 

2,  Tie  about  three  feet  of  twine  at 
the  middle  to  the  knob  of  a  poker. 
Twirl  the  ends  of  the  twine  around 
the  forefingers,  and  stop  up  the  ears 
with  these  fingers.     If  the  swinging 
poker  be  knocked  against  the  wall, 
or  struck  with  anything,  the  person 
holding  it  will  hear  deep  tones  like 
those  of  a  bell.    If  a  silver  table  spoon 
be  used  instead  of  a  poker,  the  sound 
of  a  higher-toned  bell  will  be  imitated. 

3.  Have     a    tinman     solder   two 
pieces  of  iron  wire 

to  two  disks  of 
tin,  a,  b,  each  large 
enough  to  cover  the 
ear,  in  the  shape 
shown  in  the  pic- 
ture. When  the 
disks  are  pressed  to 
the  ears  and  the 
point  c,  where  the 
wires  join,  is  ap- 
plied to  any  sound- 
ing body,  the  sound  will  be  much 
magnified. 


Experiment  3. 


4.  Let  one  person  hold  to  his  ears 
the  ends  of  a  piece  of  waxed  thread 
six  or  eight  feet  long.  Let  a  second 
person  hold  the  thread  stretched  by 
its  middle  point  and  taking  the  two 
parts  of  the  thread  together  between 
his  thumb  and  forefinger,  near  the 
others'  face,  rub  them  along,  keep- 
ing the  thread  taut.  The  result  will 
be  a  sound  like  thunder  in  the  ears 
of  the  first-named  person.  If  the 
rubbing  be  with  jerks,  and  some- 
times done  with  the  finger-nail,  the 
sound  of  short,  cracking  thunder 
will  be  imitated. 

EASTER  EGGS,  colored  and  or- 
namented eggs,  used  as  presents  or 
playthings  at  Easter.  The  eggs, 
called  also  pasque,  pace,  or  paas 
eggs,  are  usually  colored  by  being 
boiled  in  dye,  of  which  various  colors 
may  be  bought  at  any  druggist's. 

An  egg  may  be  colored  also  in  a 
pretty  pattern  by  sewing  it  up 
tightly  and  smoothly  in  a  piece  of 
common  calico,  and  then  boiling  it. 
If  the  calico  be  not  of  fast  colors,  the 
pattern  will  be  reproduced  on  the 
egg  shell.  Eggs  too  may  be  gilded 
by  painting  them  over  with  gum  or 
varnish  and  then  laying  on  gold  leaf. 
The  "  gold  paint "  sold  by  druggists 
will  produce  a  similar  effect  though 
not  so  brilliant.  Colored  eggs  may 
be  ornamented  by  drawing  designs 
on  them  with  tallow,  or  any  greasy 
substance,  before  boiling.  The  dye 
will  not  color  the  parts  touched  by 
t^e  grease,  and  the  design  will  there- 
fore appear  in  white.  More  delicate 
designs  may  be  drawn  by  scratching 
with  the  point  of  a  needle,  or  the 
blade  of  a  penknife,  after  the  egg 
has  been  dyed.  If  the  eggs  are 
boiled  hard,  they  may  be  kept  any 
length  of  time.  If  preferred,  the 
eggs  may  be  "  blown  "  before  they 
are  dyed.  This  is  done  by  making 
a  small  hole  in  each  end,  applying 
the  mouth  to  one  of  them,  and  blow- 
ing the  contents  of  the  egg  out  of  the 
other.  The  tallow  design  should  be 
drawn  before  blowing,  that  the  shell 
may  not  be  broken,  and  care  must 


EASTER   EGGS 


276 


EASTER   EGGS 


be  taken  not  to  crush  it  in  dyeing. 
Egg  shells  may  be  engraved  by 
drawing  designs  on  them  with  melted 
wax,  or  varnish,  and  then  dipping 
them  in  strong  vinegar.  The  vinegar 
will  eat  away  the  shell  except  where 
it  is  protected  by  the  wax,  and  when 
the  wax  or  varnish  is  removed,  the 
design  will  be  in  relief.  Wax  can 
be  removed  by  scraping  ;  varnish  by 
washing  with  alcohol.  If  the  egg  be 
dyed  before  removing  the  wax,  the 
design  will  be  in  raised  white  lines  on 
a  low  colored  ground.  In  this  case 


the  vinegar  must  be  washed  off  be- 
fore dyeing. 

The  eggs  may  also  be  decorated 
by  pasting  little  pictures,  such  as 
may  be  bought  at  toy  stores,  over 
the  shells,  and  the  eggs,  when  fin- 
ished, may  be  placed  in  little  nests 
of  moss  and  twigs.  They  are  some- 
times served  in  a  tin  pan  filled  with 
sand,  in  which  the  eggs  are  buried. 
This  is  often  called  an  "  ostrich 
nest."  Blown  eggs  may  be  strung 
on  ribbons  and  hung  up  for  orna- 
ments. One  way  of  playing  with  the 


Quaint  Easter  Eggs. 


eggs  is  for  some  one  to  hide  them  in 
different  parts  of  the  house  on  the 
evening  before  Easter,  and  for  the 
rest  of  the  family  to  look  for  them. 
They  become  the  property  of  those 
who  find  them. 

In  some  parts  of  England  and 
Holland,  and  in  many  places  in  this 
country,  especially  the  parts  settled 
by  the  Dutch,  the  cracking  of  pasque 
eggs  is  a  common  sport  on  Easter 
Monday.  One  person  holds  his  egg, 
the  small  end  upward,  in  his  hand, 
and  lets  another  try  to  break  it  by 
striking  his  downward  upon  it.  Af- 


ter several  taps,  one  generally  breaks  ; 
the  cracked  one  belongs  to  the  victor, 
who  keeps  on  trying  other  eggs  until 
his  own  is  broken.  A  small,  sharp- 
pointed  egg  is  generally  best  for  this 
sport,  and  sometimes  one  egg  will 
break  a  dozen  others  before  giving 
way  itself.  In  Washington,  in  the 
White  House  grounds,  children  play 
games  with  their  Easter  eggs  by 
rolling  them  down  hill.  Two  roll 
their  eggs  together,  and  he  whose 
egg  is  unbroken  takes  the  other,  if  it 
is  cracked.  Sometimes  several  thou- 
sand children  play  thus  at  one  time. 


EASTER   EGGS 


277 


ECARTE" 


Egg-rolling  on  Easter  is  also  com- 
mon in  Germany,  where  tracks  of 
sticks,  laid  side  by  side,  are  made  for 
the  eggs.  The  sport  begins  at  mid- 
night on  Easter-even,  and  lasts  till 
about  three  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing. Not  only  eggs,  but  apples  also, 
and  little  cakes,  are  used.  In  Bohe- 
mia, children  roll  many  eggs  in  a 
row,  letting  them  start  all  at  once,  to 
see  which  will  reach  the  bottom  of 
the  hill  soonest.  In  the  north  of 
England,  Easter  eggs  are  also  played 
with  like  balls,  by  tossing  them  up  in 
the  air. 

In  Germany  a  number  of  eggs  are 
placed  in  a  basket  and  one  person 
tosses  them,  one  by  one,  into  another 
basket  filled  with  soft  shavings,  while 
another  runs  to  a  spot  agreed  on, 
and  back  again.  He  who  does  his 
task  the  sooner  wins  the  eggs. 

In  Ireland,  the  game  we  call  "  Go 
BANG  "  is  played  by  sticking  eggs  in 
the  sand.  It  is  there  called  "  Bunch- 
ing Eggs." 

Easter  eggs  are  sometimes  dressed 
as  dolls,  faces  being  marked  or 
painted  on  them.  They  may  be 
made  also  into  other  quaint  shapes, 
(see  illustration).  Artificial  Easter 
eggs,  some  of  them  large  and  filled 
with  candies,  may  be  bought  at  con- 
fectioners. 

History.  The  custom  of  Easter 
eggs  is  very  old,  and  is  thought  by 
some  writers  to  be  derived  from  the 
ancient  Egyptians,  who  regarded 
eggs  as  a  sacred  emblem  of  the  re- 
newal of  mankind  after  the  Del- 
uge. The  early  Christians  seem  to 
have  regarded  eggs  as  symbols  of 
the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  since 
the  chicken  escapes  from  the  shell  as 
from  a  tomb.  In  old  times  as  many 
as  twenty  dozen  richly  decorated 
eggs  were  piled  on  one  dish  and 
kept  on  the  table  during  Easter 
week.  Every  one  who  came  to  the 
house  was  invited  to  eat  an  Easter 
egg  with  the  host,  and  it  was  con- 
sidered impolite  to  refuse.  In  Spain 
and  Italy  public  sports  with  eggs 
formed  part  of  the  Easter  festivities. 


In  Russia,  people  call  on  their  friends 
on  Easter,  as  we  do.  on  New  Year's 
Day,-. and  exchange  eggs  with  them. 
In  Persia,  a  festival  of  eggs  is  cele- 
brated on  New  Year's  Day. 

ECARTE  (a-car-tay),  a  game  of 
CARDS  played  by  two  persons,  with 
a  EUCHRE  pack.  The  cards  rank  as 
usual,  except  that  the  Ace  comes  be- 
tween the  Knave  and  the  Ten,  in- 
stead of  above  the  King.  Five 
cards  are  dealt  to  each  player,  three 
and  two,  or  two  and  three  at  a  time, 
and  the  top  card  of  the  stock  is 
turned  up  as  trump.^  Should  it  be  a 
King  the  dealer  scores  one.  If  the 
non-dealer  is  satisfied  with  his  hand, 
he  leads  at  once  ;.  if  not,  he  says,  "  I 
propose,"  or  sometimes,  "  Cards," 
meaning  that  he  wishes  to  exchange 
part  or  all  of  his  hand.  The  dealer 
may  say  "  I  refuse,"  in  which  case 
play  begins,  or  he  may  say  "  I  ac- 
cept," and  then  each  lays  aside  as 
many  cards,  face  downward,  as  .he 
wishes  to  exchange.  Putting  aside 
the  trump,  the  dealer  first  gives  his 
opponent  as  many  cards  from  the 
stock  as  he  has  discarded,  and  then 
does  the  same  to  himself.  If  the 
non-dealer  is  still  dissatisfied,  he 
may  propose  again  and  again,  until 
he  gets  a  hand  that  suits  him  or 
until  the  dealer  refuses. 

Before  play  begins,  if  either 
player  holds  the  king  of  trumps,  he 
says  "  King"  and  scores  one  point. 
The  non-dealer  now  leads,  and  the 
cards  are  played,  suit  being  followed 
if  possible.  The  second  player  in  a 
trick  must  always  win  it  if  he  can, 
and,  if  he  can  do  so  in  no  other  way, 
he  must  trump. 

The  player  who  wins  either  three 
or  four  tricks  is  said  to  gain  the 
point,  and  scores  one.  If  he  win  all 
five,  he  gains  the  vole  and  scores 
two.  If  the  elder  hand  play  without 
proposing  and  fail  to  gain  his  point 
his  opponent  scores  two,  whether  he 
make  point  or  vole.  In  like  manner, 
if  the  dealer  refuse,  and  fail  to  gain 
his  point,  his  opponent  scores  two. 
This  applies  only  to  the  first  pro- 


£CAKT£ 


278 


posal  and  refusal  of  a  hand.  After 
one  discard  there  is  no  penalty  for 
playing  without  further  proposal  or 
for  refusing  a  second  proposal.  He 
who  first  makes  five  points  wins  the 
game. 

The  hands  which  should  be 
played  without  proposal  are  called 
Jeux  de  Regie  (regulation  plays),  and 
are  learned  by  heart  by  skillful 
players. 

They  are  as  follows  : 

1.  All  hands  with  three  trumps. 

2.  Hands  with    two  trumps,  that 
contain  also  three  cards  of  a  suit,  or 
any  three  cards  whose  average  value 
is  high. 

3.  Hands  with   one  trump  which 
contain  also  King,  Queen,  and  Knave 
of  a  suit ;    four  of  a  suit,  one   being 
King;    three    of  a  suit,  one   being 
King  or   Queen,  and  the   fifth  card 
being  a  Queen. 

4.  Hands  with   no   trump,  which 
contain    four   face    cards    or  three 
Queens. 

Good  players  rarely  lead  trumps  in 
Ecart£  unless  they  have  three  or 
more,  and  the  Jeux  de  Regie  are 
therefore  based  on  the  number  of 
trumps  and  not  on  their  value,  since 
a  low  trump  is  as  good  as  a  high  one 
for  trumping  in.  It  will  be  seen  that 
aside  from  the  number  of  trumps, 
the  Jeux  de  Regie  depend  first  on 
the  value  of  the  other  cards  in  the 
hand,  and,  secondly,  on  whether  they 
are  all  of  one  suit  br  not.  Similar 
reasons  should  decide  the  dealer  to 
refuse  a  proposal.  But  a  player  with 
the  King  of  trumps  in  his  hand,  with 
other  cards  that  make  him  certain  of 
winning  his  point,  should  propose 
for  one  card  ;  for  there  is  a  chance  of 
the  opponent  refusing,  and  then  he 
would  gain  two  points  instead  of  one. 
Usually,  good  players  discard  at 
least  three  cards  at  first,  when  they 
propose,  and  throw  out  all  except 
trumps  and  Kings. 

Since  the  trick  must  be  won,  if 
possible,  it  is  usually  good  play  to 
lead  the  highest  of  the  strongest 
suit,  that  the  opponent  may  be 


forced  to  trump.  A  skillful  player 
changes  his  method  of  play  accord- 
ing as  he  wishes  to  make  only  a 
point  or  the  vole,  or  sees  that  he  can- 
not make  the  point  and  wishes  to 
prevent  his  adversary  from  making 
the  vole.  In  the  last  case  he  tries  to 
make  one  trick,  rather  than  risk 
anything  for  the  chance  of  taking 
more. 

More  may  be  risked  when  the 
dealer  is  within  one  of  going  out, 
since  it  then  makes  no  difference 
whether  he  make  one  point  or  two. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  If  there  be  a  misdeal  or  any  of 
the   non-dealer's  cards  be  exposed, 
he  may  call  for  a  new  deal. 

2.  If  a  player  omit  to  announce 
the  King  of  trumps  before  playing  his 
first  card,  he  loses  the  right  to  an- 
nounce it. 

3.  A  proposal  or  refusal  cannot  be 
taken  back,  nor  can  more  cards  be 
taken    than    the   number  first   an- 
nounced. 

4.  Discards  must  be  placed  face- 
downward  on  the  table  and  cannot 
be  looked  at  afterwards. 

5.  If  either  player  take  more  or 
less  cards  than  he  discards,  or  if  the 
dealer  give  more  or  less  than  were 
asked  for,  his  opponent  may  demand 
a  new  deal.     If  he  choose,  he  may 
correct   the  number  by  drawing  a 
card  from  the  hand  if  it  is  too  large, 
or  by  adding  to  it  from  the  stock,  if 
it  is  too  small. 

6.  If  the  dealer  accept  when  there 
are  not  enough  cards  in  the  stock  to 
give    each  as   many  as   he  wishes, 
the  non-dealer  is  entitled  to  all  he 
has  asked  for ;  or,  if  there  are   not 
enough,  to  as  many  as  there  are  left. 

7.  The  dealer  may  accept  on  con- 
dition that  there  are  enough  cards 
for  both. 

8.  If  a  card  be  led  in  turn,  or  be 
played  to,  it  cannot  be  taken  back. 

9.  If  a  player  revoke,  or  fail  to  win 
the  trick  when  he  is  able,  his  oppo- 
nent  may  require  the   hands  to  be 
played  again. 

10.  An  omission  in  the  score  must 


ECHO 


279 


EGGS 


be  corrected  before  the  next  trump 
is  turned. 

History.  Ecarte"  is  a  French  game, 
and  gets  its  name  from  the  verb 
tcarter,  to  discard,  from  the  privilege 
given  to  the  players  of  discarding 
cards  from  their  hands.  It  is  said  to 
be  a  modification  of  Triomphe,  which 
gave  rise  also  to  Whist.  Some  say 
that  the  game,  taken  to  Louisiana  by 
the  French,  was  the  origin  of  the 
American  game  of  Euchre. 

ECHO,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  one  of  whom  is 
ch6sen  to  tell  a  story,  .and  the  others 
take  the  names  of  various  characters 
or  objects  that  are  to  be  mentioned 
in  it.  When  the  story  teller  men* 
tions  the  assumed  name  of  a  player 
once,  that  ptayer  must  repeat  it  twice, 
and  if  it  is  mentioned  twice  in  succes- 
sion, it  must  be  repeated  once*  Any 
player  who  does  not  echo  his  name, 
or  who  repeats  it  the  wrong  number 
of  times,  must  pay  a  forfeit.  The 
object  of  the  story  teller  is  to  make 
his  story  so  entertaining  that  the 
players  will  forget  to  echo.  If  the 
story  is  to  be  about  a  fight  with  a 
wolf,  for  instance^  the',  nam'es  as- 
sumed by  the  players  might  be  hun: 
ter,  gun,  powder,  bullet,  knife*  cave, 
rock,  tree,  etc.;  or  if  a  shipwreck  is 
the  subject,  the  names  might  be  ship; 
captain,  mate,  mast,  Sail,  tiller,  keel, 
passenger,  wave,  \vind>  etc.  This 
game  differs  little  from  that  of  STAGE 
COACH,  where  the  players  rise  and 
turn  around  when  their  names  are 
mentioned,  instead  of  echoing  them. 

ECHOES,  Experiments  on.  Ech- 
oes are  caused  by  the  reflection  of 
sound  from  some  object,  as  the  side 
of  a  house,  a  rock,  or  a  hill. 

i.  To  measure  the  distance  of  the 
object  which  produces  the  echo. 
With  his  watch  in  harid»  let  a  person 
shout  a  single  short  syllable,  as  "Ha ! " 
or  "  Oh  !  "  and  count  the  nurriber  of 
seconds  before  it.  returns.  As  sound 
travels  about  if 2$ feet  a  second,  the 
number  of  seconds  multiplied  by 
If25  gives  the  distance  traVe'letl  by 
the  voice  in  going  to  the  object  and 


back,  and  half  of  this  is  the  distance 
of  the  object  causing  the  echo.  If 
the  echo-  is  returned  by  an  object 
only  a  few  hundred  feet  away,  so 
that  the  time  is  only  a  fraction  of  a 
second,  the  following  method  should 
be  employed.  Call  out  "  Ha !  "  and 
repeat  the  word  just  as  you  hear  the 
echo,  being  careful  to  pronounce  the 
syllable  just  with  the  echo  and  not 
after  it.  This  will  be  possible  with 
a  little  practice.  Do  this  ten  or 
twelve  times,  observing  the  number 
of  seconds,  between  the  first  call  and 
the  last  echo*  Suppose  that  this  was 
seveh  seconds  and  that  the  syllable 
were  called  ten  timesv  Then  each 
echo  took  seven-tenths  of  a  second, 
and  the  distance;  found  a£  before, 
is  about  394  feet. 

EGGS,  Experiments  with.  i. 
Take  two  eggs  of  the  same  size,  one 
raw  and  the  other  hard-boiled.  Sus- 
pend them  to  nails  or  gas-futures  by 
fixirtg  an  elastic  band  around  each, 
lengthwise,  and  fastening  a  string  to 
the  band  at  one  end  of  the  egg. 
The  bands  should  be  broad  enough 
to  .clasp  th'e  egg  firmly.  Twist  the 
Sf rings  to  the  same  degree;  and  then 
allow  them  to  untwist  at  the  same 
finie,  so  as  to  cause  both  eggs  to 
spin  around.  The  hard-boiled  One 
will  continue  to  do  so  for  some  time, 
but  the  raw  egg  will  soon  stOp;  The 
reason  is  that  the  contents  of  the 
latter  are  liquid  and  not  connected 
with  the  shell.  Only  the  shell  is  set 
twirling  by  the  untwisting  string,  and 
the  friction  of  the  mass  inside  soon 
stops  it. 

2.  Spin  on  a  plate  the  same  eggs 
used  in  Experiment  i.  The  hard- 
boiled  egg  Will  spin  easily  and  is 
easily  stopped.  The  raw  one  is  hard 
to  set  spinning,  but  after  it  has  once 
begun,  if  the  egg  be"  stopped  by  plac- 
ing the  palni  of  the  hand  on  it,  it 
will  start  spinning  again  as  soon  as 
the  hand  is  removed;  The  reasoti  is 
that,  though  the  shell  is  stopped,  the 
liquid  interior  of  the  egg  keeps  up 
its  motion'  arid'starts  the  shell  again 
as  s'oOn  as  it  is  released.  The  egg 


EGGS 


280 


ELECTRIC   BATTERIES 


will  sometimes  begin  thus  to  spin 
again  after  it  has  been  held  several 
seconds. 

3.  Make  a  strong  brine  of  salt  and 
water  and  it  will  be  found  that  an 
egg  will  float  on  it.  Try  to  float  the 
egg  in  pure  water,  and  it  will  sink 
to  the  bottom.  Now,  pour  brine 
through  a  glass  funnel  to  the  bottom 
of  the  vessel,  and  the  water  and  egg 
will;both  rise,  floating  on  the  brine. 
When  the  vessel  is  full,  the  egg  will 
be  suspended  just  between  the  brine 
and  the  water,  half  of  it  in  ea"ch. 

4-  Shake  -an  egg  till  the  mem- 
brane inclosing  the  yelk  is  broken. 
The  yelk  will  sink  below  the  white, 
making  the  lower  end  heavier,  and 
the  egg  will  then  stand  on  end  with- 
out aich  Columbus  is  said  to  have 
puzzled  some  Wise  men  for  a  long 
time  by  telling  them  an  egg  could  be 
stood  on  end.  After  they  had  tried 
lo  do  it  in  vain,  he  showed  them 
how,  by  breaking 'the  shell  a  little 
by  tapping  the  end  on  the  floor. 
But  if  he  had  known  this  experi- 


^  _fxperirnent_5>.    ..    :      -..  »  •• 

frierit,  he  could  '.have. done  it  without 
"even  breaking  the  sfiell. 

5.  Remove  the  shell  from  a  hard- 
boiled    egg,    and     select    a    wide- 


mouthed  water-bottle,  with  a  neck 
a  little  smaller  than  the  egg.  Thrust 
into  the  bottle  a  burning  piece  of 
paper,  and  a  moment  later  place  the 


Experiment  6. 

egg,  end  down.jn  the  mouth  of,  the 
bottle,  "it  will  be  forced  into  the  bot- 
tle by  the  pressure  of  the  outside  air, 
that  within  haying  been  rarified  "by 
the  heat  of  the  burning  paper. 

6.  Take  two  egg-cups  of  the  size 
intended  for  holding  the  egg  to  be 
eaten  from  .the  shell.  Stand  one  on 
a  table  In  front  of  you,  and  the  other 
just  beyond  it.  Blow  suddenly  and 
smartly  where  the  egg  and  cup 
touch,  directly  in  front  of  you.  With 
luck,  your  breath,  added  to  the  air 
under  the  egg,  will  lift  the  egg  and 
tumble  it  over  into  the  second  cup. 

.ELECTRIC  BATf  ERIES,.Expen- 
merits^  with.  Some  electric  batteries 
.are  described  v in  the '' article ti  Elec- 
riai"y,\in  C.  C  T.  The  most"  coixi- 
raoti  Hi)3s~_can  te; _  Jboji'ght,'  ready 
made,,  of  dealers  .in  "telegraph,  sup- 
plies. The  following  experiments 
will  aid  in  understanding  their  work- 
ing: 

I.  Fill  a  glass  three-quarters  full 


ELECTRIC  BATTERIES 


281 


ELECTRIC   BATTERIES 


of  water,  and  mix  with  water  the 
about  two  tablespoonfuls  of  sulphu- 
ric acid.  Put  into  the  glass  a  strip 
of  copper  and  a  strip  of  zinc,  each 
about  three  or  four  inches  long  and 
an  inch  wide.  Bubbles  of  HYDRO- 
GEN begin  to  rise  from  the  zinc,  as 
in  the  experiment  in  making  that 
gas.  No  such  bubbles  rise  from  the 
copper,  because  the  acid  does  not 
act  on  it.  Now  touch  together  the 
tops  of  the  two  strips.  Immediately 
most  of  the  bubbles  rise  from  the 
copper  instead  of  the  zinc,  because 
an  electric  circuit  has  been  com- 
pleted ;  a  current  flows  through  the 
acid  from  the  zinc  to  the  copper,  and 
the  bubbles  are  attracted  to  the  lat- 
ter in  a  way  that  cannot  be  explained 
here.  They  are  still  caused  by  the 
acid  acting  on  the  zinc,  not  on  the 
copper ;  for  if  the  strips  are  left  in 
the  liquid  long  enough  the  zinc, 
not  the  copper,  will  be  eaten 
away. 

2.  Take  the  zinc  from  the  liquid, 
or  dip  a  fresh  piece  into  the  liquid  for 
a  few  seconds,  to  clean  the  surface, 
and  then  rub  a  little  mercury  over  it, 
making   it  look  bright  and  silvery. 
Repeat  Experiment  i,  and  no  bub- 
bles at    all  will  rise  from   the  zinc, 
whether  it  touches  the  copper  or  not. 
If    it  does    not   touch   the  copper, 
neither  will  be  eaten  away  by  the 
acid  ;  but  if  the  two  touch,  the  zinc 
will  be  eaten  away  as  before.     Zinc 
thus   prepared  is  said  to   be  amal- 
gamated. 

3.  Instead  of  touching  the  zinc  and 
copper  together,  touch  one  end  of  a 
wire  to  one  of  them,  and  the  other 
end  to  the  other,     No  matter  how 
long  the  wire  is,  as  soon  as  they  are 
connected  by  it,  bubbles  will  begin 
to  rise  from  the  copper.     In  this  case 
the  wire  forms  part  of  the  electric 
circuit.    Take  two  wires,  each  twenty 
feet  long  or  so,  and  touch  one  end  to 
each  metal.     Let  another  person  go 
into  an   adjoining  room,  and   there 
touch  together  the  other  ends  of  the 
wires.     When   he  does  so,  bubbles 
Will  rise  from  the  copper.     It  is  pos- 


sible, by  arranging  signals,  to  make 
thus  a  sort  of  TELEGRAPH. 

4.  If  the  two  ends  of  the  wires  be 
attached     to     a    GALVANOMETER 
(arranged  for  use  with  a  strong  cur- 
rent),   the     turning   of    the    needle 
will  show  that  electricity  is  passing 
through  it.     If  a  nail  be  wrapped  in 
a  piece  of  paper,  and  the  wire  wound 
about  it  a  dozen  times,  the  nail  will 
be  found  to  be  a  MAGNET  while  the 
current  is  passing. 

5.  Keep  the  wire  connected  with 
the  galvanometer  and  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  needle   is  turned   less   and 
less,  until   finally   it   almost   comes 
back  to  its  north  and  south  position, 
showing  that  the  current  is  growing 
weaker.      If  this  does   not  happen 
before   one   piece   of  zinc   is   eaten 
away,  replace  the  first  with  another 
piece.     There  are  two  reasons  why 
the   current   grows   weaker.      First, 
the  acid  is  used  up ;  and  secondly, 
the  copper  gets  covered  with  bubbles 
of  hydrogen,  which  stick  to  it. 

6.  In    like  manner  try  strips    of 
various  metals  first  in  one  liquid  and 
then  in  another.     It  will  be  found, 
by  using     the     galvanometer,    that 
almost  any  two  metals,  immersed  in 
any  acid  or  salt  liquid,  give  an  elec- 
tric current,  which  is  generally  more 
powerful   if    one   of   the   metals   is 
strongly  acted  on  by  the  liquid  and 
the  other  not. 

Gravity    Battery.     This    is    the 
easiest   effective    battery    to  make. 


Gravity  Battery. 
Take  a  glass  preserve-jar,  and  bend 


ELECTRIC   BATTERIES 


282 


ELECTRIC   BATTERIES 


a  strip  of  zinc  into  a  cylinder  half 
as  high  as  the  jar,  and  just  small 
enough  to  slip  into  the  mouth.  The 
zinc  must  be  amalgamated  either 
before  or  after  the  cylinder  is  made. 
With  a  pair  of  pliers  bend  the  zinc 
outward  in  various  places  around  the 
top  of  the  cylinder  so  that  it  will 
catch  on  the  edge  of  the  jar  and 
hang  in  it.  Then  take  a  sheet  of 
copper  small  enough  to  lie  flat  in  the 
bottom  of  the  jar,  and  a  piece  of  cop- 
per wire  about  a  foot  long,  covered 
with  India  rubber,  or  some  substance 
resembling  it.  This  can  be  bought 
of  a  dealer  in  telegraph  supplies,  but 
if  none  is  at  hand  coat  the  wire  by 
dipping  it  in  melted  wax  three  or 
four  times.  Wire  insulated  with 
silk  will  not  do.  Scrape  away  about 
two  inches  of  the  coating,  make  a 
hole  in  the  edge  of  the  copper,  and 
insert  the  wire,  bending  it  over  and 
hammering  it  down  to  make  a  good 
connection.  Put  into  the  jar  crystals 
of  sulphate  of  copper  (blue  vitriol), 
broken  into  pieces  as  large  as  hazel 
nuts,  making  a  layer  about  half  an 
inch  thick.  Lay  the  copper  plate 
flat  on  this  layer  and  then  put  in 
about  two  inches  more  of  the  sul- 
phate. Put  the  zinc  cylinder  in  place 
and  bring  the  coated  wire  from  the 
copper  through  its  inside.  Fasten 
another  wire  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
zinc.  This  wire  neea  not  be  insu- 
lated. The  wire  attached  to  the 
copper  is  called  the  positive  wire  of 
the  battery,  and  the  other  the  negative 
wire.  When  the  battery  is  to  be 
used,  the  jar  is  filled  with  water,  and 
a  little  sulphuric  acid  or  common 
salt  is  put  in  to  start  the  action. 
This  battery  will  work  steadily  for 
months,  only  requiring  to  be  filled  up 
with  water  as  fast  as  it  evaporates, 
but  it  must  be  kept  still  and  not 
shaken.  It  can  be  bought  ready- 
made  in  various  forms,  one  of  which, 
used  by  the  Western  Union  tele- 
graph company,  is  shown  in  the 
illustration. 

Another  form   of  this  battery  is 
made  by  laying  the  copper  plate  on 


top  of  the  sulphate  of  copper  and 
covering  it  with  a  layer  of  clean  sand 
or  sawdust  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
thick. 

The  gravity  battery  does  not  be- 
come weaker  and  weaker,  because 
as  fast  as  the  sulphate  of  copper  in 
the  water  is  used  up  more  of  it  is 
dissolved  from  the  layer  in  the 
bottom.  Instead  of  bubbles  of  hy- 
drogen, a  thin  layer  of  copper  is 
deposited  on  the  copper  plate,  which 
of  course  does  not  hinder  the  work- 
ing of  the  battery.  Sulphate  of  zinc 
is  produced  by  the  eating  away  of 
the  zinc,  but  it  dissolves  in  the  water, 
floats  on  the  heavier  solution  of 
sulphate  of  copper  and  does  not 
interfere  with  it.  For  this  reason 
the  name  "  Gravity  "  is  given  to  the 
battery,  because  in  it  the  two  liquids 
are  separated  by  their  weight.  In 
the  second  form  described,  the  sand 
aids  in  keeping  them  apart. 

Grenet  Battery.  This  is  made  of 
plates  of  zinc  and  gas  carbon  in  a 
mixture  of  sulphuric  acid  and  bichro- 


Grenet  Battery. 

mate  of  potash.  The  cells  are  usu- 
ally made  like  bottles  with  wide 
necks,  and  hence  it  is  often  called 


ELECTRIC   BATTERIES 


283 


ELECTRIC   BATTERIES 


the  "  bottle  battery."  The  zinc  is  so 
made  that  it  can  be  pulled  up  out  of 
the  liquid  with  a  rod,  when  not  in 
use.  The  liquid,  which  is  used  in 
some  other  batteries  also  and  is  often 
called  "  battery  fluid,"  is  made  as  fol- 
lows :  Dissolve  two  pounds  and  a 
quarter  of  bichromate  of  potash  in 
one  gallon  of  warm  water  and  when 
it  has  cooled  add  a  pint  of  sulphuric 
acid.  It  requires  renewing  from 
time  to  time.  The  Grenet  battery  is 
very  strong  when  the  fluid  is  fresh. 
It  weakens  somewhat  soon  after- 
wards, and  then  keeps  steady  for 
many  weeks,  provided  it  is  not  used 
continuously. 

Leclanche  Battery.  These  cells 
are  generally  sold  as  square  glass 
bottles  G  having  in  the  middle  a  rod 
C  of  carbon  packed  in  a  mixture  M 
of  various  substances,  and  in  one 
corner  a  rod  of  zinc  Z.  The  carbon 
rod  has  fastened  to  its  top  a  copper 


Leclanche  Battery. 

cap  L  to  make  the  connections  more 
easily.  The  bottle  is  filled  with  a 
strong  solution  of  sal-ammoniac  in 
water.  This  battery  lasts  many 


months  without  attention,  but  can 
be  used  only  for  a  few  seconds  at 
a  time.  It  weakens  rapidly,  but 
recovers  just  as  rapidly  when  not  in 
use. 

Bunsen  Battery.  A  rod  of  carbon 
is  contained  in  a  porous  earthenware 
cup  filled  with  nitric  acid,  and  this, 
in  turn,  is  placed  in  a  glass  jar  of 


Bunsen    Battery. 

sulphuric  acid  diluted  with  about  four 
times  its  volume  of  water.  A  zinc 
cylinder  surrounds  the  porous  cup. 
The  nitric  acid  gives  off  disagree- 
able fumes,  so  this  battery  is  not 
pleasant  to  use,  though  one  of  the 
strongest  known.  The  fumes  may 
be  lessened  by  putting  nitrate  of 
ammonium  into  the  acid,  or,  for  the 
acid  the  "  battery  fluid  "  used  in  the 
Grenet  cell  may  be  substituted.  The 
Grove  battery  differs  from  the  Bun- 
sen  only  in  having  a  platinum  plate 
instead  of  the  carbon  rod. 

Uses  of  Different  Batteries.  The 
Gravity  battery  can  be  used  for  al- 
most any  purpose.  The  Grenet  gives 
a  good  current  for  a  short  time,  the 
Leclanche  is  used  where  the  current 
passes  for  only  a  few  seconds  at  a 
time,  as  in  electric  bells,  and  the 
Bunsen  where  a  very  powerful  con- 
tinous  current  is  wanted,  as  in  elec- 
tro-plating. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  use  insulated 
wire  in  making  connections  about  the 
batteries,  but  it  is  better  to  do  so, 
because  otherwise,  when  two  wires 
happen  to  touch,  they  will  make  a 
connection  which  is  not  wanted. 
Ordinary  copper  wire  can  be  cut 
with  a  strong  pair  of  scissors.  Wire 
is  sold  in  numbered  sizes,  whose  di- 


ELECTRIC    BATTERIES 


284 


ELECTRIC  BATTERIES 


ameter  is  shown  by  the  accompany- 
ing picture  of  a  wire  gauge.  There 
are  various  ways  of  fastening  wires 
to  the  battery-plates  and  to  each 
other.  The  simplest  is  to  make  a 
hole  in  the  plate  with  an  awl,  insert 


Wire  Gauge. 

the  wire,  bend  it  over,  and  hammer 
it  down  tight.  To  fasten  one  wire 
to  another  simply  twist  each  around 
the  other  ,ntvl  hammer  or  pinch  them 
together  with  pliers.  Wires  and 


plates  should  be  scraped  bright  with 
a  knife  wherever  connections  are 
made.  Brass  "  binding  screws  "  for 
making  connections  are  sold  by  deal- 
ers in  telegraphic  supplies  and  are 
very  convenient.  They  should  be 
screwed  ;  tightly.  Much  de- 
pends on  making  good,  tight, 
clean  connections,  and  too 
much  care  cannot  be  taken 
with  them. 

Whenever  zinc  plates  are 
used  they  should  be  amalga- 
mated frequently.  To  see 
whether  the  task  has  been 
properly  don,,  immerse  the 
plate  for  a  minute  in  the  acid, 
and  if  any  bubble  arise  from 
it,  the  amalgamation,  in  the 
spot  where  it  appears,  is  not 
perfect. 

When    a    battery    is    quite 
strong  it  may  be  tested,  to  see 
if   it   is  in  working  order,  by 
holding    one    wire    against    a 
common  file,  and  drawing  the 
other  quickly   over  the  rough 
surface.     A  stream  of  sparks 
will  fly  from  the  file  if  the  current 
be  good. 

Connections.  One  jar  with  its 
plates  of  metal  and  liquid  is  generally 
called  a  cell  or  element.  The  power 


V 

Binding  Posts  and  Screw. 


of  a  battery  is  different  according  to 
the  way  in  which  its  cells  are  con- 
nected. They  may  be  connected 
"  abreast,"  or  "  tandem,"  or  in  a 
combination  of  the  two.  What  this 
means  will  be  understood  by  looking 


at  the  diagrams.  In  Fig.  I,  where 
the  cells  are  connected  "  tandem," 
every  copper  plate  of  one  cell  is  joined 
to  the  zinc  of  the  next,  leaving  one 
zinc  unconnected  at  one  end  and  one 
copper  at  the  other,  between  which 


ELECTRIC  CLOCK  ALARM    285    ELECTRIC  CLOCK  ALARM 


is  the  telegraph  wire  or  whatever  the 
current  is  to  pass  through.  In  Fig. 
2,  where  the  cells  are  "  abreast,"  all 
the  zincs  are  connected  together,  and 


all  the  coppers.  In  Fig.  3  the  cells 
are  in  two  sets,  the  three  cells  in  each 
set  being  abreast  and  the  two  sets 
tandem.  In  Fig.  4  the  cells  in  each 


Fig.  i. 


set  are  tandem  and  the  two  sets 
abreast.  In  each  of  the  figures  the 
zinc  is  marked  Z  and  the  copper 
C,  and  the  direction  of  the  current 
is  shown  by  arrows.  Which  of 


Fig:.  2. 

these  arrangements  gives  the  strong- 
est current  depends  on  the  resistance 
it  has  to  overcome.  Where  this  is 
very  great,  as  in  electroplating,  or  in 
the  electric  light,  the  tandem  arrange- 
ment is  best  ;  but  when  it 
is  small,  the  other  is  best. 
The  exact  arrangement 
can  always  be  calculated  by 
expert  electricians,  but  for 
a  beginner  the  best  plan  is 
to  find  it  out  by  trying  various 
ways. 

ELECTRIC    CLOCK 
ALARM.    Any  clock  may  be 
simply   fitted    with   an   alarm 
which  will  ring  by  electricity. 
The  alarm  is  an  ordinary  elec- 
tric bell,  which  may  be  bought 
of  a  dealer  in  electric  supplies. 
The  battery  to  operate  it  may 
also    be   bought    or  may  be 
made  (see  ELECTRIC  BATTERIES). 
In  a  block  of  wood  fix  an  upright 
piece  of   thick  iron  wire,  so  that  it 
will  stand  as  high  as  the  top  of  th 


clock  face.     Around  this  wind  one  of 
the  wires  from  the  battery  so  that 
the   end  will   project  three  or  four 
inches  horizontally.     Bend  about  an 
inch  at  the  end,  at  right  angles.     By 
setting  the   block   of 
wood     in    front    of    the 
clock   face,    and   sliding 
the    wire    spiral    up    or 
down  the  iron  wire,  the 
end     may     be     brought 

opposite  any  desired 

"~r™""      figure,  and  the  bent  part 

may  be  so  arranged  that 

the     minute    hand     will 

pass   over  it    while    the 

hour   hand    will     strike    it.      The 

other     battery    wire    is     connected 

with    one    of    the    wires    of    the 

bell,    and     the    other     bell     wire 

with   any    of    the    metal    parts    of 


Fig.  4- 


the  clock.  When  the  hour  hand 
reaches  the  desired  hour  it  touches 
the  bent  wire,  and  the  current,  pass- 
ing, rings  the  electric  bell.  The 


ELECTRIC   INDUCTION 


286 


ELECTRICITY 


bent  wire  must  then  be  removed,  so 


Electric  Clock  Alarm. 

that  it  will  not  obstruct  the  hour 
hand. 

ELECTRIC  INDUCTION,  Experi- 
merits  on.  i.  Wind  insulated  wire 
in  five  or  six  layers  around  a  large 
spool,  or  around  a  roll  of  pasteboard 
half  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  wind  a 
similar  coil  on  a  roll  large  enough  to 
slip  over  the  first.  Connect  the  ends 
of  the  first  to  the  wires  of  a  GALVAN- 
OMETER, and  those  of  the  second  to 
an  electric  battery.  Suddenly  slip 
the  larger  wire  over  the  smaller  and 
the  galvanometer  needle  will  move  to 
one  side  but  will  quickly  come  to  rest 
again.  Pull  the  coil  away  suddenly 
and  the  needle  will  move  to  the  other 
side.  The  reason  is  that  when  a 
wire  through  which  a  current  is  pas- 
sing is  moved  nearer  another  wire  or 
is  pulled  away  from  it,  a  current, 
called  an  induction  current,  passes  in 
the  second  wire  while  the  first  is  mov- 
ing; the  induction  current  varies  in 
direction  according  as  the  wires  ap- 
proach or  recede ;  and  this  is  why 
the  needle  moves  in  opposite  direc- 
tions in  the  two  cases. 

2.  Place  the  larger  coil  around  the 
smaller  one  while  the  circuit  in  the 


former  is  broken,  and  then  close  the 
circuit.  The  needle  will  move  in 
the  same  direction  as  when  the  coil 
was  approached.  Open  the  circuit 
again.  The  needle  will  move  as  if 
the  coil  were  taken  away.  To  open 
and  close  the  circuit  quickly  a  "  key  " 
may  be  used  made  as  described  under 
TELEGRAPH. 

3.  Connect  the  large  coil  with  the 
galvanometer  and  the  small  one  with 
the  battery  and  repeat  all  the  fore- 
going experiments.    The  results  will 
be  the  same. 

4.  Instead  of  the  coil  attached  to 
the  battery,  use  a  strong  bar  magnet. 
When  it  is  thrust  into  the  coil  the 
needle  will  move  one  way,  and  when 
it  is  removed  it  will  swing  the  other 
way.     If  the  opposite  pole  be  used, 
the  direction  of  these  swings  will  be 
reversed.    Some  think  the  reason  the 
magnet  behaves  exactly  like  a  coil  of 
wire  with  a  current  passing  through 
it,  in  this  and  other  cases,  is  that 
oach  particle  of  iron  in  the  magnet 
has  a  little  electric  current  running 
around  it. 

In  this  last  experiment  a  little 
dynamo-electric  machine  was  made, 
on  exactl)  the  same  principle  as  those 
which  furnish  the  currents  for  the 
electric  lights  in  our  streets.  In  the 
large  dynamos  electro-magnets  are 
used,  and  the  coil  moves  instead  of 
the  magnet. 

ELECTRICITY,  FRICTIONAL, 
E:.pe;imentc  with,  Frictional  elec- 
tricity, or  electricf  y  produced  by 
rubbing,  is  described  in  C.  C.  T. 
under  ELECTRICITY.  The  experi- 
ments which  follow  should  be  tried 
in  a  perfectly  dry  room.  Moisture 
in  the  air  always  lessens  the  effects 
and  often  entirely  prevents  them. 

Experiments. —  I.  Warm  a  rubber 
comb  and  then  rub  it  briskly  for  a 
few  seconds  with  a  silk  handkerchief 
or  woolen  cloth.  It  will  then  attract 
small,  light  objects,  such  as  bits  of 
paper,  feathers,  or  wool.  The  best 
plan  is  to  tear  paper  into  bits  about 
a  quarter  the  size  of  the  little  fin- 
ger nail,  and  hold  the  comb  over  a 


ELECTRICITY 


287 


ELECTRICITY 


pile  of  them,  bringing  it  gradually 
nearer  until  the  paper  flies  up  to  it. 
After  each  bit  has  clung  to  the  comb 
for  some  time  it  will  drop  away. 
Try  the  same  experiment  with  a  glass 
rod  and  a  stick  of  sealing  wax.  Cut 
little  figures  out  of  tissue  paper  and 
place  them  beneath  a  sheet  of  glass 
held  by  books  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration. By  rubbing  the  top  of  the 


Experiment  i. — Electric  Dancers. 

glass  with  flannel  they  may  be  made 
to  jump  up  and  down. 

2.  Make  two  balls,  the  size  of  a 
pea,  of  pith  or  paper,  and  hang  them 
with  sewing  silCto  pins  on  the  edge 
of  a  shelf.  Present  the  comb  or  glass 
rod  to  one  of  these.  It  will  first  be 
attracted,  and  after  clinging  to  the 
rod  for  a  while  will  fly  away.  Soon 
after  it  will  be  attracted  again,  and 
so  on.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
the  comb  has  on  it  only  positive 
electricity.  It  therefore  attracts  the 
negative  electricity  in  the  pith  ball, 
but  when  the  ball  has  clung  to  the 
comb  a  short  time  its  negative  elec- 
tricity unites  with  some  of  the  posi- 
tive electricity  on  the  comb,  leaving 
only  positive,  which  is  repelled  by 
that  on  the  comb. 


3.  Try  the  same  experiment  with 
the  glass  rod. 

4.  Rub  the  glass  rod  with  silk,  and 
when   it  has  driven  the  ball  away, 
present  to  the  ball  the  comb  rubbed 
with  flannel.     It  will  attract  the  ball. 
The  reason  is  that  glass  rubbed  with 
silk    has   on    it    positive    electricity, 
while  the  comb  rubbed  with  flannel 
has  negative  electricity. 

5.  When  the  pith  ball  is  repelled, 
present  to  it  the  flannel  with  which 
the  comb  was  rubbed  and  it  will  be 
attracted.     This  is  because  the  rub- 
bing cloth  always  has  on  it  the  kind 
of  electricity   opposite  to  the   sub- 
stance rubbed. 

6.  Rub  the  glass  rod  with  flannel 
and  then  with   silk,  and  it  can  be 
seen  by  using  the  pith  ball,  as  above, 
that  its  electricity  is  different  in  these 
two  cases. 

7.  Hang  the  glass  rod  in  a  sling 
or    stirrup   of    wire,   suspended    by 
strong  sewing  silk.     Rub  it  with  silk 
and  then  present  the  silk  to  one  end. 
It  will  be  attracted  by  the  silk,  for 
the   reason  given  in  Experiment  5. 
Present    to    it     another    glass    rod 
rubbed   with   silk.      It    will   be  re- 
pelled. 

8.  Take  a  large,  strong  sheet  of 
drawing  paper,  heat   it   thoroughly, 
and  lay  it  on  a  wooden  table.     Rub 
it  with  a  piece  of  woolen  cloth  till  it 
sticks  to  the  table,  and  then  place  a 
bunch  of  keys  in  the  middle  of  the 
paper.      Raise    the    paper  by  two 
corners  and  let  some  one  present  his 
finger   to  the   keys,  when  a  bright 
spark  will  pass  from  one  to  the  other. 
In  dry  weather,  with  careful  heating 
and  handling  of  the  paper,  the  spark 
may  be  nearly  an  inch  long. 

9.  Electrify  a  toy  rubber  balloon 
by  striking  it  with  a  piece  of  flannel, 
or  a  catskin.     When  so  electrified, 
it  can  be  made  to  stick  to  the  wall  or 
ceiling.    Two  electrified  balloons  sus- 
pended from  the  same  point  will  re- 
pel each  other  and  hang  at  an  angle. 

10.  Seal  a  platinum  wire   in  one 
end  of  a  glass  tube  by  holding  the 
wire  in  the  tube  and  turning  it  about 


ELECTRIC   LIGHT 


288 


ELECTRIC   MACHINE 


in  the  flame  of  a  spirit  lamp.  Touch 
tne  end  of  the  wire  to  an  ELECTRO- 
SCOPE, and  pour  warm  mercury  into 
the  tube  drop  by  drop.  The  bits  of 
gold  leaf  in  the  electroscope  will  fly 
apart,  showing  that  the  friction  of 
the  mercury  on  the  glass  has  devel- 
oped electricity. 

The  article  ELECTRIC  MACHINE 
tells  how  to  produce  larger  amounts 
of  frictional  electricity,  and  the  article 
LEYDEN  JAR  tells  how  to  collect  it 
in  quantity. 

ELECTRIC    LIGHT.      The    sim- 
plest arrangement  for  producing  the 
arc  light  is  as  follows  :  Procure  two 
rods  of  gas  carbon,  such  as  are  used 
for  street  electric  lights  (see  figure). 
These   may   be  bought   of   a 
dealer     in     electric    supplies. 
Around  the   middle   of    each 
wind  five  or  six  times  a  piece 
of  copper  wire  several  inches  j 
long,  so  as  to  leave  free  about 
three  inches  at  each  end    of 
the  wire.     File  one  end  of  the  | 
wire  to   a  point    and    fix    it  i 
firmly  in  the  board  which   is 
to  form  the  base  of  the  light,  j 
Insert  the  other  end  in  a  bind-  j 
ing  post  screwed  in  the  same  j 
board.     The  rod  is  thus  sup-  j 
ported  horizontally  about  two  ! 
inches  above  the  board.     Fix  j 
the   other   rod    in    the    same  j 
way,  with  its  end  just  touch-  ' 
ing  that  of  the  first  rod.     On  i 
the  other  end  of  each  rod  slip  j 
a  piece  of  rubber  tubing  two 
inches  long  so  that  the  rods 
can  be  handled  when  the  cur- 
rent  is   passing.     The    spiral 
of  wire  around  each  rod  should 
be  tight  enough  to  hold  them 
lightly    together,     but     loose 
enough    so  that  the  rod  can 
be  moved  backward  and  for- 
ward with  a  twisting  or  screw- 
ing motion.     The   end   wires 
of  an  electric  battery  are  now 
connected    to    the    binding     posts. 
The  more  powerful  the  battery  the 
stronger   will   be   the   light,  but   at 
least   from    20   to   40   Bunsen   cells 


Car- 
bon 
Rod. 


must  be  used.  As  soon  as  the 
current  passes  through  the  rods 
of  carbon  they  will  fly  apart  a 
little  way  and  the  electric  light  will 
appear  between  them.  After  a  little 
time  they  burn  away,  so  that  it  is 
necessary  to  push  them  nearer,  by 
taking  hold  of  the  part  protected  by 
the  rubber  tubing. 

To  produce  the  incandescent  light, 
pass  the  current  of  an  electric  bat- 
tery through  a  fine  platinum  wire  an 
inch  long.  It  will  be  heated  and 
give  off  light.  This  shows  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  incandescent  light.  The 
lights  commonly  in  use  have  a  slen- 
der charred  thread  instead  of  wire, 
and  are  surrounded  by  a  globe  from 
which  the  air  has  been  removed,  so 
that  the  thread  cannot  burn  away. 

ELECTRIC  MACHINE,  a  machine 
for  the  production  of  FRiCTluNAL 
ELECTRICITY.  A  simple  one  may 
be  made  as  follows.  Bore  a  hole  in 
the  bottom  of  a  smooth  glass  jar, 
by  using  a  broken  rat-tail  file  kept 
wet  with  turpentine.  Fit  a  cork  or 
wooden  stopper  in  the  mouth  of  the 
jar,  bore  a  hole  in  the  middle,  and 
through  this  and  the  hole  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  jar  fit  tightly  a  wooden 
axle.  Both  holes  must  be  exactly 
in  the  middle,  so  that  the  jar  will  re- 
volve evenly  when  the  axle  is  turned. 
Nail  an  upright  piece  to  each  end  of 
a  board  a  little  longer  than  the  jar, 
and  in  each  bore  a  hole  large  enough 
for  the  axle  to  turn  easily.  Support 
the  jar  between  these  uprights,  and 
fix  a  crank-handle  to  one  end  of  the 
axle,  so  that  the  jar  may  be  revolved. 
If  a  piece  of  flannel  be  now  pressed 
against  the  jar  while  it  is  turned, 
electricity  will  be  developed.  To 
collect  the  electricity,  saw  off  a  piece 
of  broom  handle  a  little  shorter  than 
the  jar,  round  off  the  ends,  and  stick 
in  it  a  straight  row  of  pins,  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  apart.  Cut  off 
the  heads  with  a  stout  pair  of  scis- 
sors and  file  the  ends  to  a  point. 
Then  cover  the  whole  piece  of  wood 
smoothly  with  tin-foil.  Support  this 
arrangement  so  that  the  points  of  all 


ELECTRIC   MACHINE 


289 


ELECTRIC   MACHINE 


the  pins  nearly  touch  the  jar.  The 
wood  must  be  supported  on  glass, 
so  that  none  of  the  electricity  may 
escape  to  the  ground.  This  may  be 
done  by  boring  a  hole  in  the  middle, 
and  fitting  into  it  the  neck  of  a  bottle, 
previously  filled  with  sand  or  shot  to 
make  it  stand  steady.  If,  now,  the 
flannel  be  pressed  on  the  glass  jar, 
on  the  side  opposite  the  points,  and 
the  handle  turned,  the  electricity  will 
be  gathered  by  the  points  and  col- 
lected on  the  piece  of  wood  covered 
with  tin-foil,  which  is  often  called  the 
"prime  conductor."  When  the  hand 


is  presented  to  the  prime  conductor, 
a  spark  will  fly  between  them.  To 
save  the  trouble  of  pressing  the  flan- 
nel against  the  glass  by  hand,  a 
"  rubber,"  made  of  leather  stuffed 
with  curled  hair,  may  be  fastened  to 
an  upright,  so  as  to  press  continually 
against  the  jar.  The  rubber  should 
be  as  long  as  the  jar,  and  about  an 
inch  wide.  To  hold  it  against  the 
glass,  drive  a  nail  under  the  jar  and 
pass  an  elastic  rubber  band  around 
this  and  the  upright  piece  on  which 
the  cushion  is  supported.  A  piece 
of  silk,  oiled  on  the  outside,  is  often 


Simple  Electric  Machine. 


fastened  to  the  cushion  and  drawn 
over  the  top  of  the  jar  nearly  as  far 
as  the  collecting  points.  This  pre- 
vents the  electricity  on  the  glass  from 
escaping  into  the  air  before  it  reaches 
the  collecting  points.  In  case  the 
cushion  rubber  is  used,  it  should  be 
smeared  with  an  AMALGAM  made  by 
melting  together  equal  parts  of  zinc 
and  tin  and  then  adding  two  parts 
of  mercury.  The  mixture  is  pow- 
dered in  a  mortar  before  it  is  quite 
cold,  and  then  made  into  a  paste 
with  lard. 

The   picture  shows  a  simple  ma- 
chine made  with  a  little  more  care, 


but  easily  put  together  with  any  one 
who  can  use  tools.  A  is  the  base, 
15  the  supporter  of  the  rubber,  D  the 
glass  cylinder,  E  the  a\le,  F  the 
crank,  G  the  prime  conductor,  and 
H  its  support. 

The  electricity  collected  by  the 
points  will  be  positive  electricity. 
Negative  electricity  collects  on  the 
rubber,  and  may  be  gathered  if  the 
rubber  has  a  wooden  back  coated 
with  tin-foil.  In  this  case  the  col- 
lecting points  must  be  joined  to  the 
earth  by  a  chain  or  wire.  The 
whole  machine  must  be  kept  very 
warm  and  dry  or  it  will  not  work  at 


ELECTRIC   MACHINE 


290 


ELECTRIC   MACHINE 


all.  This  is  because  moist  air  is  a 
good  conductor  of  electricity,  which 
therefore  escapes  on  all  sides  as  soon 
as  produced,  instead  of  collecting  on 
the  prime  conductor. 

Experiments  with  the  Electric  Ma- 
chine.  I.  Make  an  insulating  stool 
by  placing  a  board  on  four  inverted 
tumblers  of  thick  glass.  Let  a  person 
stand  on  this  stool,  and  touch  the 
prime  conductor,  while  the  machine  is 
working.  He  thus  becomes  charged 
with  electricity.  If  he  is  lightly 
charged,  his  hair  will  begin  to  stand 
on  end.  If  another  person,  standing 
on  the  ground,  now  presents  his 
hand  to  the  charged  person,  a  spark 
will  pass  between  them.  This  ex- 
periment may  be  varied  in  many 
amusing  ways ;  for  instance,  one 
may  try  to  shake  hands  with  the 
person  on  the  stool,  when  a  spark 
will  pass  between  their  fingers,  or 
he  may  touch  the  tip  of  the  other's 
nose  or  his  ear. 

Electric  Breeze.  2.  Fasten  a  pin, 
or  other  point,  on  one  end  of  the 
prime  conductor  with  a  bit  of  wax, 
taking  care  that  no  wax  gets  between 
the  pin  and  the  conductor.  When 
the  machine  is  working,  a  little 
breeze  will  blow  from  the  point  of 
the  pin.  This  may  be  felt  by  hold- 
ing the  face  or  hand  in  front  of  the 
point,  or  seen  by  holding  a  candle 
flame  there  (Fig.  I).  The  breeze  is 


Electric  Breeze — Fig.   i. 

caused  by  the  repulsion  of  electrified 
particles  of  air  from  the  point.  It 
will  be  found  impossible  to  draw  a 
spark  from  the  point,  because  its 


electricity  is  thus  carried  away  by 
the  air  so  fast  that  enough  does  not 
collect  to  make  a  spark.  This  is  the 
reason  that  it  is  necessary  to  have 
all  parts  of  the  prime  conductor 
smooth  and  round  except  the  collect" 
ing  points.  If  there  are  any  rough- 
nesses on  it,  the  electricity  will  pass 
off  quietly  from  them  and  no  spark 
can  be  obtained. 

3.  Stand  a  lighted  candle  on  the 
prime  conductor  and  point  a  pin  at 
it ;  it  will  show  that  there  is  also  a 


Fig.  a. 

breeze  from  the  pin  when  held  in  the 
hand  (Fig.  2). 

4.  Let  a  small  jet  of  water  flow 
through  a   tube   of   brass   or  other 
metal.     Connect   the  tube  with  the 
electric  machine,  and  the  water  will 
sp:rt  out  in  all  directions,  the  elec- 
trified drops  repelling  one  another. 

5.  Paste  parallel  strips  of  tin  foil 
on  a  pane  of  glass,  and  connect  them 
alternately  on  the  two  sides  so  as  to 
make  one  continuous  conductor,  pass- 
ing backward  and  forward,  from  side 
to  side.     With  a  sharp  pointed  knife 
or  a  knitting-needle  draw  a  figure  or 
design    on    the   glass   by     scraping 
through    the   tinfoil.      Connect   the 
strip  of  tinfoil  with  the  prime  con- 
ductor at  the  top  and  the  ground  at 
the  bottom,  and  work  the  machine. 
The  electricity  will    pass  along   the 
strip,  making  a  spark  every  time  it 
has  to  jump  one  of  the  places  where 
the  foil  was  scraped  away,  and  thus 
the   design   will  appear  in    lines   of 
light.     An  arrangement  of  this  kind, 


ELEC.  DECOMPOSITION 


291 


ELEC.  DECOMPOSITION 


mounted   on   a  stand,  is  shown   in 
Fig.  3- 


Fig.  3. 

ELECTRICAL  DECOMPO- 
SITION, Experiments  on.  i.  De- 
composition of 'Water.  Connect  the 
end  wires  of  an  electric  battery,  by 
means  of  platinum  wire,  to  bits  of 
platinum  foil  about  an  inch  long  by 
quarter  of  an  inch  wide.  A  hole 
should  be  punched  in  one  end  of  the 
foil,  the  wire  inserted,  bent  over,  and 
hammered  down  so  as  to  hold  the 
foil  tight.  The  wire  is  then  bent 
so  that  it  holds  the  foil  up 
straight,  and  placed  in  a  glass 
finger  bowl  or  broad  dish  of 
some  kind.  The  dish  is  filled 
with  water  mixed  with  a  little 
sulphuric  acid  to  help  it  conduct 
the  electric  current.  The  water 
must  cover  the  foils  and  no  kind 
of  wire  other  than  platinum  must  ^ 
touch  the  water,  lest  the  acid 
should  act  on  it.  Fill  two  test- 
tubes  with  the  acidulated  water, 
Snd  invert  them  over  the  foils, 
the  mouths  beneath  the  water, 
taking  care  that  no  air  enters.  When 
one  tube  has  been  inverted,  one  per- 
son should  hold  it  while  the  other  is 
being  prepared.  The  tubes  may  be 
held  in  place,  if  desired,  by  pinning 
strips  of  paper  tightly  around  them 


and  hanging  them  by  string  to  the 
edge  of  a  shelf,  or  by  a  clamp  stand, 
which  can  be  bought  of  a  chemical 
dealer.  Such  dealers  generally  have 
for  sale  the  complete  apparatus  de- 
scribed above  (see  illustration),  but 
it  is  quite  easy  to  make  it.  When 
the  electric  current  flows,  bubbles  of 
gas  begin  to  rise  from  the  platinum 
foil,  which  are  caught  in  the  test 
tubes.  The  amount  of  gas  collected 
over  the  foil  connected  with  the  neg- 
ative pole  of  the  battery  is  about 
twice  as  great  as  that  collected  over 
the  other.  When  sufficient  has  been 
obtained,  place  the  thumb  under 
each  tube,  lift  it  out  and  turn  it 
mouth  upward.  The  gas  which  col- 
lected fastest  will  burn  with  a  blue 
flame  when  a  lighted  match  is  ap- 
plied to  it.  It  is  HYDROGEN.  The 
other  will  cause  a  spark  on  the  end 
of  a  wood  splinter  to  burst  into 
flame.  It  is  OXYGEN.  The  electric 
current  broke  up  or  decomposed  the 
water  into  these  two  gases.  If  the 
bubbles  do  not  rise  at  first  it  is  prob- 
able that  all  the  connections  are  not 
good,  or  else  the  battery  is  not  strong 
enough.  It  is  best  to  use  several 
cells,  connected  tandem  (see  ELEC- 
TRIC BATTERIES). 

Hydrochloric  Acid.     The  appara- 


Decomposition  of  Water. 

tus  described  above  cannot  be  usev. 
for  this  because  CHLORINE  is  one  of 
the  gases  produced,  and  it  would  eat 
away  the  platinum  ;  so  pieces  of  gas 
carbon  are  used  instead.  This  can 
be  obtained  of  dealers  in  electrical 


ELECTRICAL  TOUCHSTONE      292 


ELECTROPHORUS 


supplies.  A  glass  tube,  bent  into  U 
shape,  is  filled  with  the  acid,  to  which 
some  common  salt  is  added  to  pre- 
vent the  chlorine  from  being  dis- 
solved as  soon  as  it  appears.  A 


Decomposition  of  Hydrochloric  Acid. 

piece  of  carbon  is  hung  in  each 
branch  of  the  tube  and  each  is  con- 
nected with  one  pole  of  the  batter)'. 
When  the  current  passes,  chlorine 
appears  at  the  pole  A  and  hydrogen 
at  B. 

Salts.  Almost  all  salts  (see  C.  C. 
T.)  can  be  decomposed  by  electricity 
into  an  acid  and  a  base.  The  salt 
used  is  dissolved  in  water  and  decom- 
posed in  a  U  tube,  as  described 
above.  The  production  of  an  acid 
in  one  tube  and  an  alkali  or  base  in 
the  other  can  be  shown  by  means  of 
TEST  PAPERS.  Salts  which  have  a 
metal  for  one  of  their  components 
deposit  that  metal  on  one  of  the 
poles.  Experiments  in  the  decom- 
position of  such  salts  are  described 
under  ELECTRO-PLATING. 

ELECTRICAL  TOUCHSTONE, 
an  electrical  toy.  Powder  finely  part 
of  a  stick  of  red  sealing  wax  and 
some  stick  sulphur,  and  mix  the  two 
until  the  mixture  has  a  yellowish 
pink  color.  Then  tie  up  the  powder 
in  a  muslin  bag,  so  that  when  the 
bag  is  shaken  a  cloud  of  the  sulphur 
and  wax  dust  may  be  produced. 
Next,  mark  on  a  sheet  of  vulcanized 
rubber  with  bits  of  various  metals. 
The  marks  will  of  course  be  invisi- 
ble, but  by  dusting  the  sulphur  and 


wax  over  the  rubber  they  at  once 
become  visible,  the  wax  gathering 
along  the  lines  made  by  the  some  of 
the  metals,  and  the  sulphur  along 
those  made  by  the  others,  so  that 
some  appear  traced  in  red  and  the  rest 
in  yellow.  The  metals  whose  lines 
appear  in  red  are  zinc,  iron,  mag- 
nesium, and  cadmium  ;  those  whose 
marks  attract  the  yellow  powder  are 
tin,  nickel,  silver,  antimony,  bismuth, 
platinum,  copper,  and  gold.  The 
reason  of  all  this  is  that  when  the 
powders  are  mixed  the  particles  are 
electrified,  the  sulphur  negatively  and 
the  wax  positively.  The  part  of  the 
rubber  over  which  the  metal  passes 
is  also  electrified,  positively  by  some 
metals  and  negatively  by  others,  and, 
as  the  rubber  is  a  non-conductor, 
the  electricity  remains  along  the 
lines.  When  the  powder  is  dusted 
on  the  plate,  then  the  wax  is  at- 
tracted to  the  negative  lines  and  the 
sulphur  to  the  positive. 

Other  powders  than  those  given 
above  may  be  used  ;  a  mixture  of 
red  lead  and  sulphur  being  often  em- 
ployed. The  experiment  succeeds 
still  better  if  the  vulcanized  rubber 
rests  on  a  sheet  of  tin  foil  of  the  same 
size.  Instead  of  using  metals  the 
lines  may  be  traced  with  the  knob 
of  a  charged  LEYDEN  JAR. 

The  name  Electrical  Touchstone 
was  given  the  device  by  its  inventor, 
Prof.  Guthrie,  from  the  stone  called 
the  touchstone,  used  by  jewelers  to 
test  the  purity  of  the  precious  metals. 

ELECTROPHORUS,  an  arrange- 
ment for  obtaining  larger  quantities 
of  FRICTIONAL  ELECTRICITY  than 
can  be  got  simply  by  rubbing.  It 
consists  of  a  plate  of  metal  resting 
on  some  non-conductor.  The  sim- 
plest way  to  make  one  is  to  cut  out 
a  circular  piece  of  tin  and  fit  a  non- 
conducting handle  to  it  by  melting 
the  end  of  a  roll  of  sealing  wax  and 
sticking  it  in  the  middle  of  the  tin. 
Warm  a  pane  of  ordinary  window 
glass  and  rub  it  briskly  with  silk,  so 
as  to  electrify  it.  Then  press  the  tin 
down  on  it.  touch  the  finger  to  the 


ELECTROPHORUS 


293 


ELECTROPHORUS 


upper  surface  of  the  tin,  remove  the 
finger  and  lift  the  tin,  as  shown  in 
the  figures.  On  presenting  the  ringer 
to  the  tin  an  electric  spark  can  now 
be  drawn  from  it.  It  is  better  to  lay 
the  glass  on  some  metal  surface,  for 
instance,  the  top  of  a  stove,  or  a 


piece  of  looking-glass  may  be  used, 
since  that  has  metal  on  the  under 
side. 

A  better  electrophorus  can  be 
made  as  follows.  Have  a  smooth 
piece  of  board,  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  thick,  sawed  into  the  shape  of  a 


Simple  Electrophorus. 


circle,  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  then 
round  off  the  sharp  edges  with  a 
knife,  finishing  with  sand-paper  so 
that  there  shall  be  no  rough  places 
or  angles  about  it.  Bore  a  hole  in 
the  center,  in  which  fit  a  glass  rod  or 
piece  of  tubing  for  a  handle.  Glue 
tin  foil  to  this  wooden  disk,  com- 
pletely covering  it,  being  careful  to 
smooth  it  down  so  that  there  is  not 
the  least  roughness.  The  lower  part 
may  be  of  glass,  as  before,  of  vulcan- 
ized sheet  rubber,  or  of  resin  melted 
and  molded  in  a  flat  cake.  The 
mode  of  working  is  the  same.  The 
electrophorus  can  be  used  for  charg- 
ing a  Leyden  jar  as  well  as  an  ELEC- 
TRIC MACHINE.  The  working  of 
the  apparatus  is  as  follows.  The 
electricity  in  the  glass  plate  pulls 
apart  the  two  kinds  of  electricity  in 
the  tin,  attracting  one  to  the  under 
surface,  and  repelling  the  other  to 
the  upper  surface.  If  the  tin  were 
now  simply  lifted  off  the  plate  the 
two  kinds  would  unite  again,  but  by 
touching  the  upper  surface  with  the 
finger,  before  lifting,  the  kind  on  that 
surface  is  drawn  off,  leaving  the  tin 
charged  with  only  one  kind  of  elec- 
tricity. If  the  finger  remains  on  the 
tin  after  it  is  lifted,  the  electricity 
drawn  off  goes  back  again,  and  the 
tin  shows  no  electrification.  A  sim- 


ple electrophorus  can  also  be  made 
thus.  Take  a  lacquered  tea-tray 
about  a  foot  long,  and  cut  out  a  sheet 
of  thick  wrapping  paper,  large  enough 
to  cover  the  level  part  of  the  tray. 
Gum  strips  for  handles  at  each  end 
of  the  paper.  Place  the  tea-tray  on 


Tea  Tray  Electrophorus. 

two  tumblers,  and  after  heating  the 
paper  as  hot  as  possible  without 
charring  it,  lay  it  on  a  table  and  vio- 
lently rub  it  with  a  dry  clothes  brush. 
Then  place  the  paper  on  the  tray, 
touch  the  tray,  lift  the  paper,  and  on 
presenting  the  finger  again  to  the 


ELECTRO-PLATING 


294 


ELECTROSCOPE 


tray  a  spark  may  be  drawn  from  it. 
This  may  be  repeated  several  times 
without  rubbing  the  paper  again. 

ELECTRO-PLATING.  To  plate 
with  silver,  dissolve  equal  quantities 
of  nitrate  of  silver  and  cyanide  of 
potassium  in  water,  separately,  and 
mix  the  two  solutions.  (Great  care 
must  be  taken  with  the  cyanide  of 
potassium,  as  it  is  very  poisonous.) 
The  liquid  will  become  turbid  owing 
to  the  formation  of  a  precipitate. 
Add  more  of  the  cyanide  solution  till 
this  precipitate  almost,  but  not  quite, 
disappears.  The  solution  now  con- 
tains cyanide  of  silver.  Place  in  the 
solution  a  piece  of  silver  (such  as  a 
coin),  and  the  article  to  be  plated, 
connecting  the  coin  with  the  positive 
pole  of  an  ELECTRIC  BATTERY,  and 
the  article  with  the  negative  pole. 
The  article  to  be  plated  must  first  be 
thoroughly  cleaned  with  ammonia, 
to  remove  grease.  The  electric  cur- 
rent will  decompose  the  cyanide  of 


Electro-plating. 

silver,  depositing  the  silver  on  the 
article  to  be  plated.  The  silver  thus 
deposited  has  its  place  taken  by  part 
of  the  coin,  which  is  slowly  dissolved. 
The  plating  will  be  done  faster  the 
more  powerful  the  battery.  If  sev- 
eral cells  are  used,  they  should  be 
connected  tandem  (see  ELECTRIC 
BATTERIES).  When  the  coat  of  sil- 
ver is  as  thick  as  desired,  the  article 
is  removed  and  polished  with  whit- 
ing. The  best  metals  to  plate  are 
brass  or  copper,  or  the  alloys  called 
German  silver  and  Britannia  metal, 
of  which  plated  forks  and  spoons  are 
commonly  made.  Most  other  metals 
have  to  be  coated  with  copper  before 
they  can  be  silver  plated.  Iron  can 


be  covered  with  copper  by  simply 
putting   it  in   a   solution    of    BLUE 

VITRIOL. 

Cold-Plating.  The  process  is  the 
same  as  that  just  described,  except 
that  chloride  of  gold  is  used  instead 
of  nitrate  of  silver,  and  a  gold  coin 
is  attached  to  the  positive  pole  of  the 
battery. 

Nickel-Plating.  The  same  proc- 
ess is  used,  except  that  the  solution 
is  formed  of  salts  of  nickel,  dissolved 
in  water.  A  piece  of  nickel  may  be 
suspended  from  the  positive  pole, 
but  it  is  sufficient  to  add  salts  of 
nickel  to  the  solution  as  fast  as  it 
becomes  weakened. 

The  figure  shows  the  arrangement 
of  apparatus  for  any  kind  of  plating, 
a,  a,  a,  are  bits  of  the  metal  used, 
B,  B,  B,  the  articles  to  be  plated,  d 
and  e  two  metal  rods,  and  D  the  bat- 
tery. 

ELECTROSCOPE,  an  instrument 
for  showing  whether  or  not  a  body  is 
charged  with  electricity,  and,  if  so, 
whether  it  is  positive  or  negative. 
A  simple  one  can  be  made  as  fol- 
lows. Take  a  flask  or  bottle,  clean 
and  dry  it,  and  insert  in  the  cork  a 
piece  of  glass  tubing  about  an  inch, 
long.  Cut  a  disk  of  tin  or  zinc, 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diameter, 
and  drill  two  holes  in  it,  one  at  the 
center  and  the  other  near  the  edge. 
Have  one  end  of  a  brass  or  copper 
wire  soldered  in  the  central  hole. 
Fill  the  glass  tube  with  shellac, 
softened  by  warming,  and  before  it 
is  hard  run  the  wire  through  it  so 
that  the  disk  is  an  inch  or  so  above 
the  tube.  The  lower  end  of  the  wire 
is  cut  off  and  bent  at  right  angles  so 
that  it  will  be  about  in  the  middle  of 
the  bottle  when  the  cork  is  in  place. 
Now  gum  to  the  sides  of  the  hook 
made  by  thus  bending  the  wire,  two 
leaves  of  "  Dutch  Metal "  (which 
can  be  bought  of  a  sign-painter), 
each  half  an  inch  broad  and  long 
enough  to  reach  within  an  inch  of 
the  bottom  of  the  bottle.  The  cork, 
with  its  wire,  is  now  inserted  in  the 
bottle. 


ELECTROSCOPE 


295 


ELEPHANT 


To  ascertain  whether  a  body  be 
electrified,  bring  it  near  the  disk 
without  touching-.  If  it  be  elec- 
trified, the  leaves  of  Dutch  metal 
will  fly  apart,  for  the  charged  body 
draws  near  itself  one  kind  of  elec- 
tricity and  repels  the  other  to  the 
leaves.  The  leaves,  being  both  thus 
charged  with  the  same  kind  of  elec- 
tricity, repel  each  other.  But  this 
does  not  tell  us  what  kind  of  elec- 
tricity the  body  possesses.  To  find 
out  this,  the  electroscope  must  be 
charged  by  touching  the  disk  with  a 
body  whose  kind  of  electricity  is 
known.  For  instance,  we  know  that 
wax  rubbed  with  flannel  is  electrified 


negatively.  By  touching  the  disk 
with  a  piece  of  wax  so  rubbed,  we 
cause  the  leaves  to  diverge,  and  on 
removing  the  wax  they  should  re- 
main apart  for  some  time,  if  the  in- 
strument has  been  well  made.  By 
now  bringing  the  body  to  be  tested 
near  the  disk,  without  touching  it,  the 
leaves  will  either  collapse  or  fly 
farther  apart.  If  the  former,  the 
body  is  positive ;  if  the  latter,  nega- 
tive. 

Instead  of  this  the  electroscope 
may  be  charged  by  touching  it  with 
the  body  to  be  tested,  and  then  a 
body  whose  electricity  is  known  may 
be  brought  near  it.  If  the  body  is 


Electroscope. 


large  it  may  be  connected  with  the 
electroscope  by  a  wire,  one  end  of 
which  is  fastened  to  the  disk  by 
hooking  it  in  the  hole  in  the  edge. 

The  electrical  pendulum,  or  sus- 
pended pith  ball,  may  also  be  used 
as  an  electroscope,  as  described  in 
the  article  on  FRICTIONAL  ELEC- 
TRICITY. 

ELEPHANT,  THE,  a  diversion  in 
which  two  persons  imitate  an  ele- 
phant. One  stands  behind  the  other, 
as  in  Fig.  i,  both  bending  their 
bodies  so  that  their  backs  are  hori- 
zontal, and  the  rear  one  rests  his 


head  and  his  hands  on  the  one  in 
front  of  him,  as  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration. The  first  one  holds  a  black 
cane  with  a  curved  handle  to  rep- 
resent the  elephant's  trunk,  and  the 
second  has  in  each  hand  a  roll  of 
white  paper  for  tusks.  The  tusks 
must  be  long  enough  to  project  in 
front  of  the  trunk.  A  gray  shawl  is 
now  thrown  over  both  boys,  two 
pieces  of  gray  cloth  are  pinned  in 
the  proper  places  for  ears,  and 
round  bits  of  white  paper,  with 
black  spots  in  the  middle,  are  fas- 
tened on  for  eyes  (see  Fig.  2).  As 


ELEPHANT 


296 


ELEPHANT 


Fig.  i. 


Fig.  2. 


theanimnl  walks,  the  trunk  should  be 
swayed  slowly  to  and  fro.  A  show- 
man, gaudily  dressed  in  colored 
shawls,  with  a  white  turban,  should 
accompany  the  elephant,  and  ex- 
hibit him  to  the  company.  It  adds 
to  the  amusement  if  the  showman 
pretends  to  speak  in  the  Hindoo  lan- 
guage, and  what  he  says  is  explained 
to  the  audience  by  an  interpreter.  He 
can  also  lie  down  and  let  the  elephant 
walk  over  him  and  perform  other 
tricks  usually  shown  in  menageries. 


Sports  like  this  were  common  in 
England  in  old  times,  as  is  shown 


Man  Dressed  as  a  Deer. 


ELLS   OF   CLOTH 


297 


EUCHRE 


by  the  illustration,  taken  from 
an  old  manuscript.  One  man  is 
seen  dressed  as  a  deer,  while 
another  beats  a  drum  for  him  to 
dance. 

ELLS  OF  CLOTH,  a  children's 
game  played  by  any  number  of  boys 
or  girls,  two  of  whom  represent  a 
weaver  and  a  merchant,  while  the 
others  are  called  ells  of  cloth.  The 
ells  stand  in  a  row,  holding  hands, 
and  stretching  apart  as  widely  as 
possible.  The  cloth  is  then  said  to 
be  unfolded.  After  making  a  bar- 
gain with  the  weaver,  the  merchant 
"  measures  "  the  cloth  by  taking  hold 
of  each  ell  by  his  hands.  He  then 
goes  away,  as  if  to  get  his  money, 
whereupon  each  of  the  other  players 
turns  to  one  side,  and  clasps  the  one 
in  front  of  him  tightly  around  the 
waist,  the  weaver  taking  his  place  at 
the  head  of  the  line.  On  the  mer- 
chant's return  he  is  told  that  his 
cloth  is  folded  and  that  he  must  un- 
fold it.  He  then  tries  to  make  one  of 
the  players  loosen  his  hold,  by  seizing 
the  weaver's  hands  and  pulling  him 
about.  As  soon  as  any  one  lets  go, 
he  must  stand  on  one  side,  and  the 
game  begins  again.  It  may  be  con- 
tinued till  only  one  ell  of  cloth  is  left, 
or  for  any  time  the  players  choose. 
Sometimes  those  who  let  go  are  re- 
quired to  pay  a  forfeit. 

ENGLISH  AND  AMERICANS. 
See  TUG  OF  WAR. 

ETCHING,  The  preparation,  by 
etching,  of  plates  from  which  pictures 
are  printed,  is  described  in  C.C.T., 
under  ENGRAVING.  Directions  for 
etching  an  autograph  or  design 
deeply  on  brass  or  copper  are  given  in 
this  book  in  the  article  NITRIC  ACID. 
To  etch  on  glass,  cover  it  with  a 
thin  layer  of  wax,  as  directed  in 
that  article,  and  scratch  the  design 
to  be  etched,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
metal.  In  an  old  saucer  mix  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  powdered  fluor-spar  with 
enough  sulphuric  acid  to  make  a 
paste.  Place  the  glass,  waxed  side 
down,  over  the  saucer  and  then  heat 
the  mixture  gently  for  two  or  three 


hours.  The  heat  must  not  be  great 
enough  to  melt  the  wax,  and  the 
saucer  must  be  placed  so  that  the 
fumes  arising  from  the  paste  will  not 
be  breathed  by  any  one,  as  they  are 
poisonous.  A  good  place  is  on  the 
hearth  of  an  open  fireplace,  or  at  the 
back  of  a  range  provided  with  a 
hood  for  the  escape  of  the  odors  of 
cooking.  When  the  glass  is  re- 
moved, the  wax  must  be  cleaned  off 
with  turpentine,  and  the  design  will 
be  seen  etched  in  the  glass.  The 
etching  is  done  by  the  fumes  of 
hydro-fluoric  acid,  which  rise  from 
the  saucer  and  eat  into  the  glass 
where  it  has  been  exposed  by  scrap- 
ing away  the  wax. 

EUCHRE  (yoo'-ker),  a  game  of 
CARDS,  played  by  two,  three,  or  four 
persons,  with  a  pack  from  which  all 
cards  lower  than  the  Seven  are  ex- 
cluded. In  the  lay  suits,  the  cards 
rank  as  in  WHIST,  but  in  the  trump 
suit  the  Knave,  which  is  called  the 
Right  Bower,  is  the  highest  card. 
The  other  Knave  of  the  same  color 
is  called  the  Left  Bower,  and  ranks 
next,  both  the  Bowers  being  higher 
than  the  Ace.  Thus,  if  Clubs  are 
turned  as  trumps,  the  Knave  of 
Clubs  is  the  highest  card,  the  Knave 
of  Spades  next,  the  Ace  of  Clubs 
next,  and  then  the  other  clubs  follow 
in  the  usual  order.  The  Left  Bower 
is  also  regarded  as  a  trump  in  fol- 
lowing suit.  In  the  two-handed 
game,  which  will  be  described  first, 
the  dealer  gives  each  player  five 
cards,  two  and  three  at  a  time.  He 
may  give  the  two  cards  or  the  three 
cards  first,  but  he  must  not  give,  for 
instance,  two  to  his  opponent  and 
then  three  to  himself.  After  dealing, 
he  turns  the  top  card  of  the  stock 
face  upward  as  trump.  The  non- 
dealer  looks  at  his  hand,  and,  if  he 
thinks  he  can  take  three  tricks,  says 
"I  order  it  up."  The  dealer  then 
takes  the  trump  into  his  own  hand, 
and  discards  his  weakest  card, 
placing  it  under  the  stock.  If  he  is 
not  strong  enough  to  order  it  up,  he 
says  "  I  pass."  The  dealer  may  then 


EUCHRE 


298 


EUCHRE 


either  take  up  the  trump  as  if  it  had 
been  ordered  up,  saying,  "  I  take 
it  up,"  or  he  may  pass,  turning 
the  trump  card  face  downward, 
and  saying,  "  I  turn  it  down." 
If  the  dealer  pass,  his  opponent 
can  now  name  any  suit  he  chooses 
as  trumps  except  the  one  turned 
down,  saying,  for  instance,  "  I  make 
it  Spades,"  or,  "  I  make  it  Hearts." 
If  he  does  not  choose  to  make 
the  trump,  he  may  pass  again 
and  the  dealer  is  given  a  chance  to 
do  so.  If  the  dealer  does  not  make 
the  trump  there  must  be  a  new  deal. 
As  soon  as  the  trump  is  ordered  up 
or  taken  up,  or  a  new  trump  is 
made,  play  begins.  Suit  must  be  fol- 
lowed, but  when  this  cannot  be  done 
anything  may  be  played.  If  the  player 
that  orders  up,  takes  up,  or  makes  a 
trump,  win  three  tricks,  he  scores  a 
point.  If  he  fail  to  win  three  tricks 
he  is  euchred  and  his  opponent 
scores  two  points.  If  either  player 
take  all  five  tricks,  he  is  said  to  make 
a  "  march,"  and  scores  two  points. 
Four  tricks  count  no  more  than  three 
tricks.  Each  player  usually  keeps 
score  by  means  of  two  of  the  small 
cards  that  were  thrown  out  of  the 
pack,  either  a  two  and  a  three,  or  a 
three  and  a  four,  placing  one  on  the 
other  so  as  to  show  as  many  pips  as 
he  wishes. 

Three-Handed  Euchre.  Each 
player  in  turn  has  the  option  of 
passing  or  ordering  up,  beginning  at 
the  dealer's  left,  and  if  each  passes 
and  the  dealer  turns  it  down,  each 
has  a  chance  to  make  the  trump, 
as  in  two-handed  euchre.  If  a 
player  order  up,  take  up,  or  make 
the  trump,  his  two  adversaries  gen- 
erally play  together  against  him,  and 
if  they  euchre  him,  each  scores  two 
points.  Because  two  often  play  thus 
against  one,  the  three-handed  game 
is  often  called  "cutthroat  euchre." 
In  the  three-handed  game  a  march 
usually  counts  three.  The  play  varies 
according  to  the  score.  Thus,  when 
A,  B,  and  C  are  playing,  if  A  takes 
up  the  trump,  and  C  has  already 


three  points,  so  that  two  more  would 
put  him  out,  it  is  for  B's  advantage 
to  let  A  make  a  point  rather  than 
join  with  C  to  euchre  him. 

Four-Handed  Euchre.  This  is  al- 
ways played  in  partnership,  two 
against  two.  Each  player  has  a 
chance  to  adopt  or  make  the  trump, 
as  before,  but  the  dealer's  partner 
must  say  "  I  assist,"  instead  of  "  I 
order  it  up,"  if  he  wishes  his  partner 
to  take  the  trump  card  into  his  hand. 
If  a  player  thinks,  before  playing 
has  begun,  that  he  has  a  strong 
enough  hand  to  do  without  his  part- 
ner's aid  he  says,  "  I  play  it  alone," 
and  his  partner  takes  no  further  part 
in  the  hand.  If  he  makes  all  five 
tricks  alone,  he  scores  four  points ; 
if  he  makes  less  than  three  tricks,  he 
is  euchred,  and  the  adversary  scores 
two  points. 

In  playing  the  game  the  beginner 
should  remember  that  to  order  up 
the  trump  requires  a  stronger  hand 
than  to  take  it  up,  since  in  the  latter 
case  the  trump  card  is  taken  into  his 
own  hand;  in  the  former,  into  that  of 
an  opponent. 

In  making  a  trump,  other  things 
being  equal,  make  it  the  other  suit  of 
the  same  color  as  the  one  turned 
clown  (called  "  making  it  next  in 
suit "),  if  opposed  to  the  dealer, 
otherwise  make  it  one  of  the  other 
suits  (called  "  crossing  the  suit "). 
The  reason  for  this  is  that  as  the 
dealer  and  his  partner  both  passed, 
it  is  likely  that  neither  of  them  had 
one  of  the  bowers,  and  the  same 
cards  will  be  bowers  if  the  trump  is 
made  "  next  in  suit." 

The  lead  depends  largely  on  what 
the  actions  of  the  other  players  show 
their  hands  to  be.  Thus,  if  the 
dealer  has  taken  up  the  trump,  the 
eldest  hand  should  not  lead  trumps, 
but  when  (in  playing  the  four 
handed  game)  the  eldest  hand's  part- 
ner has  ordered  up  or  made  the 
trump,  the  eldest  hand  should  lead 
his  best  trump. 

A  skillful  player  will  vary  his  play 
according  to  the  state  of  the  score. 


EUCHRE 


299 


EUCHRE 


Thus,  if  the  dealer  and  his  partner 
are  four  to  their  opponent's  one 
(called  a  "  bridge  ")  the  eldest  hand 
often  orders  up  upon  a  weak  hand, 
thus  preventing  one  of  the  other  side 
from  playing  alone,  gaining  four 
points,  and  thus  winning  the  game. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  Players  must  cut  for  deal,  and 
the  lowest   deals,  the  Ace   ranking 
below  the  two. 

2.  If  the  dealer  give  any  one  too 
many  or  too  few  cards,  there  must 
be  a  fresh  deal,  unless  the  misdeal 
was  caused  by  an  interruption  from 
his  opponent. 

3.  If  a  card  is  exposed  during  the 
deal,  there  must  be  a  new  deal  un- 
less one  of  the  players  has  looked  at 
his  hand,  but  the  deal  is  not  forfeited. 

4.  If  a  player  deal  out  of  turn,  his 
deal  is  good  if  the  mistake  is  not  dis- 
covered before  the  first  lead. 

5.  The  dealer  has  not   discarded 
till  he  has  placed  his  rejected  card 
under  the  stock.    Before  he  has  done 
so  he  may  change  his  discard,  but 
afterwards  he  may  not  touch  it. 

6.  If  a  card  be   led   by  mistake 
before    the    discard,    it    cannot    be 
taken  back. 

7.  A    player    making   the   trump 
cannot  change  it  after  naming  it. 

8.  A  player  may  play  alone  only 
when   he   orders    up,   takes   up,   or 
makes  a  trump,  or  when  his  partner 
assists,  orders  up,  or  makes  a  trump. 

9.  He   may  not   play  alone   after 
passing  a  trump  or  the  making  of  a 
trump,    nor    when     his     opponents 
adopt  or  make  the  trump. 

10.  A    player    cannot    announce, 
after  the  lead  has  been  made,  that 
he  will  play  alone. 

11.  The  partner  of  one  who  plays 
alone    must    place    his    cards    face 
downward  on  the  table  and  let  them 
so  remain  during  the  hand. 

12.  After  the  trump  card  has  been 
taken  up,  the  dealer    must    tell    its 
suit  to  any  one  who  asks,  but  he  need 
not  tell  what  card  it  is. 

13.  Any  card  that  is  exposed,  or 
played  out  of  turn  and  taken  back, 


must  be  played  whenever  its  holder  is 
called  upon  to  do  so  by  his  opponent, 
unless  such  a  play  would  be  a  revoke. 
But  if  a  trick  has  been  completed 
from  such  a  lead  it  must  stand. 

14.  If  a  player  revoke  or  refuse  to 
play  an  exposed  card  on  call,  his  op- 
ponents may  score  two  points  and 
the  offender  may  score  nothing  that 
he  has  made  in  that  hand  ;  but  if  a 
revoke  is  discovered  before  the  of- 
fender plays  again,  the  only  penalty 
shall  be  to  treat  the  wrongly  played 
card  as  exposed. 

Railroad  Euchre.  A  Joker  is  ad- 
ded to  the  pack,  ranking  always  as 
the  highest  trump.  If  a  player  de- 
cides to  play  alone,  he  may  call  for 
his  partner's  best  card,  and  discard 
one  from  his  own  hand.  Either  of 
the  opponents  is  then  allowed  to 
play  alone  on  the  same  conditions, 
and  if  a  euchre  is  made  under  these 
circumstances,  the  score  is  four 
points.  If  the  Joker  is  turned  as 
trump,  the  next  card  also  must  be 
turned  to  decide  the  trump  suit,  but 
the  Joker  may  be  taken  in  hand,  in- 
stead of  the  trump  card,  if  the  trump 
is  taken  up  or  ordered  up. 

Set-back  Euchre.  This  may  be 
played  by  two  or  more  persons,  each 
for  himself.  At  the  opening  of  the 
game  each  player's  score  is  credited 
with  five  points.  When  he  makes  a 
point  it  is  subtracted  from  the  score, 
and  when  he  is  euchred  he  is  set 
back  two  points,  which  are  added  to 
his  score.  He  whose  score  is  first 
reduced  to  nothing,  wins. 

Six-Handed  Euchre.  Three  per- 
sons play  in  partnership  against 
three  others.  The  players  sit  so 
that  no  two  partners  shall  be 
together.  No  trump  is  turned,  but 
each  of  the  players  in  order,  begin- 
ning at  the  dealer's  left,  has  the 
option  of  passing  or  bidding  for  the 
privilege  of  naming  the  trump, 
stating  as  his  bid  the  number  of 
tricks  he  thinks  he  and  his  partners 
can  take,  and  the  suit  he  wishes  for 
trumps.  Thus,  he  may  say  "  I  bid 
three  on  Spades,"  meaning  that  with 


EUCHRE 


300 


EVERLASTING 


spades  for  trumps  he  undertakes  to 
win  three  tricks.  If  a  player  cannot 
raise  a  previous  bid  he  must  pass. 
The  suit  of  the  highest  bidder  be- 
comes the  trump,  and  he  also  leads. 
If  the  players  on  his  side  win  the 
number  of  tricks  that  he  bid,  they 
score  that  number  of  points  ;  if  they 
fail,  the  opposite  side  score  the  same 
number.  No  more  than  the  bid  can 
be  scored,  though  more  tricks  be 
taken.  The  game  is  usually  25 
points.  Sometimes  these  are  credit- 
ed to  each  side  at  the  outset  and  the 
score  kept  as  in  Set-back  Euchre. 
Sometimes  two  sevens  are  thrown 
out  of  the  pack  before  the  game,  so 
that  all  the  cards  are  dealt,  but  often 
they  are  retained,  and,  after  dealing, 
the  two  cards  that  are  left  (or  three, 
if  a  Joker  is  used)  are  placed,  face 
downward,  on  the  table.  These 
cards,  called  the  Widow,  are  the  pro- 
perty of  the  highest  bidder,  and  he 
may  exchange  any  or  all  of  them  for 
an  equal  number  of  his  own  cards. 
The  method  of  scoring,  and  the  use 
of  the  Widow  and  Joker  must  be 
settled  by  agreement  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  game. 

Some  players  admit  the  playing  of 
lone  hands,  in  which  case  the  score  is 
counted  as  in  Napoleon,  ten  points 
being  won  or  lost.  He  who  plays  a 
lone  hand  must  announce  it  before 
looking  at  the  Widow. 

Napoleon,  a  kind  of  Euchre  played 
by  from  two  to  seven  persons.  The 
players  bid  for  the  privilege  of  making 
the  trump,  as  in  Six-handed  Euchre, 
but  no  one  tells  what  suit  he  bids  on 
but  the  highest  bidder,  who  an- 
nounces the  trump  just  before  lead- 
ing. Each  one  plays  for  himself. 
The  score  is  usually  kept  with 
counters,  which  are  divided  equally 
among  the  players  before  the  game 
begins.  If  the  highest  bidder  win 
the  number  of  tricks  he  bid  to  make, 
each  of  the  others  gives  him  that 
number  of  counters;  if  he  fail,  he 
gives  that  number  to  each  of  them. 
If  he  bid  to  take  all  five  tricks,  he 
must  say  "  Napoleon,"  in  which  case 


the  number  of  counters  won  or  lost 
is  ten,  or  double  the  bid.  If  the 
highest  bidder  lead  again  after  win- 
ning the  number  of  tricks  he  bid  to 
make,  he  must  play  all  five  tricks  out, 
and  if  he  do  not  take  them  all,  he 
loses.  The  number  won  or  lost  in 
this  case  is  but  five,  since  he  did 
not  bid  Napoleon.  Instead  of  using 
counters,  the  score  may  be  kept  as 
in  Six-handed  Euchre. 

When  seven  play  this  game,  the 
four  six  spots  must  be  added  to  the 
pack ;  when  four  or  less  play,  the 
sevens,  or  the  sevens  and  eights,  may 
be  rejected.  When  the  game  is 
played  by  four  people  in  partnerships 
of  two,  it  is  called  French  Euchre. 
In  this  case  the  game  is  fifteen 
points,  which  are  scored  as  in  Six- 
handed  Euchre. 

Back-Handed  Euchre.  The  play- 
ers hold  their  cards  with  the  faces 
toward  the  table,  so  that  each  sees 
all  the  hands  but  his  own.  Each 
one  plays  at  random,  and  of  course 
following  suit  is  impossible.  The 
game  can  be  made  very  amusing,  a 
player  sometimes  making  a  trump, 
when  all  but  himself  can  see  plainly 
that  he  has  not  a  single  card  of  that 
suit.  But  there  is  also  more  chance 
for  skill  than  might  be  supposed,  for 
by  looking  carefully  at  the  other 
hands,  a  player  may  gain  some  idea 
of  his  own. 

History.  Some  writers  say  that 
Euchre  was  first  played  by  French 
settlers  in  Louisiana,  and  that  both 
the  game  and  its  name  are  corrup- 
tions of  the  French  £CART£. 
Others  think  it  was  first  played  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  still  others  that 
it  had  its  origin  in  Germany.  It 
seems  certain  that  the  Bowers  were 
so  called  from  the  word  Bauer 
(peasant),  a  name  sometimes  applied 
in  Germany  to  the  Knaves.  Where- 
ever  it  originated  it  is  now  played 
more  in  the  United  States  than  in 
any  other  land. 

EVERLASTING,  a  game  of  cards 
played  by  any  number  of  persons 
with  one  or  more  full  packs.  All 


EVERLASTING 


301 


EXCELSIOR 


the  cards  are  dealt  one  by  one,  and 
each  player,  without  looking  at  those 
given  him,  places  them,  face  down- 
ward, in  a  pile  in  front  of  him.  The 
one  at  the  left  of  the  dealer  then 
plays  his  cards,  in  the  middle  of  the 
table,  one  by  one,  as  they  come,  till 
he  throws  out  a  face  card  or  an  Ace. 
If  it  is  an  Ace,  it  is  said  to  "  call  for  " 
four  cards  from  the  next  player  ;  if  a 
King,  three  ;  if  a  Queen,  two  ;  and  if 
a  Knave,  one ;  that  is,  that  player 
must  begin  to  throw  out  the  proper 
number  of  cards  one  by  one,  but  if 
he  throws  out  an  Ace  or  face  card 
before  completing  the  number  he 
must  stop  and  let  his  left  hand  neigh- 
bor play  to  that  card.  If  any  one 
plays  all  the  cards  called  for,  without 
putting  down  a  face  card  or  Ace,  all 
the  cards  on  the  table  become  the 
property  of  the  player  next  before 
him.  Thus,  suppose  A  plays  an 
Ace,  which  calls  for  four  cards  as 
explained  above ;  if  B  plays  those 
four  cards  without  putting  down  an 
Ace  or  face  card  A  takes  the  trick, 
but  if  B's  second  card,  for  instance, 
is  a  Queen,  he  must  stop  and  let  C 
play  to  that  Queen.  The  lower  face 
cards  take  most  tricks,  since  they 
call  for  fewer  cards,  and  the  chance 
of  the  next  player's  turning  up  a  face 
card  is  therefore  less.  But  as  no 
one  may  look  at  his  cards,  but  is 
obliged  to  play  them  as  they  come, 
skill  does  not  enter  into  the  game  at 
all.  When  any  player  takes  a  trick, 
he  places  it  face  downwards,  under 
his  pile,  and  the  game  thus  goes  on 
till  some  one  has  taken  all  the  cards, 
thus  becoming  the  winner.  This 
rarely  happens  in  a  short  time,  and 
it  is  best  to  agree  beforehand  on  an 
hour  when  the  game  is  to  cease. 
The  one  that  has  the  largest  pile  is 
then  the  winner. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME, 

1.  No  one  may  change  the  order 
of  cards  in  his  pile  or  in  the  middle 
Df  the  table. 

2.  When  all  a  player's  cards  are 
gone,  he  is  out  of  the  game. 


EXCELSIOR,  a  SOLITAIRE  game 
of  CARDS,  played  with  a  full  pack. 
The  cards  are  dealt  one  by  one,  to 
form  a  figure  like  that  below.  They 
are  placed  on  the  numbered  spaces, 
in  order,  except  when  an  Ace  or 
King  appears.  The  Aces  must  be 
laid  on  one  of  the  spaces  marked  A, 
beginning  at  the  top,  and  Kings  in 
like  manner  are  put  in  the  spaces 
marked  K.  When  the  last  numbered 
space  is  filled,  the  player  puts  his 
next  card  on  the  first  space  again, 
and  so  goes  on  piling  cards  over  and 
over  again  on  the  numbered  spaces, 
till  all  the  cards  are  dealt.  The 
Aces  and  Kings,  placed  separately  as 


Excelsior. 

explained  above,  are  called  Foun- 
dation cards,  and  the  player's  object 
is  to  build  piles  on  them,  by  suits,  in 
regular  order,  upward  from  the  Aces, 
and  downward  from  the  Kings.  In 
dealing,  if  any  card  fall  on  one  of  the 
four  corner  piles  that  can  be  used  at 
once  in  building,  it  may  be  so  used. 
But  if  such  a  card  fall  on  one  of  the 
side  piles,  it  can  only  be  used  when 
that  side  pile  adjoins  the  Foundation 
card  on  which  it  belongs.  In  either 
case,  when  a  card  is  so  taken, 
another  is  at  once  dealt  in  its  place. 


EYES 


302 


EYES 


After  all  the  cards  have  been  dealt, 
any  top  card  can  be  used  in  building. 
The  top  card  on  any  corner  or  side 
pile  may  be  placed  on  any  other  of 
those  piles  whose  top  card  is  just 
above  or  just  below  it  in  rank,  and 
of  the  same  suit.  The  cards  may 
be  examined  at  any  time.  The 
cards  in  the  side  and  corner  piles 
may  be  twice  redealt.  If,  after  they 
have  been  played  the  third  time,  the 
piles  on  the  Foundation  cards  can 
be  completed,  the  player  has  won  ; 
otherwise,  he  has  been  defeated. 

EYES,    Experiments     with     the^ 
The  eyes  are  described  in  C.C.T. 

1.  Hold  up  the  forefinger  about  a 
foot  from   the  face,  and  look  at  an 
object  beyond  it,  a  tree  for  instance. 
The  forefinger   will  appear  double. 
Then   look    at    the   forefinger,   and 
the  tree    will    appear  double.     The 
reason    is  that    when  the   two  eyes 
are    looking  at    the   forefinger   the 
right  eye  sees  the  tree  on  the  right 
side  of  the   finger,  and  the  left  eye 
sees    it   on   the    left    side.      When 
they  are  both  looking  straight  at  the 
tree,  each  sees    the   forefinger  in  a 
different  place.     If  one  eye  be  cov- 
ered it  is  impossible   to  see   either 
forefinger  or  tree  double. 

2.  Place  two  bits  of  white  paper  on 
a  table,  about  two  feet  apart.     Cover 
the  left  eye,  and  with  the  right  look 
steadily  at  the  left  piece  of  paper,  at 
the  same  time  walking  slowly  back- 
ward.    A  snot  will  be  found  where 
the  ngnt  nancl  bit  ot  paper  will  dis- 
appear.    By   looking   with    the   left 
eye  at   the   right   hand  bit,  the   left 
hand  bit  can  be  made  to  vanish  in 
like  manner.     By  moving  the  head 
ever  so  little  forward  or   backward 
the  bit   of   paper  will   be   made  to 
appear  again.     The  nearer  the  pieces 
are  together  the  nearer  the  eye  has 
to  be  placed  to  them  to  make  one 
disappear.      If,   instead    of   bits    of 
paper  on  a  table,    pencil   dots   two 
inches  apart  on  a  sheet  of  paper  be 
tried  in  the  same  way,  one  will  van- 
ish when  the  paper  is  held  about  six 
inches  from  the  eye.     In  each  case 


the  reason  is  that  the  retina  of  every 
person's  eye  has  a  blind  spot  in  it, 
and  when  the  image  of  the  paper  or 
pencil  dot  falls  directly  on  that  spot, 
it  cannot  be  seen. 

3.  Hold    the    eye    two    or   three- 
inches  from  the  perpendicular  edge 
of  some  object  seen  against  a  bright 
background,  part  of  a  window  sash, 
for  instance,  or,  if  it  be  night,  a  ruler 
leaning  against  the  shade  of  alighted 
lamp.     Shut  one  eye,  and  holding  the 
edge  of  a  sheet  of  paper  close  to  the 
other  move   the   paper  to  and  fro. 
The  edge  of  the  object  will  seem  to 
move  out   to   meet  it.     Repeat  the 
same  thing,  standing  about  twenty 
feet  away  from  the  window  sash  or 
ruler,  and  the  edge  will   appear  to 
shrink  away  from  the  paper. 

4.  Let  one  person  hold  a  candle, 
lamp,  or  some  other  bright  object  in 
front  of  another's  eye.      He  will  see 
in  the  eye  three  reflections.      One  is 
from   the    outside    of    the    eyeball, 
another  from  one  surface  of  the  lens 
inside  the  eye,  and  the  third  from  the 
other  surface  of  the  lens. 

5.  Cut  out  of  black  paper  two  ex- 
actly similar  figures,  crosses  for  in- 
stance, and  place  them  side  by  side, 
almost  touching,  on  a  sheet  of  white 
paper.       Hold     them    about    three 
inches  in  front  of  the  eyes,  and  three 
figures  will  be  seen  instead  of  two. 
The  middle  one  consists  of  two,  the 
image  of  the  right   hand  figure,  as 
seen  by  the  right  eye,  being  added  to 
that  of  the  left  hand  figure  as  seen 
by  the  left  eye. 

6.  To    see    stereoscope    pictures 
without  a  stereoscope.      The  stereo- 
scope is  described  in  C.  C.  T.    Hold 
a  stereoscope  picture  before  the  eyes 
and  by  fixing  them  as  if  to  look  at  a 
distant  object  make  the  picture  ap- 
pear   double,   as    in  Experiment    I. 
With  practice,  the  eyes  can  be  so 
controlled    that    the     two    pictures 
nearest  each  other  can  be  made  to 
overlap  and  melt  into  one.  in  which 
objects  will  stand  out  just  as  when 
seen  through  the  stereoscope. 

7.  Place  a  scrap  of  colored  paper 


EYES 


303 


EYES 


or  cloth  on  a  gray  ground,  and  look 
steadily  at  it  for  about  a  minute. 
Snatch  the  scrap  away  and  in  its 
place  will  be  seen  a  spot  of  exactly 
the  same  shape  but  a  different  color. 
If  the  scrap  is  green,  the  spot  will  be 
red,  which  is  the  complementary  or 
opposite  color  to  green  ;  if  yellow 
the  spot  will  be  violet.  If,  instead  of 


Fig.  i. — Experiment  7. 

pulling  the  paper  away,  the  eye  be 
directed  to  the  ceiling,  the  spot  will 
be  seen  there.  These  spots,  which 
are  often  called  "ghosts,"  are  caused 
by  the  action  of  light  on  the  retina. 
The  accompanying  figure  (Fig.  i)  is 
a  good  one  to  experiment  on.  Look 
at  it  steadily  for  some  time  and  then 
look  at  the  ceiling,  where  it  will  short- 
ly appear  in  black  on  a  white  ground. 

8.  Light  a  splinter  of  wood,  and 
whirl  it  about  in  a  dark  room.      It 
will  seem  like  a  circle  of  fire.      This 
is  because  the  image  of  the  lighted  end 
remains  in  the  eye  while  it  is  being 
twirled  around.      For  other  experi- 
ments, showing  that  images  remain 
in  the  eye  for  a  fraction  of  a  second, 
see  THAUMATROPE,  ZOETROPE,  and 
Chameleon  TOP. 

9.  In  a  room  in  which  there  is  no 
other  light,  hold  a  candle  before  one 
eye,  closing  the  other.     The  candle 
must  be  moved  up  and  down  a  little 
on  one  side  of  the  eye  and  two  or 
three  inches  from  it.     Presently  there 


will  appear  black  shadows  on  a  red- 
dish ground,  looking  somewhat  like 
leafless  trees.  These  are  the  shadows 
of  the  blood-vessels  on  the  retina. 

10.  Hold    a  pin  so  near  the  eye 
that  it  appears  quite  blurred.     Look 
at  it  in  the  same  position  through  a 
pinhole  in  a  piece  of  paper,   and  it 
will  be  seen  distinctly.       In  this  way 
a   pinhole    in    paper    may    be   used 
to  look  at  other  small  objects.     It 
does  not  magnify  them,  but  enables 
us  to  hold  them  much  closer  to  the 
eye  than  we  otherwise  could. 

11.  Roll  up  a  sheet  of  paper  and 
look  through  it  with  one  eye,  keep- 
ing the   other  open.     Hold   up  the 
left  hand   in  front  of  the  other  eye, 
close  to  the  farther  end  of  the  roll, 
and    you   will  seem   to   be    looking 
through  a  hole  in  your  hand. 

12.  Divide    a    white     pasteboard 
disk  into  an  even 

number  of  sec- 
tions and  black- 
en every  other 
one,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  2.  Spin 
the  disk  rapidly 
by  means  of  a 
TWIRLER  and 
by  looking  at  it 
steadily  it  will 
appear  tinted, 
the  color  changing  wjth  the  speed  of 
rotation.  The  disk  generally  ap- 
pears greenish  first,  and  then  pinkish. 
Another  way  of  performing  the  ex- 
periment is  to  cut  away  sectors  from 
a  black  disk  and  then  rotate  it  be- 
tween the  eye  and  a  cloudy  sky. 
The  sky  will  gradually  assume 
different  tints  which  vary  with  the 
speed  of  the  disk.  None  of  these 
colors  are  real,  but  caused  by  the  ex- 
citement of  the  optic  nerve  by  a  rapid 
succession  of  darkness  and  light. 

13.  Cut  in  a  piece   of   cardboard 
two  square  holes,  each  about  half  an 
inch  square  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch 
apart.     Procure  a  number  of  bits  of 
glass  of  various  colors,  about  an  inch 
square,  and   fasten   two  behind  the 
holes  in  the  cardboard  by  means  of 


Fig.  2. 
Experiment  12. 


EYES 


304 


EYES 


elastic  bands.  Buy  of  an  optician 
what  is  called  a  double-refracting 
prism,  a  piece  of  Iceland-spar  or  j 
calc-spar  which  makes  objects  seen  | 
through  it  appear  double.  Hold  the 
card  up  to  a  window  or  lamp  and 
look  through  a  prism  at  it.  Each 
colored  hole  will  appear  double,  and 
by  holding  the  prism  at  the  proper 
distance,  one  color  can  be  made  to 
overlap  the  other,  so  that  the  eye 
sees  a  mixture  of  the  two.  Note 
what  this  is.  Now  unfasten  the  bits 
of  glass  and  look  through  both  to- 
gether at  the  light.  The  mixed 
color  is  entirely  different  from  that 
obtained  before.  The  reason  is  that 
in  the  first  case  one  color  really 
added  its  effect  to  the  other,  whereas 
in  the  second  case  the  color  seen  is 
merely  that  remaining  after  each 
glass  has  strained  certain  colors  out  of 
the  sunlight.  Thus,  suppose  blue  and 
yellow  glass  be  tried.  A  mixture  of 
pure  blue  and  yellow  light  makes 
white,  so  the  color  seen  through  the 
prism  will  be  whitish  gray.  But, 
when  looked  through  together  the 
glasses  will  appear  green,  because  the 
rays  of  light  are  the  only  ones  which 
will  pass  through  both  yellow  and 
blue  glass.  In  the  same  way  red  and 
green  appear  orange  by  the  first  meth- 
od and  dark  green  by  the  second  ;  red 
and  blue  seem  first  violet  and  then 
deep  red  ;  and  yellow  and  red  appear 
first  orange-yellow,  then  orange-red. 
14.  Darken  the  room  and  admit  a 
little  daylight  (not  direct  sunlight) 
through  an  opening.  With  this  throw 
the  shadow  of  a  rod  or  other  object 
on  a  white  wall  or  screen,  and  light 
a  candle,  so  as  to  throw  a  second 
shadow.  Alter  the  size  of  the  open- 
ing through  which  daylight  is  ad- 
mitted, so  as  to  make  the  two 
shadows  as  nearly  as  possible  of  the 
same  intensity.  The  shadow  thrown 
by  the  candle  is  really  white,  since  it 
is  the  only  part  of  the  wall  on  which 
pure  daylight  shines  alone,  yet  by 
contrast  it  appears  blue.  If  it  be 
looked  at  through  a  roll  of  black 
cardboard  or  paper  the  part  of  the 


wall  about  it  will  continue  to  appear 
blue,  even  when  the  candle  is  put 
out,  but  on  removing  the  roll  from 
the  eye,  it  seems  white  again,  and 
cannot  be  made  to  look  blue  except 
by  lighting  the  candle  a  second  time. 
15.  With  a  pair  of  compasses 
draw  six  or  eight  concentric  circles, 
as  near  one  another  as  possible. 
Make  four  dots,  dividing  the  outer- 
most circle  into  equal  parts,  and  then 
join  these  dots  by  straight  lines, 
drawn  with  the  aid  of  a  ruler.  (Fig. 
3.)  These  lines  will  appear  to  be 
curved  inward.  This  is  because  they 
cross  the  circles  at  different  angles. 


Fig.  3. — Experiment  15. 


and  the  judgment  of  the  observer 
cannot  help  attributing  this,  in  part, 
to  the  curvature  of  the  line. 

16.  Hold  horizontally,  a  little  be- 
low the  eyes,  a  rod  about  a  foot  long, 
with  its  near  end  six  or  eight  inches 
from  the  face  and  its  opposite  end 
pointing  directly  away.     Look  at  the 
near  end,  and  the  two  images  of  the 
rod  will  appear  like  a  V,  with  the 
point  toward  the  face.     Fix  the  eyes 
on  the  farther  end,  and  the  V  will 
have  its  point  away  from  the  face. 

17.  Press  the  closed  eye  with  the 
finger  tip  close  to  the  nose.     A  dark 
spot  with  a  light  border  will  be  seen 
on  the  other  side  of  the  eye.     If  the 
eyeball  be  pressed  on  the  outside  the 
spot  will  be  seen  on  the  inside. 


EYES 


305 


EYES 


1 8.  Rub  or  press  the  closed  eyes  for 
some  time,  and  designs  and  spots  of 
various  shapes  and  colors  will  be  seen 
changing  of  themselves  or  accord- 
ing to  the  varying  pressure.     These 
spots  are  all  caused  by  the  excitement 
of  the  optic  nerve  by  pressure. 

19.  Draw  a  number  of  lines  con- 
verging to  a  point  toward  either  the 
right  or  the  left,  and  then  draw  sev- 
eral upright  lines  of  the  same  length 
across  these  as  in  Fig.  4.     If  any  one 


Fig.  4. — Experiment  19. 

who  does  not  know,  be  asked  which 
is  the  largest  of  the  upright  lines, 
he  will  be  apt  to  point  out  the  one 
crossed  by  the  greatest  number  of 
the  converging  lines. 

20.  After  reading   for  some  time 
with  one  side  toward  a  window,  close 
the  eyes  alternately,  and  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  paper  of  the  book  has 
a  greenish  tinge  when  seen  by  that 
eye   alone   which   was   next   to   the 
window.     This  effect  is  stronger  if 
the  light  be  very  bright. 

The  reason  is  that  the  light,  shin- 
ing through  the  blood-vessels  in  the 
eyelid,  tries  that  part  of  the  eye  that 
appreciates  red,  and  so  a  white  page 
appears  to  it  slightly  tinted  with  the 
complementary  or  opposite  color, 
green. 

2 1 .  Observe  the  letter  S  in  a  book, 
for  instance  the  one  just  given.    The 
bottom  and  top  seem  to  be  of  about 
the  same  size.     Turn  the  book  up- 


side down  and  look  at  the  same 
letter.  What  is  now  the  bottom 
appears  much  the  smaller  part. 
The  reason  is  that  the  eye  tends  to 
magnify  the  upper  part  of  a  figure. 
For  this  reason  the  lower  half  of  the 
S's  are  usually  made  a  little  larger 
than  the  upper,  to  balance  this  ten- 
dency, but  when  the  letter  is  inverted 
the  larger  half  is  now  at  the  top  and 
so  looks  larger  still. 

22.  Cut  out  two  pieces  of  paper  of 
exactly  the  same  size,  shaped  as  in 


Fig.  5. — Experiment  22. 


Fig.  5,  and  place  them  as  there 
shown.  The  eye  will  usually  judge, 
at  first  sight,  that  the  lower  is  the 
longer.  If  the  pieces  be  made  of 
different  colors,  to  distinguish  them, 
and  their  places  be  changed,  one  will 
seem  to  have  decreased  and  the  other 
to  have  increased. 

23.  Make  a  pinhole  in  a  card  and 
hold  it  three  or  four  inches  before 
the  eye.  Hold  a  pin-head  as  close  to 
the  eye  as  possible  and  it  will  be 
seen,  upside  down,  in  the  pinhole. 
This  is  because,  though  the  pin  is 
much  too  near  the  eye  to  form  an 
image  on  the  retina,  the  ray  of  light 
through  the  pinhole  causes  it  to  cast 
a  shadow  there.  This  shadow  is 
upright,  whereas  the  images  of  ob- 
jects are  inverted,  so,  as  they  appear 
right  side  up,  the  shadow  appears  up- 
side down.  If  several  pinholes  be 
made  instead  of  one,  the  pin-head 
will  be  seen  in  each  one  of  them,  be- 
cause each  ray  of  light  throws  a 
separate  shadow  of  the  pin-head  on 


EYES 


306 


EYES 


a  different  part  of  the  retina.  Any 
object  of  similar  size  may  be  used  in- 
stead of  the  pin,  and  if  it  be  moved 
in  any  direction  the  shadow  will  be 
seen  to  move  in  the  contrary  direc- 
tion. If  the  eyelashes  be  allowed  to 
fall  over  the  eye,  their  shadows  will  be 
seen  to  move  upward  in  the  pinholes. 
24.  Look  at  Fig.  6.  The  horizon- 
tal lines  appear  to  be  nearer  to- 
gether at  the  middle  than  at  the 
ends,  but  this  is  not  so.  They 
are  quite  straight  and  parallel. 


The  appearance  is  due  entirely  to 
the  diagonal  lines  above  and  below 
them. 

25.  Look    at   anything    having  a 

|  regular  pattern,  such  as  a   piece  of 

figured  cloth  or  calico,  or  better  still 

a  piece  of  wire  netting  or  the  seat  of 

a  cane-bottomed  chair.     By  relaxing 

the  eyes  so  that  they  will  be  fixed  on 

1  a  point  beyond  the  object,  the  two 

|  images   of  the  figured  surface  may 

'  be  made  to  appear  to  slide  one  over 

the  other,  and   by  practice  may  be 


Fig.  6. — Experiment  24. 


made  to  stop  where  the  observer 
pleases.  If  he  thus  causes  the  im- 
age of  each  figure  to  coincide  with 
the  one  next  to  it,  the  surface  will 
seem  farther  from  his  eye  and  the 
figures  larger.  If  he  causes  the 
images  to  overlap  still  more,  so  that 
each  falls  on  the  second  one  from  it, 
the  effect  will  be  increased,  and  so 
on.  If  he  fixes  his  eye  on  a  point 
nearer  him  than  the  surface,  the 
latter  will  appear  nearer,  and  the 


figures  smaller.  If  the  observer 
cannot  direct  his  eyes  to  one  point 
while  noticing  another  he  should  hold 
his  finger  either  in  front  of  the  sur- 
face or  behind  it,  and  look  directly  at 
it,  trying  at  the  same  time  to  watch 
the  figures  on  the  surface. 

This  experiment  requires  consid- 
erable practice,  and  some  peopl« 
find  it  more  difficult  than  others. 
When  properly  done  the  effect  is 
striking. 


FAMOUS   NUMBERS 


307 


FANORONA 


the   image    on    the    retina    is    dis- 
torted. 

27.  View  a  straight  line,  a,  through 


26.  Darken  the  room  and  cover 
one  window  with  cloth  or  paper 
having  the  figure  of  a  cross  cut 
through  it.  Look  steadfastly  at  this 
for  a  few  seconds  and  then  look  at 
the  wall  of  the  room.  The  "after 
image  "  of  the  cross  will  be  seen. 
If  the  eye  be  now  directed,  with- 
out moving  the  head,  to  one  of  the 
corners  of  the  room  the  arms  of 
the  cross  will  appear  twisted  so 
that  the  cross  will  look  thus  *f»  or 
thus  J^. 

This   is   because    the   eyeball    is 

twisted  a  little  in  turning  it  toward    Fig.  7.     It    will  appear  to  broaden 
the  corner  of   the    room,   so   that   as  it  nears  the  eye. 


Fig-  7.— Experiment  27. 
a  pinhole,  o,  in  a  card,  as  shown  in 


F 


FABA-BAGA.    See  BEAN  BAGS. 
FAGGOTS.       See      Fox      AND 

GEESE,  II. 

FAMOUS  NUMBERS,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
each  of  whom  writes  a  number  on  a 
slip  of  paper.  The  slips  are  mixed  in 
a  hat,  and  each  player  draws  one. 
Each  in  order  must  then  explain  for 
what  the  number  he  drew  is  famous, 
or  pay  a  forfeit.  For  instance,  the 
number  three  may  be  said  to  be 
celebrated  on  account  of  the  Three 
Graces.  Two  for  Shakespere's 
"  Two  Gentlemen  of  Verona."  Ten 
for  the  Council  of  Ten,  and  so  on. 

FANORONA,  a  game  played  by 
two  persons,  with  22  white  and  22 
black  pieces  or  men,  arranged  on  a 


Fanorona  Board. 

board  like  that  shown  in  the  diagram. 
The  players  sit  opposite  each  other, 
and  take  turns  in  moving.  A  piece 


may  be  moved  to  any  adjacent  un- 
occupied angle,  forward,  backward, 
diagonally,  or  to  either  side.  If, 
when  any  move  is  made,  a  piece  is 
face  to  face  with  one  of  the  enemy's, 
no  vacant  space  being  between,  all 
of  the  enemy's  pieces  extending  in 
unbroken  line  in  the  direction  of 
attack  are  captured  and  removed  from 
the  board.  If  the  line  is  interrupted 
by  a  vacant  space,  or  hostile  piece, 
the  men  are  captured  only  as  far  as 
such  space  or  piece.  He  who  suc- 
ceeds first  in  capturing  all  his  oppo- 
nents' pieces  wins  the  game. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  The  first  player  is  allowed  only 
one  move. 

2.  After  the  opening  of  the  game, 
each  player  is  allowed  to  move,  using 
any  piece  he  pleases,  so  long  as  he 
continues    to    capture.      When    he 
ceases  to  capture,  his  opponent  be- 
gins his  turn. 

3.  A    player  must  not   return    at 
once  to  a  point  he  has  just  left. 

4.  A  player  must  not  capture  in 
any  direction  immediately  after  mak- 
ing a  capture  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion. 

Fanorona  is  the  national  game  of 
the  natives  of  Madagascar,  who  have 
reduced  it  to  a  science.  In  Mada- 
gascar a  defeated  player  is  not  al- 


FARM   YARD 


308 


FEELING 


lowed  to  play  his  second  game  on 
the  same  footing  as  the  first,  but 
must  play  a  new  form  of  it,  called 
Vela.  In  this  form  the  defeated 
player  plays  first,  and  the  other  ex- 
poses to  capture  such  pieces  as  he 
chooses,  till  seventeen  have  been 
taken,  but  these  can  be  taken  only 
one  at  a  time.  Until  the  entire  num- 
ber are  captured,  the  owner  of  them 
can  make  no  captures.  The  game 
then  goes  on  as  in  the  ordinary  way. 
A  defeated  player  is  allowed  to  play 
only  the  Vela  game,  till  he  has  won 
a  victory. 

FARM  YARD,  THE,  a  trick  in  the 
form  of  a  game.  One  of  the  com- 
pany, chosen  as  leader,  tells  the 
others  that  they  must  sit  in  a  circle, 
and  each  personates  some  animal. 
He  says  that  he  will  first  whisper  in 
the  ear  of  each  what  noise  he  is  to 
make,  and  that  all  must  rise  and 
make  their  noises  at  a  given  signal. 
He  then  whispers  to  each,  directing 
them  all  to  remain  quiet,  except  one, 
whom  he  tells  to  bray  like  a  donkey. 
When  the  signal  is  given,  the  victim 
of  the  trick  rises  and  brays,  while 
the  others  sit  still. 

FARRAGO.  See  SYNTHESIS. 

FAST  RUNNERS,  a  running  game 
played  by  any  odd  number  of  per- 
sons. All  but  one  are  arranged  in  a 
column  by  pairs,  all  facing  toward 
the  same  end  of  the  column.  The 
remaining  player  stands  alone  at  the 
head  of  the  column,  and  at  a  signal 
from  him  the  two  at  the  foot  divide 
and  run  on  the  outside  of  the  lines 
past  the  head,  after  which  they  take 
different  directions.  If  the  one  at  the 
head  can  catch  either  before  they 
meet  again  and  join  hands,  that  one 
must  take  his  place,  and  he  becomes 
the  partner  of  the  other,  standing 
close  to  the  head  of  the  line.  If  the 
couple  join  hands  before  either  is 
caught,  they  stand  close  to  the  head, 
and  the  unsuccessful  runner  is  at  the 
head  again.  At  the  signal  the  couple 
now  left  at  the  foot  begin  to  run  in 
like  manner,  and  so  on  till  the  play- 
ers are  tired.  Neither  of  the  runners 


can  be  touched  until  he  has  passed 
the  head  of  the  column. 

In  Germany  this  game  is  called 
Fang  Schon  (Begin  now),  and  in 
Russia  "It  Burns,"  from  the  cries  of 
the  runners.  In  Belgium  it  is  called 
"  Bride  and  Bridegroom,"  and  in 
Suabia  Brautlauf  (The  Bride  Chase). 
These  last  names  seem  to  show  that 
it  is  derived  from  the  old  custom  of 
requiring  the  bridegroom  to  carry  off 
the  bride  by  force,  or  pretend  to  do  so. 

FEELINC,  Experiments  on,  i. 
Cross  the  forefinger  and  middle  fin- 
ger of  one  hand,  and  with  the  tips 
feel  a  marble  or  small  pebble  held  in 
the  palm  of  the  other.  It  will  feel  as 
if  there  were  two  marbles.  The 
reason  is  that  the  marble  is  felt  at 
the  same  time  by  the  two  sides  of  the 
fingers  which  are  usually  farthest 
from  each  other,  and  the  mind  can- 
not help  concluding  that  there  are 
two  marbles.  The  best  way  of  per- 
forming the  experiment  is  to  let  some 
one  else  cross  his  fingers,  shut  his 
eyes,  and  guess  how  many  marbles 
he  feels.  If  more  than  one  held  in 
the  hand,  guessing  becomes  still 
more  difficult. 

2.  Prick  a  person's  hand  with  two 
pins   held   very  close   together.      It 
will   be   found   that   he  cannot   tell 
when  you  use  two  points  and  when 
only  one,  provided  the  points  touch 
him  exactly  at  the  same  time.     On 
some  parts  of  the  body  the  pins  may 
be  held  about  half  an  inch  apart  be- 
fore the  two  separate  pricks  can  be 
feels.     The  reason  is  that  the  nerves 
of  the  skin  form  a  network  which  is 
much  closer  in  some  places  than  in 
others.     Where  the  meshes  are  very 
large  the  nerves  cannot  distinguish 
two  sensations  which  are  very  near 
together.     If  blunter  points  be  used 
than  those  of  pins,  the  effect  is  more 
striking. 

3.  Take  a  long  hair,  and  with  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  one  hand 
pull  it  through  those  of  the  other, 
first  in  one  direction  and  then  in  the 
other.      It  will  be  found  that  it  slips 
easily  one  way  and  will  scarcely  slip 


FEMME  SOLE 


309 


FEMME  SOLE 


at  all  in  the  other.  The  reason  is 
that  each  hair  is  covered  with  a  kind 
of  scales  which  grow  in  one  direc- 
tion, and  it  is  therefore  easier  to  rub 
the  hand  over  it  one  way  than  the 
other,  though  the  scales  cannot  be 
seen  with  the  naked  eye.  The  direc- 
tion in  which  it  is  easiest  to  stroke 
hair  is  always  down,  or  from  the  root, 
hence  it  is  always  possible  to  tell  by 
feeling  which  end  of  a  hair  grew 
nearest  the  root. 

4.  Fill  one  glass  with  water  almost 
as   warm    as   the    hand   can    bear, 
another  with  cold  water,  and  a  third 
with   lukewarm    water.     Hold    one 
hand    in  the  warm  water  and  the 
other  in  the  cold  water  for  about  15 
or  20  seconds,  and  then  put  them 
into  the   lukewarm  water.      It   will 
feel  warm  to  the    hand  which  has 
been  in  the  cold  water,  and  cold  to 
the  other.     The  reason  is  that  we 
cannot    really   tell    the   temperature 
of  objects   by  the   touch,  but  only 
whether  they  are  warmer  or  colder 
than  ourselves. 

5.  Put  a  piece  of  iron  and  a  piece 
of  wood  into  the  ice  box  of  a  re- 
frigerator, and  let  them  remain  sev- 
eral  hours,   long    enough    for  both 
to  get  ice  cold.      Then  take  them  in 
the  hand,  and  the  iron  will  feel  colder 
than    the    wood.     Put    them    in    a 
moderately  warm  oven   for  half  an 
hour,   and    feel   them   again.      This 
time  the  iron  will  be  the  warmer. 
The  iron  may  be  even  too  hot  to 
hold,  while  the  wood  can  be  taken 
up  easily.     The  reason  is  that  iron  is 
a  better  conductor  of  heat  than  wood. 
Heat  therefore  goes  from  the  iron  to 
the  hand,  when  it  is  hot,  faster  than 
it  does  from  the  wood,  and  iron  takes 
heat  away  from  the  hand  faster  when 
it  is  cold. 

FEMME  SOLE,  a  game  of  CARDS, 
played  by  three  persons  with  a  full 
pack.  The  deal  is  determined  by 
cutting,  the  lowest  card  indicating 
the  dealer.  He  separates  a  EUCHRE 
pack  from  the  full  pack,  and  deals 
eleven  cards,  one  by  one,  to  each  of 
the  other  players  and  ten  to  himself. 


He  then  takes  the  remaining  cards 
of  the  full  pack,  called  the  Stock, 
shuffles  them,  and  gives  them  to  the 
player  on  his  right  to  cut.  The  card 
cut  determines  the  trump  suit,  and 
the  dealer  then  takes  the  Deuce  of 
that  suit  from  the  stock,  to  complete 
his  own  hand.  There  is  thus  in  play, 
besides  the  regular  Euchre  pack,  one 
Deuce,  which,  as  the  trump  changes, 
is  sometimes  of  the  trump  suit  and 
sometimes  not.  It  always  ranks  as 
the  highest  card  in  the  pack,  except 
when  played  in  its  own  suit,  where 
it  is  lowest,  as  in  Whist.  The  high- 
est trump  is  the  Queen,  called  Femme 
Sole  (a  French  term  used  in  law  to 
mean  an  unmarried  woman).  The 
eldest  hand  now  leads  any  card  ex- 
cept the  Deuce.  Suit  must  be  fol- 
lowed, if  possible  (except  that  the 
Deuce  may  be  played  out  of  suit), 
and  the  trick  must  be  taken,  if  possi- 
ble. The  winner  scores  one  for  the 
trick,  which  he  takes  into  his  own 
hand,  making  the  hands  equal  again 
by  giving  to  each  of  the  other  players 
one  of  his  cards,  according  to  the 
following  plan  : 

1.  If    one    of    the    others    holds 
Femme    Sole,    and    the    other    the 
Deuce,  he  gives  to  the  holder  of  each 
card  a  card  in  its  suit. 

2.  If  the  two   should    be    in  the 
same  hand  he  gives  a  card  in  the 
Deuce  suit  to  that  hand,  and  placing 
the  Deuce  in  the  stock,  substitutes 
for  it  any  other  Deuce  he  pleases, 
telling  what   it   is,  as    he  does    so. 
This  is  called  "  clearing  the  Deuce." 
To  the  third  player  he  gives  any  card 
he  chooses. 

3.  If  the  Deuce  and  Femme,  or 
either  of  them,  are  in  his  own  hand, 
he  gives  a  trump  to  the  player  with 
the  highest  trump,  and  any  card  to 
the  other  player. 

4.  Should  he  not  be  able  to  do  as 
he  should,  he  may  give  out  any  card 
he  pleases,  but  then  is  not  allowed 
to  score  for  the  trick. 

The  winner  shuffles  and  cuts  the 
stock  for  a  new  trump  after  each 
trick,  but  there  is  no  fresh  deal  till 


FENCING 


310 


FENCING 


the  close  of  the  game,  which  is  won 
by  the  first  player  who  makes  eleven 
points. 

The  general  rules  for  playing  are 
as  in  WHIST.  It  is  best  to  lead  from 
a  long  suit,  and  in  giving  out  after 
each  trick,  low  cards  should  be  cho- 
sen. Deuce  is  least  valuable  when 
it  is  unsupported  by  other 
cards  of  the  same  suit,  for 
then,  by  leading  that  suit, 
an  opponent  may  force  the 
holder  to  play  it,  when  it 
will  be  taken,  being  low  in 
its  own  suit.  When  a  player 
gets  the  privilege  of  "  clearing  the 
Deuce,"  therefore,  he  should  select, 
as  the  new  Deuce,  one  of  whose  suit 
the  holder  of  the  Deuce  has  very  few. 

FENCING,  exercising  with  foils. 
Fencing  foils  are  tipped  with  metal 
or  gutta  percha  buttons,  so  that  no 
injury  can  result  from  a  touch,  but 
both  contestants  usually  wear  leather 
jackets  to  protect  them  in  case  a 
button  should  break  off,  and  each 


resting  under  the  wrist.  The  foil 
should  be  held  lightly,  but  so  that  the 
fingers  will  take  an  instantaneous 
grip,  (see  Fig.  2.)  The  various  move- 
ments in  fencing,  which  are  chiefly 
called  by  French  names,  will  now  be 
described.  By  carefully  learning 
their  names,  and  practicing  them, 


Fig.  i. — Fencing  Mask. 


has  over  his  face  a  mask  of  wire 
gauze  (see  Fig.  i)  and  a  padded 
glove  on  his  right  hand. 

The  foil  should  be  held  with  the 
hilt  (or  handle)  flat  in  the  han-d,  the 
thumb  being  stretched  along  the 
upper  side,  a.nd  the  pommel,  or  end, 


Fig.  2. — Holding  FoiL 


beginners  will  soon  be  ready  to  apply 
them  and  vary  them  in  actual  con- 
tests, when  parrying  or  thrusting. 
The  principal  kinds  are  the  Engage, 
the  Guard,  the  Thrust,  and  the 
Parade.  The  Engage  is  a  position 
where  the  adversaries'  foils  touch 
each  other ;  the  Guard  is  a  position 
of  the  foil  intended  to  protect  its 
holder;  the  Thrust  is  a  forward  mo- 
tion of  the  foil  toward  the  opponent 
in  an  endeavor  to  touch  him  ;  and 
the  Parade  is  a  movement  of  the 
foil  to  parry,  or  turn  aside,  a  thrust. 
Any  of  these  positions  or  movements 
may  be  in  Prime,  Seconde,  Tierce, 
Carte  (or  Quart).  Quinte,  Sixte,  Half 
Circle  or  Octave  (words  derived  from 
the  French  numerals  from  I  to  8), 
according  to  the  way  in  which  the 
foil  is  pointed  and  held,  as  will  now 
be  explained.  What  are  called  the 
lines  of  defense  are  illustrated  by 
Fig.  3,  which  is  supposed  to  show 
the  body  of  the  fencer's  opponent 
divided  into  quarters  by  two  lines,  a 
horizontal  and  a  vertical.  The  space 
on  the  right  is  called  the  outside,  and 
that  on  the  left  the  inside,  and  the 
quarters,  called  the  '  lines  of  de- 
fense," are  thus  the  Inside  high, 
Outside  high,  Inside  low,  and  Out- 
side low.  Each  of  these  quarters 
may  be  defended  by  two  different 
positions  of  the  foil.  In  each  the 
sword-hand  is  supposed  to  be  oppo- 
site the  center  and  the  foil  extending 
into  the  quarter  to  be  defended. 
Before  engaging  in  a  regular  con- 


FENCING 


FENCING 


test,  the  fencers  must  practice  some 
of  the  most  common  positions  and 
movements.  Each  fencer  first  as- 
sumes what  is  called  the  first  posi- 
tion, by  placing  the  right  heel  in  the 
hollow  of  the  left  foot,  and  holding 
the  foil  just  below  the  hilt,  between 
the  thumb  and  fingers  of  the  left 
hand,  so  that  it  hangs  at  the  left  side 
(Fig.  4).  The  right  arm  hangs  down 
easily  and  the  right  side  is  turned 
toward  the  opponent.  The  fencer 
then  takes  "  second  position  "  (Fig. 


Fig.  3. — Lines  of  Defense. 


5),  by  bending  his  right  arm  across 
his  body,  and  taking  the  foil  by  the 
hilt,  and  "third  position"  (Fig.  6), 
by  raising  both  hands  above  the 
head,  sliding  the  foil  through  the  left 
thumb  and  fingers  till  they  hold  it 
near  the  button.  Both  knees  are 
now  slightly  bent  till  they  are  directly 
above  the  toes,  and  the  fencer  steps 
out  about  two  feet  with  his  right 
foot,  the  knees  being  kept  bent.  The 


foil  is  now  released  with  the  left 
hand  and  brought  down  so  that  the 
point  appears  to  cover  the  oppo- 
nent's left  eye.  The  right  arm, 
which  holds  the  foil,  is  bent,  the  el- 
bow drawn  in,  and  the  hand  on  a 
level  with  the  chest.  To  balance  the 
right  arm  and  foil,  the  left  arm  is 
still  held  up  in  a  curve,  the  palm  to- 
ward the  right,  and  about  as  high  as 
the  top  of  the  head.  The  body  is 
upright  and  supported  on  both  legs. 
The  fencer  is  now  "  on  guard  in 
carte  "  (see  Fig.  7). 

The  guard  "  in  tierce  "  differs  from 
this  only  in  reversing  the  hand,  so 
that  the  nails  are  half-turned  down- 
ward, and  in  stretching  the  arm  a 
little  outward,  to  cover  the  outside 
of  the  body.  When  two  fencers  en- 
gage in  carte  (see  Fig.  8),  each  has 
his  foil  on  the  right  of  his  adver- 
sary's, that  is  on  his  adversary's 
inside,  so  the  guard  of  carte  is 
called  an  "  inside  guard."  In  the 
engage  of  tierce  the  foils  touch  on 
the  other  side,  it  being  an  "  outside 
guard."  When  a  fencer  shifts  his 
foil  from  carte  to  tierce,  or  vice  versa, 
he  is  said  to  "disengage."  This  is 
done  in  carte  or  tierce  by  lowering 
the  foil  just  enough  to  clear  the  ad- 
versary's, and  raising  it  on  the  other 
side.  In  engaging,  the  foils  are 
crossed  at  a  point  about  nine  inches 
from  the  point.  The  most  common 
guards,  besides  those  already  de- 
scribed, are  those  of  half-circle  and 
octave.  The  half-circle  guard  is  an 
inside  low  guard,  usually  to  protect 
against  a  thrust  in  second  or  low 
carte  (see  below).  To  take  it,  the 
hand  is  raised  to  the  left  shoul- 
der, the  elbow  turned  in,  and  the 
point  of  the  foil  is  held  on  a  level 
with  the  adversary's  waist.  The 
octave  is  a  low  outside  guard,  gener- 
ally used  against  the  thrust  of  octave 
(see  Fig.  9).  The  hand  is  raised  to 
the  chest,  with  the  point  of  the  foil 
on  a  level  with  the  lower  part  of  the 
adversary's  chest.  In  disengaging 
from  the  guards  of  half-circle  and 
octave,  the  foil  is  slipped  over  that 


FENCING 


312 


FENCING 


of   the   opponent,  not  under,  as  in 
tierce. 

Thrusts.     The   usual  thrusts  are 


made  by  means  of  the  half  longe  (or 
lunge)  and  the  longe.  To  make  the 
half-longe,  the  fencer  stands  on 


Fig.  4. — First  Position.     Fig.  5. — Second  Position.     Fig.  6. — Third  Position. 


guard  and  first  straightens  the  right 
arm,  bringing  the  hand  up  as  high  as 
his  face,  and  additional  impetus  is 


gained  by  throwing  the  left  hand 
down,  palm  outward,  so  that  the  arm 
is  parallel  with  the  leg ;  simultane- 


Fig.  7. — On  Guard  in  Carte. 


ously,  the  left  knee  is  straightened 
and  the  weight  of  the  body  thrown 
on  the  right  leg,  without  moving 


either  foot  from  the  ground.  The 
full  longe  is  made  in  like  manner, 
but  by  also  stepping  forward  with 


FENCING 


313 


FENCING 


the  right  foot  as  the  weight  is  thrown 
on  it  (see  Fig.  10).  Reversing  these 
movements  so  as  to  bringthefenceron 
guard  again,  is  called  "  recovering." 


When  the  fencer,  being  on  guard, 
wishes  to  advance,  he  moves  the  right 
foot  forward  about  a  foot,  and  in- 
stantly, almost  at  the  same  time,  fol- 


Fig.  8. — Engaged  in  Carte. 


lows  with  the  left,  so  that  the  dis- 
tance between  his  feet  remains  the 
same.  In  retiring,  the  left  foot 
makes  the  first  movement. 


The  thrusts  usually  take  their 
name  from  the  .position  of  the  fencer 
when  he  makes  the  longe.  Thus 
the  straight  thrust  in  carte  is  made 


Fig.  9. — Guard  of  Octave. 


'from  the  engage  in  carte.  Whenever 
the  fencer  sees  that  his  opponent  is 
not  "  covering  "  or  protecting  him- 
self, there  is  said  to  be  an  "  open- 


ing." In  like  manner,  the  semi- 
circle thrust  (also  called  low  carte) 
is  made  from  the  semicircle  guard, 
and  the  octave  thrust  in  like  manner, 


FENCING 


FENCING 


The  thrust  in  carte  over  the  adver- 
sary's arm  is  made  from  the  guard 
in  tierce  and  differs  from  the  thrust 
in  tierce  only  having  the  nails  turned 
upward.  The  thrust  in  second  is 
made  from  the  engage  of  tierce 
by  dropping  the  point  of  the  foil 
under  the  adversary's  wrist.  The 
fencer  sometimes  recovers  from  a 
thrust  to  the  same  guard  as  before, 
and  sometimes  to  a  different  one. 
What  is  called  the  Time-thrust  is 
made  when  an  adversary  is  dilatory 
or  not  well  covered.  It  is  made 
by  opposing  the  adversary's  foil 
strongly,  and  then  longing  quickly. 

Parades.     The  simplest    parades 
are  those  of  carte  and  tierce,  which 


are  called  upper  parades.  That  of 
carte  is  made  from  guard  in  carte  by 
throwing  the'  hand  about  six  inches 
inward  making  an  upward  turn  with 
the  wrist,  and  at  the  same  time 
drawing  the  foil  back  slightly,  thus 
throwing  off  the  opponent's  foil. 
The  point  of  the  foil,  the  body,  and 
the  legs  should  be  kept  in  the  same 
plane  while  executing  the  movement. 
The  parade  in  tierce  is  likewise  macie 
from  the  guard  in  tierce  by  stretch- 
ing the  arm  obliquely  downward  to 
the  right  about  six  inches.  The 
parades  of  octave  and  half-circle  are 
performed  by  bringing  the  foil  into 
the  positions  of  the  octave  and  half- 
circle  guards,  and  there  turning  aside 


Fig.  10. — The  Longe. 


the  opponent's  foil.  The  parade  of 
prime  is  made  from  the  engage  of 
tierce  by  bending  the  arm  and  wrist, 
raising  the  hand  to  the  chin,  draw- 
ing the  arm  inward  at  the  same  time, 
and  pointing  the  foil  toward  the 
lower  part  of  the  opponent's  chest. 
Counters,  or  Round  Parades. 
These  are  performed  by  following 
the  foil  of  the  adversary  in  a  small 
circle.  For  instance,  being  engaged 
in  carte,  if  the  fencer's  opponent  dis- 
engage he  follows  the  latter's  blade 
closely  with  his  own  by  moving  the 
wrist  only,  so  as  to  join  him  again 


in  carte.  The  parade  of  countei 
tierce  is  made  in  like  manner,  only 
in  the  reverse  direction.  The  half- 
circle,  octave,  and  other  counters  are 
made  similarly. 

Feints,  movements  intended  to 
deceive  an  adversary  and  force  him 
to  uncover  himself.  The  feint  of 
One,  Two  (sometimes  called  by  the 
French  name  Une,  Deux)  is  per- 
formed by  two  disengagements. 
For  instance,  when  disengaging  from 
carte  to  tierce,  if  the  opponent  takes 
the  guard  of  tierce,  the  fencer  may 
quickly  disengage  back  to  carte  and 


FENCING 


315 


FENCING 


longe.  The  same  feint  in  reverse 
order  can  be  performed  when  en- 
gaged in  tierce.  The  feint  of  One, 
Two,  Three  (or  Une,  Deux,  Trots) 
is  performed  in  like  manner  by  three 
disengagements,  the  last  accom- 
panied by  a  longe. 

Cut  over  the  Point,  a  movement 
executed  by  a  fencer  when  his  oppo- 
nent holds  his  hand  low  and  the 
point  of  his  foil  high.  Being  engaged 
in  carte,  it  is  performed  by  raising 
the  wrist  so  as  to  pass  the  foil  over 
that  of  the  adversary  without  expos- 
ing the  body  by  moving  the  arm. 
At  the  same  moment  the  thrust  of 
carte  over  the  arm  is  given.  This  is 


called  the  cut  over  the  point  from 
carte  to  tierce  (see  Fig.  11);  that 
from  tierce  to  carte  is  performed  in 
like  manner. 

Appels,  Beats,  and  Glizades. 
These  are  movements  intended  to 
confuse  an  adversary.  An  appel  is 
performed  by  beating  on  the  floor 
with  the  right  foot :  a  beat,  or  beat 
on  the  blade,  is  executed  by  sharply 
striking  the  adversary's  foil ;  and  a 
glisade  by  gliding  the  foil  along  that 
of  the  opponent,  at  the  same  time 
extending  the  arm. 

The  Salute.  Previous  to  a  fencing 
contest  it  is  customary  for  the  fencers 
to  go  through  certain  movements  as 


Fig.  ii. — Cut  over  Point. 


a  form  of  courtesy  (see  Fig.  12). 
These  movements  are  also  useful  as 
exercises  for  the  learner.  The  first 
three  positions  having  been  taken  as 
already  described,  the  fencers  take 
guard  in  tierce,  each  with  his  foil  out 
of  the  line  of  his  opponent's  body, 
and  then  each  beats  twice  with  his 
right  foot.  One  then  asks  the  other 
other  to  thrust  first,  whereupon  the 
latter  longes  in  carte,  but  without 
touching  the  body,  by  this  means 
measuring  his  distance.  After  the 
one  who  thrust  has  recovered,  each 


brings  his  right  foot  up  to  the  hollow 
of  the  left,  drops  his  left  hand,  and 
brings  his  right  hand  under  his  chin, 
with  the  foil  raised  vertically.  He 
then  pet  forms  the  parades  of  carte 
and  tierce,  bringing  his  hand  under 
his  chin  again,  at  the  close  of  each  ; 
then  by  a  circular  movement  of  both 
hands  passes  quickly' to  the  guard  of 
carte.  The  one  who  first  thrust, 
now  makes  six  disengages.  At 
each  disengage  from  carte  to  tierce, 
his  opponent  parries  in  tierce,  at  the 
same  time  turning  the  hand,  nails 


FENCING 


FENCING 


downward,  and  dropping  the  point 
of  his  foil.  When  the  thruster  takes 
guard  in  tierce  the  opponent  en- 
gages, at  the  same  time  making  an 
appel.  Each  disengage  back  to 
carte  is  similarly  met,  the  foil  being 
turned  in  a  half  circle,  nails  up,  af- 
ier  the  parry.  After  making  the  six 
disengages  thus,  the  fencer  feints 
One,  Two,  without  thrusting,  re- 
covers in  tierce,  brings  his  right  foot 
into  the  hollow  of  his  left,  and  drops 
his  left  hand  to  his  side.  He  then 
asks  his  opponent  to  thrust,  and  the 
whole  salute  is  performed  again, 
the  movements  being  interchanged. 


Skilled   fencers   do  not   put   on  the 
mask  till  after  finishing  the  salute. 

The  Assault.  A  regular  fencing 
contest  in  which  each  fencer  tries  to 
touch  the  other  by  using  any  of  the 
movements  described,  in  any  order. 
In  the  assault  each  fencer  should 
look  steadily  in  his  opponent's  eyes, 
so  as  not  to  betray  the  movements 
he  intends  to  make.  It  is  well  to  act 
at  first  on  the  defensive  to  discover 
what  are  the  favorite  thrusts  or 
feints  of  an  adversary.  At  the  same 
time  the  latter  should  use  all  the 
different  movements,  as  much  as 
possible,  in  order  not  to  give  such 


Fig.  12. — The  Salute. 


information.  A  good  fencer  must 
not  only  be  able  to  longe,  recover, 
advance,  and  retreat  quickly,  but 
must  also  have  what  is  called  a  good 
opposition  ;  that  is,  he  must  always 
stand  with  his  right  side  toward  his 
adversary,  and  cover  himself  well 
with  his  foil.  He  must  be  able,  by 
the  pressure  of  his  adversary's  foil 
on  his  own,  to  tell  what  the  latter 
intends  to  do,  and  must  be  able  and 
ready  to  take  advantage  of  all  open- 
ings his  adversary  gives,  without 
giving  any  himself. 

The  following  examples  serve  to 


show  how  some  of  the  movements 
already  described  are  used,  and 
would  be  good  for  beginners  to 
practice. 

Ex.  i.  The  fencers  engage  in 
carte. 

A  drops  his  point  and  thrusts  in 
low  carte. 

B  thrusts  straight. 

A  parries  B's  thrust  in  carte,  and 
thrusts  again  in  low  carte. 

B  parries,  disengages  to  tierce, 
and  thrusts  carte  over  the  arm. 

A  parries,  and  having  disengaged 
returns  a  thrust  in  carte. 


FENCING 


317 


FENCING 


B  parries  in  carte,  then  drops  his 
point  and  thrusts  in  low  carte. 

Ex.  2.  Engaged  in  carte. 

A  retreats. 

B  advances,  keeping  on  guard  in 
carte. 

A  retreats  again. 

B  advances,  disengaging  to  tierce. 

[B  should  advance  at  the  same 
moment  that  his  adversary  retreats, 
and  when  the  latter  advances  he 
should  retreat.]  Being  engaged  in 
carte  again, 

A  thrusts  in  carte. 

B  forms  the  parade  in  carte  and 
delivers  its  straight  thrust. 

A  thrusts  in  carte  again. 

B  throws  it  off  as  before,  and,  dis- 
engaging to  tierce,  thrusts  carte  over 
the  arm. 

A  disengages  and  thrusts  carte. 

B  parries  in  carte,  disengages, 
thrusts  carte  over  the  arm. 

A  parries,  and  thrusts  in  tierce. 

B  makes  the  parade  in  tierce,  and 
delivers  a  straight  thrust. 

Ex.  3.  Engaged  in  carte.  B  holds 
guard  low  and  point  high. 

A  cuts  over  the  point  and  thrusts 
carte  over  the  arm.  Engaged  in 
tierce. 

B  disengages  and  thrusts  carte. 

A  parries  with  octave. 

B  disengages  over  A's  arm  as  he 
recovers,  and  thrusts  in  low  carte. 
Engaged  in  carte. 

A  feints  One,  Two,  and  thrusts. 

B  forms  counter-parade  in  carte, 
and  gives  a  quick  return  thrust  in 
low  carte. 

A  makes  an  appel,  at  the  same 
time  beating  on  B's  blade,  and  then 
thrusts  straight  carte. 

B  parries,  and  disengages. 

A  counters,  performs  a  glizade, 
drops  his  point,  and  thrusts  in  octave. 

It  is  good  practice  for  one  of  the 
fencers  to  make  all  his  thrusts, 
feints,  etc.,  while  the  other  simply 
remains  on  guard,  using  the  proper 
parades  as  he  needs  them.  The 
second  fencer  should  then  thrust  and 
the  first  parry. 

In  fencing  matches,  the  contes- 


tants fence  for  a  stated  time,  and  he 
that  makes  the  greatest  number  of 
hits  in  that  time  is  declared  the  win- 
ner. The  hits  are  sometimes  re- 
quired to  be  within  certain  lines, 
which  are  chalked  on  the  breast. 
If  one  fencer  hit  the  body  and  the 
other  the  mask  at  the  same  time, 
only  the  hit  on  the  body  is  counted. 
If  one  of  the  fencers  drop  his  foil, 
any  hit  made  by  his  adversary,  after 
seeing  the  foil  drop,  is  not  counted, 
but  a  hit  is  good  if  made  before  see- 
ing it  drop. 

RULES. 

The  following  rules  for  fencing 
matches  are  those  of  the  Amateur 
Athletic  Union,  and  were  adapted 
from  the  rules  of  Adolph  Ruze  of 
Paris. 

1.  Jury.     The  jury  is  formed  of 
at  least  three  members,  who  judge 
without  appeal. 

2.  Position.     The  jury  must  place 
themselves   on    both    sides    of    the 
fencers,  looking  toward  their  chests, 
so  as  to  judge  as  well  of  the  value  of 
the  touch  as  of  its  artistic  quality. 

3.  Director  of  the   Competition. 
A   director    shall    be    chosen   from 
among  the  members  of  the  jury,  who 
shall  always  give  the  signal  to  begin 
the  assault. 

4.  Stopping  the  Assault.     When 
any  member  of  the  jury  shall  call 
"  Halt !  "  the  contestants  must  take 
the  first  position  and  lower  the  points 
of  their  foils. 

5.  Formation-of  the  Bouts.     Com- 
petitors to  fence  according  to  draw- 
ing.     The    committee    in    drawing 
lots   for  the   preliminary  bouts  will 
endeavor  to   arrange  them  so  that 
members  of  the  same  club  shall  not 
be  drawn  against  each  other.      In 
the    finals,   however,   the    order    of 
bouts  will   be  No.  I   to  fence  with 
No.  2,  and  so  on  through  the  list. 

6.  Odd  Number   of  Contestants. 
Rule  to  be  "  miss  and  out  " — i.e.  the 
beaten    contestant    retires    entirely 
from  the  contest.     If  the  number  of 
the   contestants   is   odd,  one  of  the 
defeated  will  be  drawn  to  fence  th« 


FENCING 


FENCING 


odd  man ;   if  beaten,  the  odd  man 
retires  also. 

7.  Winner  of  Bout,    The   con- 
testant making  the  first  five  touches 
to  win  his  bout. 

8.  The     Question    of     Artistic 
Merit.     The  jury   in   deciding    the 
bout  can  add  one  point  to  the  losing 
contestant  if  they  think  his  general 
form  in  fencing  superior  to  his  oppo- 
nent.    Should  the  score,  by  addition 
of  this  one  point  be  made  equal,  they 
shall   fence   for  three   more  points. 
This   method   of  judging   is   based 
upon   the   idea  that   the   contest  is 
intended    as   an  exhibition   of    skill 
rather  than  the  mere    securing  of 
points. 

9.  Value  of  a    Touch.     Touches 
to  count  only  when  made  upon  the 
body  within  the  limits  defined  by  a 
cord  sewed  on   the  fencing  jacket, 
under  supervision  of  the  committee. 
Any  contestant,  however,  who  shall 
turn  his  back  on  his  adversary,  during 
a  bout,  shall  forfeit  one  point  for 
each  offense. 

10.  The  Avoided  Touch.     When- 
ever there  is  a  clear  intention  on  the 
part  of  the  one  touched  to  avoid  the 
point,  either  by  a  movement  of  arm 
or  body,  his  adversary   shall   score 
one  point. 

1 1 .  Slap  and  Touch.     A  touch  is 
of  no  value  when  the  point  is  twisted 
on  the  body  after  the  slap  of  the  foil. 

12.  Foul     Touches.       A     touch, 
whether  fair  or  foul,  stops  the  riposte 
(the  return  thrust).  • 

13.  Simult  aneoiis   Attack. 
Double-touches,  occasioned  by  both 
contestants  lunging  at  the  same  time, 
are  considered  bad  form,  and  in  case 
of  second  offense,  one  point  shall  be 
deducted  from  each  contestant.   This 
punishment  consists  in  increasing  the 
fatigue,   imposing    upon    both   con- 
testants the  obligation  of  regaining 
the  point  taken  away. 

14.  Validity  of  the  Attack  in  the 
Double-touch.     From   the    point  of 
view  of  skill,  the  party  attacking  with 
the  hand  high  and  in  opposition  is 
always  in  the  right,  and  his  blade 


should  be  parried  by  the  party  at- 
tacked, in  order  to  avoid  the  double- 
touch. 

The  stop  touch  is  allowed  when 
the  attack  is  in  the  low  line  and  not 
in  opposition. 

Double-touches  are  in  general  an- 
nulled. 

15.  Renewal   or    Delay    of   the 
Attack.     The  touch  scored  in   the 
renewal  or  in  the  delay  of  the  attack 
is  valuable  if  the  parry  made  to  the 
first  attack  has  not  been  followed  by 
a  riposte,  or  when  the  riposte  has 
been  slow. 

1 6.  Corps-a-Corps.      The       jury 
stop    a    corps-a-corps    as    soon    as 
made,  since   it   may  serve  to  cover 
irregularities. 

17.  Of  Contestants  at  Close  Quar- 
ters.   When  one  of  the  contestants 
shall  be   driven  into   a  corner,  the 
director  shall  halt  and  replace  them 
so  as  to  leave  ample  space  behind 
each,  and   so  that  the  precept  "  to 
retreat  is  not   to  flee  "  may  be  ap- 
plied. 

1 8.  Disarmament.      A    disarma- 
ment shall  not  count  a  touch,  but  a 
touch  scored  immediately  following 
upon  a  disarmament  shall  count. 

19.  Changing     Fencing     Hand. 
Each  contestant  must  fence  through- 
out  the  contest   with  the   hand  he 
begins  with. 

20.  Costume.      Each     competitor 
shall  wear  a  dark  fencing  jacket  and 
dark    trousers,  so    that    the    white 
chalk  marks  can  be  easily  seen. 

Each  competitor  shall  also  wear 
in  the  foil  contest  a  fencing  belt  not 
exceeding  four  inches  in  width. 

21.  Space.      Space   allowed    con- 
testants to  fence  in  shall  be  thirty 
feet  in  length. 

22.  Conclusion.      See     that     the 
meetings  do  not  relapse  into  a  hand- 
to-hand  struggle,  that  it  be  an  exact 
representation  of  the  art  and  beauty 
of  fencing. 

History.  Fencing  was  practiced 
in  ancient  times  as  a  means  of 
attack  and  defense  with  swords,  and 
exhibitions  of  it  were  given  in  the 


FENCING 


319 


FENCING 


Roman  arenas  by  gladiators.  It 
afterwards  fell  into  disuse  when  the 
custom  arose  of  protecting  the  body 
by  heavy  armor,  but  when  anror 
was  abandoned  it  came  again  into 
fashion.  The  continual  brawls  and 
contests  between  factions  in  Italy 
made  it  a  necessary  part  of  every 
one's  education  there,  and  Italians 
became  very  expert  fencers.  It  was 
imported  thence  into  Spain,  France, 
and  England.  The  sword  used  by 
the  Italians  was  the  rapier,  which 
was  long  and  flexible,  with  a  sharp 
point,  but  no  cutting  edge,  and 
modern  fencers  always  use  foils 
shaped  like  the  rapier  unless  some 
other  shape  is  specially  mentioned. 


Fencing  may  be  practiced  with  a 
broadsword,  bayonet,  or  stick,  but 
the  method  in  these  cases  differs 
somewhat  from  that  described 
above.  In  the  old  Italian  school  of 
fencing  there  were  eight  kinds  of 
parries,  called  primo,  secondo,  ttrzo, 
etc.  (first,  second,  third,  etc.),  and 
from  these  the  French  terms  now 
used  are  derived.  The  early  Italians 
and  Spanish  aided  the  management 
of  the  sword  with  the  dagger  and 
cloak,  and  allowed  the  fencer  to 
shift  his  position  to  the  right  and 
left  in  making  his  defense  ;  but  when 
fencers  became  more  expert,  and 
attacked  with  greater  velocity,  the 
dagger  and  cloak  became  an  incum- 


Fig.  13. — Fencing  about  1600. 


brance  rather  than  an  aid.  The 
rapier  became  a  favorite  sword  for 
duels,  since  it  was  the  fairest  to  both 
sides,  as  it  depended  least  on  mere 
brute  force.  Before  its  introduc- 
tion into  England  in  Elizabeth's 
reign,  duels  were  fought  without  re- 
gard to  equality  of  arms,  and  any 
advantage,  fair  or  unfair,  was  seized 
upon  at  once.  Though  dueling  is 
wrong,  fair  fighting  is  to  be  preferred 
to  unfair,  so  the  introduction  of 
fencing  with  the  rapier  did  much  for 
civilization.  Now  that  duels  are  not 
fought,  there  is  no  use  for  the  rapier 
as  a  weapon,  since  soldiers  do  not 
wear  it,  but  fencing  with  the  foils 
is  still  a  favorite  exercise,  and  fenc- 
ing with  the  heavy  swords  used  by 


soldiers  is,  of  course,  taught  them. 
Fig.  13,  taken  from  an  old  German 
book,  published  in  the  I7th  century, 
shows  two  fencers  of  that  date. 

Authorities  say  there  is  no  single 
exercise  which  combines  so  many 
advantages,  as  fencing,  since  it  brings 
into  play  the  muscles  of  every  part 
of  the  body,  expands  the  chest,  dis- 
tributes the  circulation  equally,  and 
gives  delicacy  of  touch,  while  render- 
ing the  hand  steady  and  light.  In 
1536  a  book  on  the  art  of  fencing 
was  published  by  a  Venetian  named 
Marozzo,  and  since  his  time  many 
works  on  the  subject  have  appeared, 
one  of  the  best  of  which  is  the  little 
handbook  in  the  "  All  England  " 
series  (1889). 


FIFTEEN   IN   A   ROW 


320 


FIFTEEN   PJZZLE 


FIFTEEN  IN  A  ROW,  a  SOLI- 
TAIRE game  of  CARDS,  played  with 
two  full  packs.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  game  all  the  cards  are  laid  on 
the  table,  faces  upward,  in  rows  of  15 
each,  the  last  row  containing  but  14. 
The  cards  of  each  lower  row  lie 
partly  on  those  of  the  next  row 
above.  The  player's  object  is  to 
build  up  the  cards  in  families,  by 
suits,  upward  from  four  Aces  (one  of 
each  suit)  and  downward  from  the 
four  corresponding  Kings.  For  this 
purpose  one  can  begin  with  any  in- 
dependent card,  that  is,  any  card 
that  has  no  other  resting  on  it.  Any 
independent  card  may  also  be  placed 
on  any  other  independent  card  of  the 
same  suit,  just  above  or  just  below 
it  in  rank.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
game  only  the  cards  in  the  lowest 
row  are  independent,  and  if  there 
are  no  Kings  or  Aces  there,  and  none 
can  be  freed,  they  may  be  taken  from 
the  next  higher  row  and  their  places 
filled  by  pushing  up  the  cards  just 
below,  until  one  King  and  one  Ace 
have  been  obtained  to  begin  building 
up  the  families.  When  all  the  cards 
have  been  removed  from  any  line  it 
is  called  a  Street,  and  any  indepen- 
dent card  may  then  be  placed  in  it. 
If  the  families  can  be  completed  the 
player  wins. 

FIFTEEN  PUZZLE,  a  SOLITAIRE 
game  played  with  fifteen  numbered 


Fifteen  Puzzle. 

blocks   of  wood   in  a  shallow  box, 
arranged  as  in  the  figure. 

The  object  is,  having  first  arranged 
the  blocks  in  any  order  desired,  to 
bring  them  into  the  order  represented 


above  simply  by  sliding  them  past 
one  another,  without  taking  any  from 
the  box.  We  learn  by  the  rule  of 
permutations  in  arithmetic  that  15 
numbers  can  be  arranged  in  r.o  less 
than  i, 307,674,368,000 different  ways. 
In  half  of  these  arrangements  the 
game  can  be  won,  and  in  half  it  can- 
not. To  find  whether  any  given 
arrangement  can  be  solved  or  not, 
write  the  figures  on  the  blocks  in  a 
straight  line,  as  they  occur  in  the 
box,  and  then  bring  them  back  to 
order  by  changing  the  places  of  two 
adjoining  ones  at  a  time,  as  illus- 
trated below.  If  it  requires  an  even 
number  of  changes,  the  game  can  be 
won  from  the  arrangement,  if  an  odd 
number,  not.  Thus  suppose  the  ar- 
rangement is  as  follows : 

Write  the  numbers  thus,  12375 
4  6  8  9  14  15  12  13  10  n.  Find 
the  number  of  changes,  two  by  two, 
necessary  to  correct  the  order.  To 
bring  the  Four  into  place  it  must 
change  places,  first  with  the  Five  and 
then  with  the  Seven,  that  is,  two 
changes  are  required.  In  like  man- 
ner, the  number  of  changes  required 
to  bring  each  of  the  numbers,  in 
order,  into  its  proper  order  will  be 
found  to  be: 

To  bring  the  4  into  place  2 


7 

10 
n 

12 

'3     ' 


Total, 16 

an  even  number. 

The  game  can  therefore  be  won  by 
this  arrangement. 

The  player  must  remember  that 
each  number  must  be  changed  only 
with  an  adjoining  one ;  thus,  it  would 
not  give  a  correct  result  to  exchange 
the  Four  and  Seven  at  once,  and  call 
that  one  change.  The  best  plan  is 
to  write  the  numbers  on  bits  of  paper, 
so  that  they  can  be  shifted  about 
easily. 

Trial  will  show  that  although  the 
necessary  number  of  changes  varies 


FILBERTS 


321 


with  different  ways  of  changing,  it 
will  always  remain  even  or  odd,  as 
the  case  may  be.  The  reason  that 
the  arrangements  with  an  even  num- 
ber of  changes  are  the  only  soluble 
ones  is  that  the  blocks  can  be  moved 
about  only  in  such  a  way  as  to  give 
an  even  number  of  changes.  The 
learner  can  convince  himself  of  this 
by  trial,  remembering  always  to  ar- 
range the  blocks  so  that  the  right 
hand  lower  corner  is  vacant,  before 
counting  the  changes.  As  any  even 
number  of  changes  can  be  made, 
any  odd  arrangement  can  be  brought 
down  to  that  in  which  there  is  only- 
one  more  change  necessary  ;  but  one 
being  still  an  odd  number,  that 
change  can  never  be  made.  Thus, 
if  the  last  line  reads  13,  15,  14,  while 
the  rest  of  the  blocks  are  in  order,  it 
is  impossible  to  win  the  game. 

The  Fifteen  game  was  invented 
in  this  country,  and  became  very 
celebrated  about  1880.  Before  its 
properties  were  studied  many  people 
wasted  a  great  deal  of  time  in  trying 
to  win  it  from  impossible  arrange- 
ments. 

FILBERTS,  Experiments  with. 
Minute  dents  are  often  seen  in  the 
ends  of  filberts.  These  dents  are 
the  ends  of  very  small  channels 
which  lead  completely  through  the 
nut.  If  one  of  them  be  pricked  with 
a  pin  and  the  end  of  a  hair  inserted, 
it  "is  possible,  with  great  care  and 
patience,  to  push  the  hair  quite 
through  the  nut.  Necklaces  of  fil- 
berts, strung  on  hairs  in  this  way, 
have  been  made,  but  the  experiment 
succeeds  only  after  many  trials  and 
with  great  patience. 

FIRE-DRAWINGS.  Make  a  solu- 
tion of  saltpetre  in  water  and  with 
a  splinter  of  wood  draw  designs, 
figures,  or  letters  on  a  piece  of  un- 
glazed  paper.  When  dry,  the  paper 
will  appear  as  if  nothing  were  on  it. 
If  a  glowing  coal  be  now  touched  to 
part  of  the  design  it  will  take  fire, 
burning  with  a  good  deal  of  smoke, 
but  no  flame,  and  the  fire  will  trace 
out  the  design  marked  on  the  paper, 


not  burning  any  part  untouched  by 
the  saltpetre.  The  design,  of  course, 
should  not  be  interrupted,  but  must 


Fire  Drawing. 

be  in  continuous  lines.  The  illus- 
tration represents  the  drawing  of  an 
elephant  thus  made. 

FISH,  FLESH  AND  FOWL.  See 
THREE  ELEMENTS. 

FISHING.  Fishing  with  hook 
and  line  is  called  angling,  from 
angle,  the  old  name  for  a  hook. 

Hooks  are  of  various  shapes  and 
are  generally  known  by  the  name 
of  the  place  where  they  were  originally 
made,  as  the  Limerick  or  Aberdeen 
hooks ;  by  the  name  of  the  maker,  as 
the  Kirby  or  O'Shaughnessy;  or  by 
the  fish  they  are  intended  to  catch, 
as  Bass,  Salmon,  or  Trout  hooks. 
Among  the  hooks  shown  on  the  next 
page  are  the  New  York  trout  and 
bass  hooks  (Figs.  1 1  and  1 2),  the  Kirby 
bowed  (Fig.  4).  the  Carlisle  (Fig.  13), 
the  Aberdeen  (Fig.  7),  the  Kinsey 
(Fig.  2).  and  the  Sneck  (Fig.  9). 
Hooks  may  be  either  hollow-pointed, 
like  the  Limerick  (Fig.  3),  or  bowed, 
like  the  Kirby  (Fig.  4),  but  Kirby 
hooks  are  also  made  hollow  pointed. 
As  a  rule  a  straight  hook  is  the  best  ; 
that  is,  one  whose  point  is  in  line  with 
the  shaft  and  not  kirbed  or  bent  to 
one  side,  for  it  more  surely  hooks  the 
fish.  Most  kinds  of  hooks  are  now 
made  with  ringed  ends,  flatted  ends, 
knobbed  ends,  or  plain  ends.  Lime- 
rick hooks  formerly  always  had  plain 
ends,  but  are  now  made  also  with 


Fig.  i.  Gang-hooks.  Fig.  2.  Kinsey  hook.  Fig.  3.  Limerick  hook.  Fig.  4.  Kirbjr 
hook.  Fig.  5.  Barbless  hook.  Fig.  6.  Snap-hook,  open.  Fig.  7.  Aberdeen  hook. 
Fig.  8.  Snap  hook,  shut.  Fig.  9.  Sneck  hook.  Fig.  10.  Treble  hook.  Fig.  11.  New 
York  trout  hook.  Fig.  12.  New  York  bass  hook.  Fig.  13.  Carlisle  hook.  Fig.  14. 
Sizes  of  hooks,  i  to  16. 

322 


FISHING 


FISHING 


ringed  ends,  as  shown  in  Fig.  15. 
The  Barbless  hook  (Fig.  5)  has, 
instead  of  a  barb,  a  sharp  piece  of 
wire  extending  across  the  opening  of 
the  hook,  making  it  almost  impossi- 
nie  for  a  fish  to  escape  after  he  has 
once  hooked  himself,  but  such  hooks 


Fig.  15. — Sizes  of  Hooks. 

are  little  used.  The  snap-hook  (Fig. 
8)  has  two  hooks,  which  are  set  to- 
gether like  a  trap,  and  which  spring 
apart  (Fig.  6)  after  they  are  in  the 
fish's  mouth,  thus  holding  him 
securely.  The  treble  hook  (Fig.  10) 
consists  of  three  hooks  fastened  to- 


gether. Several  treble  hooks  are 
often  placed  one  bdow  the  other  in 
what  are  called  "  gangs  "  (Fig.  i). 
Figs.  14  and  15  show  the  sizes 
of  hooks  and  the  numbers  denoting 
them.  Some  kinds  of  hooks  are  in- 
tended to  be  used  without  bait. 
The  spoon-hook,  of  which  two  kinds 
are  shown  in  Fig.  16,  has  on  it  a 


Fig.  16. — Spoon-hooks.     Fig.  17. — Squid. 

piece  of  polished  metal  shaped  some- 
thing like  the  bowl  of  a  spoon. 
When  it  is  drawn  rapidly  through 
the  water  the  spoon  twirls,  and  as  it 
flashes  along  attracts  the  fish,  which 
snaps  at  it  and  is  caught  by  the 
hook.  This  kind  of  fishing  is  called 
trolling  and  is  successful  with  blue 
fish,  lake  trout,  pickerel,  and  other 
fish.  For  pickerel  fishing  several 
hooks  and  artificial  flies  are  often 
fastened  to  the  spoon.  The  line  is 
fastened  to  a  spoon-hook  by  a  little 
swivel  so  that  when  the  hook  twirls 
it  does  not  twist  the  line. 

The  hook  used  in  blue-fishing  has 
its  shank  covered  with  a  cigar-shaped 
piece  of  white  metal  called  a  squid 
(Fig.  17),  which  is  sometimes  cov- 
ered with  eel-skin,  with  the  silvery 


FISHING 


FISHING 


side  outward.  The  squid,  which  is 
often  shaped  like  a  little  fish,  glistens 
when  drawn  through  the  water,  and 
attracts  the  fish  just  as  the  spoon- 
hook  does. 

Snells.  The  end  of  the  hook  is 
generally  attached  to  a  piece  of  fine 
silkworm  gut  called  a  snell,  which, 
being  hard  to  see  under  water,  pre- 
vents the  fish  from  discovering  that 


a  line  is  fastened  to  the  hook. 
Kooks  may  be  bought  already  at- 
tached to  snells,  which  are  either 
single  or  double.  Instead  of  snells, 
some  hooks  are  fastened  to  gimp 
(a  kind  of  coarse  thread),  and  hooks 
for  catching  very  large  fish  are  at- 
tached to  wire. 

Lines.      Fish-lines   are    made   of 
linen,  hemp,  silk,  or  hair,  and  cheap 


Fig.  18. 


Fig.  19. 


Fig.  20. 


Fig.  21. 
Floats. 


ones  of  cotton.  For  small  lake  or 
pond  fish,  linen  or  hemp  is  gen- 
erally used,  and  for  salmon  or 
trout,  braided  silk  or  silk  and  hair. 
In  fishing  from  a  boat,  in  a  lake  or 
on  salt  water,  the  line  is  generally 
held  in  the  hand,  but  in  fishing  from 
shore  it  is  usually  attached  to  a  rod. 

Sinkers  and  Floats.  The  sim- 
plest sinkers  are  little  pieces  of  sheet 
lead  fastened  to  the  line  by  pounding 
them  around  it,  or  bullets  cut  in  half, 


and  the  simplest  floats  are  ordinary 
bottle  corks  tied  to  the  line,  but  one 
can  buy  both  floats  and  sinkers. 
Most  floats  are  made  of  cork  and 
quill,  and  are  intended  to  be  fast- 
ened to  the  line  at  both  ends.  Fig. 
1 8  is  called  an  "egg-shape"  float, 
and  Fig.  19  a  "  barrel  shape."  Fig. 
21  shows  adjustable  floats,  with  the 
manner  of  placing  them  on  the  line. 
P'igs.  22-24  show  different  shapes  of 
sinkers. 


FISHING 


325 


FISHING 


Rods  are  made  of  any  tough  and 
elastic  wood.  For  fly-fishing,  split 
bamboo  is  best :  for  other  kinds  of 
fishing,  lancewood,  ash,  or  hickory 


Figs.  22,  23,  24. — Sinkers. 

may  be  used.  A  good  bamboo  rod 
weighs  from  4  to  12  ounces  and  is 
from  8  to  13  feet  long.  What  are 
called  double-handed  rods,  for  catch- 


Fig.  25. 
Ring  Guide. 


Fig.  26. 
Tie  Guide. 


ing  large  salmon,  may  be  20  feet  long 
and  weigh  two  or  three  pounds. 
Rods  are  usually  made  in  sections  or 
joints,  which  can  be  taken  apart  and 
carried  easily.  In  the  simplest  kind 
of  still-fishing,  the  line  is  fastened 
directly  to  the  end  of  the  rod,  but  it 
is  better  to  wind  it  on  a  reel,  fixed  on 
the  rod  where  the  angler  can  reach 
it,  running  the  line  through  little 
guides  on  the  rod,  till  it  reaches  the 


tip.  The  length  of  the  line  can  thus 
be  varied  at  will  by  winding  up  the 
reel.  The  guides  through  which  the 
line  passes  are  either  "ring guides  " 
(Fig.  25),  being  fastened  to  xhe  rod 
by  rings  around  it ;  or  "  tie  guides  " 
(Fig.  26),  which  are  tied  to  the  rod. 

Reels  are  of  many  kinds.     Most  of 
them    are    operated    by    turning  a 


Fig.  27. — Automatic  Reel. 

handle,  but  there  are  "  automatic  " 
reels  containing  a  spring  A,  which 
winds  the  line  when  the  angler 
presses  a  lever  C  (see  Fig.  27). 


Fig.  28. — Home-made  Reel. 

The  line  passes  through  the  guide 
B,  and  the  reel  is   fastened   to  the 


FISHING 


326 


FISHING 


pole  at  D.  A  home-made  reel 
(Fig.  28,)  can  be  constructed  by 
fastening  an  ordinary  spool  between 
the  prongs  of  a  forked  stick  which 
are  tied  together  at  the  top  with 
string  or  wire.  The  spool  is  fitted 
with  a  crank  made  of  wire. 

Bait.  The  bait  may  be  some- 
thing on  which  the  fish  naturally 
feeds,  or  anything  resembling  it.  The 
bait  used  for  each  kind  of  fish  is 
described  below.  The  most  com- 
mon baits  for  fishing  near  shore  are 
the  ordinary  earth-worm  (called 
angle-worm  because  it  is  so  often 
used  in  angling),  live  minnows,  the 
grubs  or  larvas  of  insects,  grass- 
hoppers, and  artificial  flies.  In  some 


places,  especially  in  Europe,  what 
are  called  "  pastes  "  are  used  for 
bait.  There  are  many  kinds,  some 
of  the  most  common  being  made  of 
wheat  boiled  in  milk,  or  bread  and 
bran  softened  with  water  and  made 
into  balls.  In  salt  water  fishing, 
sand-worms,  pieces  of  raw  fish,  clam, 
lobster,  and  the  little  crabs  called 
"  fiddlers,"  are  also  commonly  used. 
For  most  fishes  the  bait  should  be 
put  on  so  as  to  conceal  the  hook  as 
much  as  possible,  but  some  are  so 
greedy  that  they  will  bite  even  at  a 
hook  without  bait.  In  baiting  with 
worms,  the  hook  should  be  run 
through  the  worm  lengthwise  until 
it  is  hidden,  leaving  a  little  hanging 


Fig.  29. — Fly-book. 


from  the  point.  Small  fis"h  are 
usually  placed  on  the  hook  by  pass- 
ing the  hook  through  the  body  at  the 
mouth  and  out  at  the  tail.  Artificial 
flies  are  also  permanently  attached  to 
hooks,  and  are  used  for  catching  fish 
that  will  jump  from  the  water  at 
insects.  The  flies  of  which  Anglers 
usually  keep  a  variety,  in  cases  called 
fly-books  (Fig.  29),  can  be  bought, 
or  made  at  home,  the  materials  being 
feathers,  fur,  hair,  silk-worm  gut.  silk, 
and  tinsel.  The  beginner  may  learn 
to  tie  his  own  flies  from  some  ex- 
perienced fly-fisher,  but  flies  may  be 
bought  so  cheaply  that  most  anglers 
prefer  to  buy  them  ready-made  at  the 
fishing-tackle  stores.  They  are  not 
always  made  to  imitate  natural  ones 


exactly,  though  anglers  differ  as  to 
whether  fish  bite  better  at  imitations 
or  not.  Sometimes  trout  will  rise  at 
almost  anything.  Fly  fishing  is  de- 
scribed more  fully  below. 

Nets.  The  only  net  used  by 
sportsmen  is  the  landing  net,  to  take 
a  fish  out  of  the  water  when  it  has 
been  brought  to  the  surface  by  means 
of  the  hook  and  line.  It  is  merely  a 
small  net  stretched  over  a  hoop  of 
wood  or  metal,  and  provided  with  a 
wooden  handle. 

A  small  net,  called  a  scoop-net, 
much  like  a  landing  net,  is  frequently 
used  to  catch  little  fish  in  brooks,  by 
boys  for  amusement  and  by  older 
fishermen  to  obtain  bait.  A  good 
scoop-net  can  be  made  by  binding 


FISHING 


327 


FISHING 


Fig.  30. 
Head  of  Fish  Spear. 


together  the  ends  of  the  prongs  of  a 
forked  sapling  to  form  a  hoop,  leav- 
ing the  main 
stem  for  the 
handle,  and 
then  sewing 
around  the  hoop 
a  bag  of  mos- 
quito-netting. 

Spears.  Eels, 
pickerel,  and 
many  other  fish 
are  sometimes 
taken  with 
spears  (Fig.  30), 
especially  in 
winter,  through 
holes  in  the  ice, 
in  the  manner 
described  below. 
The  spear  gener- 
ally used  is 
shown  in  Fig.  30. 

Spearing  fish  is  thought  by  many 
to  be  good  sport,  but  anglers  gener- 
ally condemn  it,  and  in  some  States 
the  law  prohibits  taking  certain  kinds 
of  fish  in  this  way. 

Fly  Fishingi  Before  fishing  with 
the  artificial  fly,  the  angler  must  first 
learn  how  to  "cast"  or  throw  the 
lines  so  that  the  fly  will  settle  on  the 
water  just  where  he  wishes,  in  imita- 
tion of  a  real  fly.  Skillful  fly-casters 
can  throw  out  more  than  ninety  feet 
of  line  with  accuracy,  but  in  practice 
thirty  feet  is  generally  all  that  is 
wanted,  and  the  beginner  should 
use  but  nine  or  ten  feet.  Fly-casting 
can  be  learned  on  any  level  spot  of 
ground,  as  well  as  near  the  water. 
To  begin  with,  a  small  piece  of  wood, 
about  an  inch  square,  should  be  tied 
to  the  end  of  the  line  instead  of  bait. 
Holding  the  rod  in  the  right  hand, 
the  reel  on  the  under  side,  the  learner 
draws  out  about  eight  feet  of  line 
with  his  left  hand  and  then,  holding 
the  piece  of  wood  in  his  left  hand, 
raises  the  rod  with  his  right  till  the 
line  is  taut.  He  then  releases  the 
wood  and  the  elasticity  of  the  rod, 
aided  by  a  slight  upward  motion, 
throws  the  line  over  the  angler's  head 


where  it  straightens  out  behind  his 
back.  This  is  called  the  "  back  cast." 
Before  it  touches  the  ground — bet- 
ter before  the  end  is  lower  than  his 
head — the  rod  is  moved  forward, 
casting  the  line  straight  out  in  front. 
The  forward  motion  is  made  chiefly 
by  the  wrist.  For  the  second  back 
cast  the  line  is  raised  directly  from 
the  ground,  without  taking  hold  of 
the  piece  of  wood  again.  The  line 
should  be  lengthened  gradually,  till 
twenty  or  thirty  feet  can  be  cast,  and 
the  learner  should  also  practice  cast- 
ing at  a  mark,  which  may  be  any 
small  object  on  the  ground.  In  fish- 
ing from  the  bank  of  a  stream  it  is 
important  to  know  how  to  make  the 
back  cast  without  letting  the  line 
drop  below  the  head,  for  otherwise  it 
is  likely  to  catch  in  bushes  or  shrubs. 
The  beginner  should,  if  possible,  seek 
instruction  from  an  angler  when 
learning  to  cast  the  fly  ;  once  seeing 
it  done  is  worth  many  pages  of 
printed  instructions. 

In  actual  fishing,  the  angler  casts 
his  fly  time  after  time  till  a  fish  rises 
to  the  surface  and  seizes  it.  Some- 
times the  fish  will  not  bite  unless  the 
fly  is  dropped  directly  over  their 
heads.  As  soon  as  the  fly  is  taken, 
the  angler  must  "  strike,"  that  is 
raise  the  pole  with  a  sudden  jerk,  to 
drive  the  hook  into  the  fish's  jaws, 
otherwise  the  fish  may  release  the  fly 
without  hooking  himself.  When  the 
fish  is  hooked  it  will  try  to  get  free, 
and  here  the  skill  of  the  angler 
shows  itself.  After  allowing  the 
fish  to  tire  itself  by  lashing  to  and 
fro,  and  letting  it  unwind  plenty  of 
line  from  the  reel,  the  fisherman 
draws  it  in  by  turning  the  reel  crank, 
whenever  the  fish  is  tired  enough  to 
permit.  But  with  a  strong  fish,  he 
must  sometimes  let  the  line  run  out 
to  prevent  its  being  broken.  This 
alternate  pulling  in  and  releasing  is 
called  "playing."  Sometimes  it  is 
kept  up  for  hours,  until  the  fish  is 
near  enough  to  be  taken  from  the 
water  with  a  landing  net,  or,  if  it 
be  a  very  large  fish,  with  a  big  hook 


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328 


FISHING 


on  the  end  of  a  rod,  called  a  gaff. 
"  Flaying  "  a  fish  is  the  angler's  great 
sport.  A  fish  may  escape,  after  be- 
ing hooked,  by  tearing  itself  from 
the  hook,  by  breaking  the  line,  or  by 
cutting  it  against  sharp  rocks,  and 
the  angler  should  take  care  that  the 
fish  is  not  allowed  to  give  a  sharp 
and  sudden  pull. 

Fish  Spearing  through  Ice.  A 
board  shelter  or  cabin,  of  convenient 
size,  which  can  be  moved  about  from 
place  to  place  on  the  ice,  is  some- 
times built.  It  may  be  just  large 
enough  for  the  fisherman  to  sit  in, 
say  four  feet  high,  and  four  feet 
square  at  the  bottom,  sloping  to  two 
feet  square  at  the  top,  and  usually 
has  no  floor  (see  Fig.  31).  It  must 


ig.  31.  —  Frame  of  Spearman's  Cabin. 


be  quite  dark,  so  that  the  only  light 
comes  up  through  the  ice,  thus  enab- 
ling the  fish  to  be  seen  clearly.  The 
fisherman  sits  on  a  box  or  block  of 
wood,  holding  in  his  hand  the  spear, 
which  has  barbed  tines.  The  handle, 
of  spruce  or  light  pine,  and  9  to  12 
feet  long,  projects  through  a  hole 
in  the  top  of  the  shelter,  the  light 
being  shut  out  by  a  loose  piece  of 
cloth,  tacked  to  the  edge  of  the  hole, 
and  fitting  closely  around  the  spear 
handle.  The  cloth  should  be  large 
enough  to  allow  the  spear  to  move 
from  side  to  side  of  the  hole,  by 
wrinkling.  In  the  middle  of  the 
cabin  a  hole  about  a  foot  in  diameter 


is  cut  through  the  ice.  Through 
this  the  fisherman  lowers  a  line,  hav- 
ing on  its  end  a  decoy  fish.  This 
may  be  easily  made  of  a  piece  of 
pine,  painted  white,  with  the  back 
dark  gray,  fitted  with  tin  fins,  and 
weighted  with  lead.  The  line  is 
fastened  to  its  back  by  a  bent 
pin,  and  by  experiment  the  fins  can 
be  so  arranged  that  when  the  line 
is  pulled  up  the  fish  will  move  ahead, 
as  if  it  were  swimming.  The  fisher- 
man continues  to  move  this  decoy 
about  in  the  water  until  he  sees  that 
it  has  attracted  a  fish.  The  decoy  is 
now  gradually  lifted  with  the  left 
hand  and  the  spear  is  slowly  lowered 
with  the  right  till  it  is  about  a  foot 
above  the  fish's  back,  when  it  should 
be  given  a  sudden  thrust.  The  line 
may  be  thrown  over  the  knee  and 
the  spear  managed  with  both  hands. 
If  the  fish  is  caught,  it  should  be  put 
outside  the  door  of  the  shelter.  A 
cabin  like  the  one  described  is  com- 
fortably warm,  even  when  the  ther- 
mometer is  very  low  outside.  Some 
fishermen  build  cabins  having  floors, 
seats,  and  a  small  charcoal  or  oil 
stove,  so  that  a  whole  day  can  be 
passed  in  them.  The  best  times  for 
fish-spearing  through  ice  are  just 
before  and  just  after  sunset,  during 
a  snow-storm,  or  when  the  day  is 
partly  cloudy. 

Snaring.  Fish  can  be  snared 
through  the  ice  from  a  shelter  like 
that  used  for  spearing.  The  pro- 
cedure is  exactly  the  same,  save 
that  instead  of  a  spear  the  fisherman 
uses  a  slip-noose  made  of  fine  copper 
or  brass  wire  attached  to  the  end  of 
a  line.  The  line  must  not  be  jerked 
with  too  much  force,  or  the  wire 
snare  may  cut  the  fish  in  two.  Trout 
can  be  snared  in  like  manner  with 
horsehair  nooses.  In  most  of  the 
States  it  is  forbidden  to  snare  or  spear 
trout,  bass,  and  other  food  fish  ;  and 
anglers  generally  regard  with  dis- 
favor any  method  of  capture  except 
with  hook  and  line. 

A  mode  of  fishing  sometimes  pra- 
ticed  in  the  Southern  States  is  called 


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329 


FISHING 


Five  or  six  empty  jugs 
are  tightly  corked,  and  floated  in  the 
water.  To  the  handle  of  each  is 
fastened  a  line  about  five  feet  long, 
fitted  with  a  sinker  and  a  baited 
hook.  As  the  jugs  float  with  the  cur- 
rent, they  are  followed  and  watched 
by  the  fisherman.  When  a  fish  is 
hooked,  the  jug  to  which  the  line  is 
fastened  begins  to  bob  up  and  down 
and  darts  about  in  all  directions. 
Such  a  jug  is  at  once  pursued  and 
the  fish  hauled  in. 

A  device  used  by  fishermen,  in 
tending  several  set  lines  on  the  ice,  is 
called  a  tip-up.  In  its  simplest  form, 
a  stick  is  laid  across  the  ice  hole,  and 
to  it  is  fastened  at  right  angles  an- 
other stick  a  foot  or  two  long,  having 
the  line  fastened  to  one  end,  and  on 
the  other  a  small  red  flag.  The 
flag  rests  on  the  ice  till  a  fish  is 
hooked  and  then  it  is  waved  up  and 
down  by  the  struggles  of  the  fish,  at- 
tracting the  notice  of  the  fisherman. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the 
principal  game-fish  of  the  United 
States,  with  a  few  words  about  each. 
The  appearance  of  most  of  them  is 
described  in  C.  C.  T.,  in  separate 
articles. 

FRESH-WA  TER  FISH. 

Dace.  Among  the  first  fish  usually 
caught  by  boys  in  fresh  water  are 
the  various  minnows  sometimes 
called  shiners  and  chubs,  the  most 
common  of  which  is  the  dace  or 
roach.  The  dace  is  found  in  most 
of  the  brooks  and  ponds  in  New 
England  and  the  Middle  States,  and 
is  caught  with  a  light  rod,  and  worms 
or  artificial  flies  as  bait. 

Sun  fish,  also  called  "  Sunny," 
"  Pumpkin  seed,"  Pond  Perch,  Roach, 
and  Bream.  It  is  found  in  brooks 
over  a  large  area  in  the  United  States 
(sometimes  in  salt  tidal  rivers),  and 
is  good  eating.  It  is  caught  with 
small  hooks  and  tackle,  and  worms 
as  bait,  and  will  also  take  the  arti- 
ficial fly.  The  blue  sunfish,  blue 
bream,  or  copper  nosed  bream  is 
fished  for  in  the  Southern  States  with 
artificial  flies  and  affords  good  sport. 


The  common  bream  of  Southern 
waters  is  sometimes  caught  with  a 
bait  made  of  brown  bread  and  honey. 

Yellow  Perch.  This  favorite  of 
young  fishermen  is  common  in  most 
parts  of  the  Eastern  States,  and 
furnishes  sport  most  of  the  year 
round,  being  taken  in  summer  with 
worm  or  minnow  bait.  In  winter 
it  is  fished  for  through  holes  cut  in 
the  ice,  the  bait  then  used  being  the 
white  grub  found  in  decayed  wood. 
In  the  spring  the  perch  will  rise  to 
the  fly.  In  weight  the  perch  rarely 
exceeds  two  pounds,  though  speci- 
mens have  been  caught  of  twice  that 
weight. 

Pike-Perch.  This  fish  sometimes 
called  the  Glass  Eye,  Wall  eyed  Pike, 
Ohio  Pike,  or  Ohio  Salmon,  though 
it  is  neither  pike  nor  salmon,  is 
found  in  the  Southern  States,  the 
great  lakes,  Western  New  York,  and 
Canada.  In  Canada  it  is  called  the 
Doree,  and  another  Canadian  fish  of 
the  same  species  is  called  the  Sandre. 
The  pike-perch  is  bold  and  greedy 
and  is  readily  taken  with  the  hook, 
witH  almost  any  small  fish  for  bait. 
In  Lake  Champlain  it  is  sometimes 
caught  by  trolling.  The  weight  of 
the  pike-perch  is  from  one  to  five 
pounds.  Its  flesh,  which  is  white,  is 
highly  esteemed  in  the  West. 

Pickerel.  The  Pike  or  Pickerel 
family  includes  the  Muskallonge  or 
Maskallonge  (sometimes  called  the 
'Longe),andthe  Northern  Pickerel, of 
the  great  lakes;  the  Common  Pickerel, 
found  in  all  the  ponds  and  streams 
of  the  Northern  and  Middle  States  ; 
the  White  Pickerel  of  the  Ohio  and 
other  western  rivers  ;  and  the  Black 
Pickerel  of  Pennsylvania.  They  are 
all  distinguished  by  length  of  body. 
The  muskallonge,  which,  though  of 
the  pike  family.is  not  a  gigantic  pike, 
as  some  think,  attains  sometimes  a 
weight  of  50  and  even  80  pounds. 
The  pike  seldom  grows  to  be  more 
than  three  feet  long,  but  the  muskal- 
longe has  been  known  to  attain  seven 
feet,  especially  in  the  Michigan  lakes 
and  in  'he  upper  waters  of  the  Mis- 


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330 


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sissippi  River.  The  finest  muskal- 
longe  are  caught  in  Rice  Lake, 
Canada,  and  good-sized  ones,  though 
not  the  largest,  in  the  St.  Lawrence 
River.  They  are  generally  caught  by 
trolling  with  a  spoon.  The  common 
pickerel  or  pond  pike  is  perhaps  the 
commonest  of  all  game  fishes  in  the 
United  States.  It  weighs,  on  an 
average,  about  five  pounds.  All  the 
pickerel  are  voracious,  and  destruc- 
tive not  only  to  small  fish  but  to 
frogs  and  water  rats.  There  are 
many  modes  of  catching  them,  and 
they  will  take  almost  any  kind  of 
bait,  but  they  are  caught  best  by 
trolling  with  a  gorge  hook,  or  fishing 
with  a  snap  hook. 

Cat-fish,  Bull-head,  Bull  Pout,  or 
Horned  Pout.  These,  which  are 
nearly  related,  are  found  in  all  North 
American  waters.  Cat-fish  are  found 
in  the  great  lakes  and  in  the  West 
as  well  as  in  salt  water,  and  bull- 
heads in  most  all  fresh  water.  They 
have  no  scales,  the  skin  being  either 
naked  or  protected  by  large  plates. 
The  largest  cat-fish  weigh  150 
pounds.  The  flesh  of  the  smaller 
kinds  is  rich,  and  in  some  places  is 
considered  a  great  delicacy.  All  the 
cat-fish  are  greedy  biters,  and  will 
take  almost  any  kind  of  bait.  The 
ordinary  bull-heads  of  the  Eastern 
States  are  caught  on  muddy  bottoms 
with  worms  as  bait ;  they  bite  best 
at  night.  The  kind  called  "  channel 
cat,"  found  in  the  West  and  South, 
is  very  gamy  and  caught  with  heavy 
tackle  and  minnow  bait.  In  the 
Southern  States  "  jugging,"  described 
above,  is  a  favorite  method  with  the 
negroes  of  catching  cat-fish. 

Black  Bass  is  found  in  many 
lakes  and  streams  east  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  is  much  prized  as  a 
game  fish.  It  is  often  caught  with 
minnows,  frogs,  or  grasshoppers,  or 
by  trolling  with  a  Spoon  hook,  but 
rises  readily  at  an  artificial  fly.  The 
rods  used  are  about  10  feet  long  and 
stiffer  than  those  used  for  trout. 
In  weight  the  black  bass  runs  from 
two  to  four  pounds  for  full  grown 


fish,  in  Northern  waters.  Specimens 
have  been  taken  weighing  seven 
pounds  and  more.  In  the  South,  the 
fish  are  much  larger.  Florida  bass 
have  been  caught  exceeding  twenty 
pounds.  The  colors  of  the  black 
bass  vary  in  different  waters ;  they 
have  received  many  local  names. 
They  are  called  Trout  in  most  parts 
of  the  South,  Chubb  in  Virginia,  and 
Welshmen  in  the  Carolinas. 

Eels  bite  freely  at  worms,  or  bits 
of  meat,  and  are  also  taken  by 
spearing  and  by  "  bobbing."  Eel 
bobs  are  made  by  stringing  angle- 
worms in  a  bunch  on  a  piece  of 
stout  thread  at  the  end  of  an  ordinary 
fish  line.  The  eels  bite  at  the  bunch, 
and,  their  teeth  becoming  entangled 
in  the  thread,  they  are  drawn  ashore. 
Eels  bite  best  at  night  and  frequent 
muddy  bottoms.  Salt  water  eels  are 
often  captured  in  a  sort  of  trap  called 
an  eel-pot. 

The  Sucker  is  very  commonly 
found  in  fresh  waters  in  the  North- 
ern States  and  is  well  know  to  country 
boys.  It  bites  readily  at  angle-worm 
bait,  and  is  often  caught  through  the 
ice  in  winter.  A  favorite  mode  of 
capturing  suckers  is  by  means  of  a 
slip-noose  of  horsehair  or  copper 
wire,  and  they  are  also  speared. 

Carp  was  imported  from  Europe 
about  1855,  and  is  now  found  in 
many  Eastern  waters,  and  also  in 
California  and  Oregon.  It  frequents 
muddy  waters,  and  is  not  readily 
captured  by  angling,  though  it  will 
sometimes  take  worms,  artificial  flies, 
and  a  bait  of  flour  paste. 

Chub,  Honey-head,  or  River  Chub. 
This  fish  is  widely  distributed  in  fresh 
waters.  It  takes  the  hook  readily, 
and  is  caught  with  worms  or  min- 
nows, the  tackle  used  being  the  same 
as  for  black  bass. 

Grayling.  This  fish  is  found 
along  the  Northern  border  of  the 
United  States,  and  catching  it  is  con- 
sidered fine  sport.  It  is  best  caught 
with  a  fly,  but  bites  also  at  worms 
and  insects. 

Salmon.      The    true    salmon    if 


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331 


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caught  chiefly  in  Canadian  rivers,  and 
in  the  Penobscot  River  of  Maine, 
from  about  the  middle  of  May  to  the 
end  of  July,  while  on  the  way  up 
from  its  annual  visit  to  the  sea,  to 
deposit  its  spawn  or  eggs  in  fresh 
water.  The  fish  deposit  their  eggs 
in  the  gravelly  bed  of  the  upper  parts 
of  the  rivers  in  the  autumn  and  then 
return  to  the  sea.  The  young  fish, 
when  first  hatched,  are  called  Pinks 
or  Paer,  in  their  second  year  Smolts, 
and  in  their  third  Grilse.  In  fishing 
for  salmon,  artificial  flies  of  various 
kinds  are  used. 

Trout.  The  Speckled,  Brook,  or 
Mountain  Trout,  which  ranks  second 
only  to  the  salmon  as  a  game  fish, 
also  migrates,  or  visits  the  sea,  when 
it  is  possible  for  it  do  so.  It  is  found 
in  clear,  cold  streams  and  lakes  ;  and 
is  caught  with  angle-worms,  artific- 
ial flies,  and  minnows.  In  meadow 
brooks  and  mountain  streams  the 
fish  caught  do  not  average  more  than 
a  pound  in  weight ;  but,  in  the  rivers 
and  lakes  of  Maine  and  Canada, 
speckled  trout  of  four  to  six  pounds 
are  not  uncommon,  while  speci- 
mens have  been  caught  weighing  ten 
pounds.  The  lake  trout  is  found  in 
the  great  lakes,  where  it  is  often 
called  the  Mackinaw  trout,  and  in  the 
lakes  of  Northern  New  York,  New 
England,  and  Canada.  In  the  great 
lakes  it  sometimes  reaches  a  weight 
of  forty  pounds;  but  in  the  other 
localities  named  it  is  much  smaller. 
The  lake  trout  is  taken  by  trolling 
with  minnow  or  spoon  bait,  and  also 
by  still-fishing  near  the  bottom  in 
deep  water. 

White  Fish,  found  in  the  great 
lakes,  is  much  prized  for  food.  It  is 
caught  usually  in  nets  called  "  pound 
nets,"  from  500  to  1000  feet  long. 
The  net  is  stretched  on  poles,  and 
ends  in  a  pocket  or  trap,  into  which 
the  fish  swim  and  are  caught  by 
thousands. 

SA  L  T-  WA  TER  FISff. 

The  Ciinner,  also  called  the  Salt- 
water Perch,  Chogset,  Burgall,  Nib- 
bier,  and  Blue  Perch,  is  found  in 


great  numbers  along  the  coast  of  the 
United  States.  It  is  usually  one  of 
the  first  salt  water  fish  caught  by 
boys,  and  will  bite  readily  at  almost 
any  bait.  Clams'  heads  are  often 
used.  Light  tackle  is  employed. 
Gunners  often  annoy  fishermen  very 
much  by  nibbling  off  their  bait, 
when  they  wish  to  catch  larger  fish. 

Flat  Fish  are  more  gamy  than 
the  cunner,  and  excellent  eating. 
They  have  flat  bodies  and  large 
mouths.  The  tackle  and  bait  are 
like  those  used  forcunners. 

Flounder.  This  fish  is  taken  all 
along  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  bites 
best  in  spring  and  autumn.  It  is 
caught  either  with  light  tackle  and 
clam  or  lobster  bait,  or  in  set-nets, 
and  sometimes  by  spearing  at  night. 

Striped  Bass,  or  Rock  Fish. 
Though" a  sea  fish,  it  enters  tidal  riv- 
ers to  spawn,  and  often  runs  up 
fresh  water  streams  in  search  of 
food.  Next  to  the  members  of  the 
salmon  family  it  is  considered  the 
best  game  fish  in  the  United  States. 
It  attains  sometimes  seventy  or  eighty 
pounds,  but  those  weighing  about 
eight  pounds  have  the  best  flavor. 
It  bites  at  nearly  every  kind  of  bait, 
and  even  at  a  white  rag  or  bit  of 
cotton,  and  it  can  also  be  caught  with 
the  artificial  fly.  A  line  baited  with 
small  fish  is  often  cast  directly  into 
the  surf,  as  in  fly-casting.  In  troll- 
ing for  it,  the  best  bait  is  the  min- 
now. Great  care  is  necessary  in 
landing  the  fish  after  it  is  hooked, 
for  it  is  very  strong,  makes  long  and 
rapid  runs,  and  is  not  easily  tired. 
The  Sea  Bass,  also  called  Black-fish, 
is  caught  on  the  coast  of  the  Northern 
States  in  May,  June,  and  July.  It  is 
sometimes  caught  from  the  shore, 
but  generally  from  boats  at  some 
distance  from  land.  It  bites  best  at 
the  turn  of  the  tide,  and  is  caught 
with  black-fish  tackle,  and  clams  or 
shrimp  for  bait. 

Sea  Chub.  This  fish  is  common  in 
the  South  and  occasionally  appears  as 
far  north  as  New  York.  It  was  found 
there  in  abundance  during  the  visit 


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332 


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of  Gen.  Lafayette  to  this  country  in 
1836,  and  hence  is  often  called  the 
Lafayette.  It  is  prized  as  a  delicacy. 

Weak  Fish.  It  is  found  on  al- 
most all  the  coasts  of  the  United 
States  between  June  and  December. 
In  the  South  it  is  often  miscalled 
Trout,  which  fish  it  much  resembles 
in  flavor.  Its  weight  is  generally 
from  a  few  ounces  up  to  seven  or 
eight  pounds,  and  it  is  asserted  that 
sometimes  weighs  25  to  30  pounds. 
It  is  caught  during  flood  tide,  usu- 
ally with  clarn  bait.  A  large  hook 
of  tine  steel  is  used  on  account  of  the 
fish's  large  mouth  and  soft  jaws.  The 
same  tackle  is  used  as  for  black  bass. 
Weak  Fish  must  be  eaten  within 
three  or  four  hours  after  it  is  caught, 
as  its  flesh  soon  gets  soft.  Some  say 
that  the  name  "  Weak,"  was  given 
because  the  mouth  is  easily'torn  by 
the  hook  ;  some  that  it  is  a  corruption 
of  "Wheat  Fish,"  since  it  is  caught 
when  wheat  is  ripe ;  and  others 
assert  that  it  is  corrupted  from  the 
originaHndian  name,  Squeteague. 

Sheepshead.  This  is  naturally  a 
Southern  fish,  but  is  taken  along  the 
coasts  of  the  Northern  States  from 
June  till  October.  It  generally  weighs 
seven  or  eight  pounds,  but  sometimes 
as  much  as  seventeen.  It  has  a  head 
sloping  abruptly  to  the  snout  and 
large  oblong  scales ;  is  of  a  dull  silver 
color  with  coppery  gleams,  and  has 
five  dark  arched  bands  across  the 
back  and  tail.  Its  head  and  forehead 
are  black  and  the  chin  is  marked 
with  patches,  which,  with  its  peculiar 
profile  and  prominent  teeth,  give  it 
a  fancied  resemblance  to  the  head  of 
a  sheep.  It  a  wary  and  hard  fish  to 
hook  and  to  land.  Sheepshead  is 
delicious  eating  and  highly  prized  by 
epicures.  Special  hooks  are  made 
for  sheepshead  fishing ;  clam,  crab, 
or  fiddler  bait  is  the  best.  Sheeps- 
head are  found  about  wrecks,  sunken 
timbers,  the  piles  of  wharves,  or  on 
a  rock  bottom,  and  hand-line  fishing 
is  commonly  practiced,  though  the 
use  of  rod  and  reel  affords  better 
sport. 


Scup,  or  Scuppog.  It  is  called 
also  the  Porgie,  Porgy,  or  Paugie,  and 
is  found  all  along  the  Atlantic  coast. 
It  is  caught  generally  from  a  row  boat 
with  a  hand  line,  a  medium  sized 
hook,  and  a  sinker  heavy  enough  to 
carry  it  to  the  bottom.  Clam  bait  is 
commonly  used,  though  the  fish  bite 
well  at  shrimp. 

Blue-fish.  It  is  called  also  the 
Skipjack,  and  sometimes  the  Horse 
Mackerel,  or  the  Snapper,  is  found 
on  the  American  coast  from  Brazil  to 
Massachusetts,  and  is  common  also 
in  Europe.  Full-grown  Blue-fish 
are  one  to  three  feet  long,  and  weigh 
four  to  ten  pounds.  They  are  usually 
caught  with  a  squid,  as  described 
above,  trolled  from  a  sailboat,  or 
thrown  out  and  drawn  in  from  shore. 
They  often  run  in  "  schools,"  through 
which  the  fishermen  sail  to  and  fro, 
trolling  their  lines,  and  taking  the 
fish  with  great  rapidity.  They  swim 
near  the  surface,  and  leap  at  any 
living  thing  they  see.  When  fresh 
from  the  water  they  are  delicious  eat- 
ing, but  their  delicate  flavor  is  lost  if 
they  are  kept  more  than  a  few  hours. 
Small  blue-fish  are  caught  from 
the  shore  in  New  England,  during 
the  early  autumn,  with  light  tackle 
baited  with  clams  or  minnows,  at 
which  they  bite  greedily. 

Mackerel  are  commonly  taken  in 
seines,  but  may  be  caught  in  much 
the  same  way  as  blue-fish,  though 
the  squids  used  are  smaller.  They 
will  bite  also  at  hooks  baited  with 
small  bits  of  mackerel  skin,  or  even 
with  bits  of  white  or  red  cloth. 

Smelts.  These  fish  are  taken 
along  the  coast  north  of  New  Jersey 
in  large  seines,  but  will  bite  also  at 
hooks.  They  run  up  the  rivers  to 
spawn  like  salmon,  and  in  Maine  and 
the  British  provinces  they  sometimes 
pass  their  lives  wholly  in  fresh  water. 
Smelts  are  caught  in  Maine,  through 
the  ice,  with  what  is  called  the  "  um- 
brella tackle,"  consisting  of  an  ar- 
rangement made  like  an  umbrella 
frame  without  the  handle.  To  the 
end  of  each  rib  hangs  a  short  line 


FISHING 


333 


FISHING 


with  a  hook,  and  the  whole  is  sus- 
pended from  a  fish-pole  by  a  single 
line,  fastened  at  the  place  where  the 
top  of  an  ordinary  umbrella  handle 
comes  through. 

Herring.  This  fish,  which  runs 
into  the  mouths  of  all  the  northern 
and  northeastern  rivers  of  America, 
is  greatly  sought  for  food.  It  is  usu- 
ally caught  with  a  net,  but  may.  be 
angled  for  with  an  artificial  fly  in  the 
spring.  It  is  colored  blue  above  and 
silvery  white  below.  The  shad,  which 
is  of  the  same  family  as  the  herring,  is 
likewise  generally  taken  with  a  net, 
but  can  sometimes  be  caught  with 
the  fly,  affording  excellent  sport.  The 
shad  is  a  dusky  blue  above,  with 
brown  and  green  tints.  His  sides 
are  silvery  white,  with  a  tinge  of.  cop- 
per color.  It  is  considered  by  many 
the  most  delicious  of  all  table  fish. 

Tantog,  or  Black-fish.  It  is  found 
from  South  Carolina  to  Massa- 
chusetts Bay,  and  is  usually  caught 
best  near  rocks,  sunken  wrecks,  or 
deserted  docks.  The  grounds  it 
frequents  are  often  "  baited  "  by 
throwing  crabs  or  clams  into  the 
water,  in  hopes  of  enticing  it  to  come 
there  to  feed.  Black-fish  usually 
weigh  two  to  ten  pounds.  The 
ordinary  bait  is  soft  clams,  fiddler 
crabs,  or  bits  of  lobster.  Two  hooks 
are  generally  used,  with  snells  of 
twisted  gut,  one  twelve,  and  one 
fifteen  inches  long.  Either  hand- 
lines  or  rods  are  used. 

Fish  caught  in  deep  salt  water, 
such  as  the  Cod,  Haddock,  Whiting, 
and  Halibut,  are  not  usually  classed 
as  game  fish,  being  caught  chiefly 
for  a  livelihood.  They  are  some- 
times taken  for  spprt,  but  this  con- 
sists merely  in  the  frequency  of  the 
biting,  for  they  offer  little  resistance, 
and  are  hauled  in  by  mere  strength. 
They  are  all  found  everywhere  north 
of  New  York,  and  pleasure  parties 
are  sometimes  formed  to  catch  them. 
Cod  and.  haddock  are  caught  off 
Block  Island,  on  the  Rhode  Island 
coast,  salted  clams  or  pieces  of  fish 
being  used  for  bait.  The  line  is  a 


heavy  cotton  one  from  400  to  600 
feet  long,  with  a  sinker  weighing 
twelve  ounces  or  more,  and  very 
large  hooks. 

FISH  LA  ws. 

Most  of  the  States  have  laws 
regulating  the  fishing  for  food  and 
game  fish.  Thus,  it  is  forbidden  to 
capture  trout,  bass,  and  other  fish 
by  netting  or  spearing,  or  in  any 
way  except  with  hook  and  line. 
Fishing  is  permitted  only  during  cer- 
tain months,  which  are  called  the 
"open  season."  TheState,county,and 
town  laws  are  frequently  changed, 
and, therefore, the  table  which  follows 
is  probably  not  quite  exact.  Some 
States  forbid  taking  fish  under  a  cer- 
tain size  or  weight.  In  general,  the 
purpose  of  the  law  is  to  forbid  fishing 
methods  that  will  destroy  the  supply. 
Heavy  fines,  and  even  imprisonments, 
are  the  penalties  for  violating  the  fish 
laws  ;  but  anglers  consider  it  a  point 
of  honor  to  obey  the  laws  and  to 
influence  others  to  obey  them.  The 
laws  apply  to  fishing  in  private 
waters  as  well  as  in  those  that  are 
public.  The  following  table  shows 
when  fish  are  in  season  in  States 
where  the  catching  of  such  fish  is 
regulated  by  law.  To  find  what  fish 
are  in  season  in  "any  particular 
month,  the  reader  must  look  down 
the  column  under  the  name  of  the 
month.  The  fish,  opposite  whose 
names  there  is  a  black  line  in  that 
column,  are  then  in  season.  The 
shorter  black  lines  mean  first  half  of 
the  month,  when  printed  toward  the 
left ;  and  last  half  when  toward  the 
right.  By  beginning  with  the  fish's 
name  ami  following  the  line  toward 
the  right,  it  can  be  seen,  in  like 
manner,  during  what  time  it  can  be 
legally  taken.  For  instance,  the 
table  shows  that  the  trout  season  in 
Illinois  begins  on  February  15,  and 
ends  on  June  15.  These'  times 
are  only  approximately  correct,  as 
legislatures  are  constantly  changing 
them.  The  sportsman  to  be  abso- 
lutely safe  should  therefore  make 
special  inquiry  in  each  case. 


FISHING 


334 


FISHING 


c 
n 
•—  > 

JD 

£ 

a. 
1 

a 
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>, 

« 

S 

V 

c 

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j*. 

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Trout. 

— 

_ 

__ 

- 

•~~ 

—  ~ 

^^ 

Iowa  

Maine  (by  citizens)  

— 





— 

— 

— 





Massachusetts  1 

and  Minnesota  [  
Michigan  and  New  York  ... 



— 

— 

_ 



New  Hampshire  (with  hook  and  line) 
(in  anyway)  
New  Jersey  

New  Mexico  
North  Carolina                  / 

- 

West  of  the  Blue  Ridge  )  
Ohio 



— 

^^_ 

Pennsylvania  (speckled)  

—  —  — 

— 





-"• 

(Lake)  

Vermont  

— 





— 







- 

Salmon. 

Illinois  

.— 







- 

Maine  (with  hook  and  line)  
"       (in  all  ways)  

- 

"" 

— 





E 

~ 



Massachusetts  

Ohio    

Pennsylvania  

Black  Bass. 

— 

__ 



Illinois  

— 

— 

— 

^— 

~~~ 

—  ~ 

~~~ 

— 

New  Hampshire  

Vermont  











— 

Grayling. 

New  Hampshire  
Shad. 
California  

—  — 

— 

— 

— 











— 

Blue  Fish. 
In  Southern  Waters  



— 





In  Northern  Waters  

Shad. 
On  North  Atlantic  Coast  

Mackerel. 
Weak  Fish. 
Sheepshead. 

I  n  Northern  Waters  

Sea  Bass. 
In  Southern  Waters  

Black  Fish. 
Muscalonge. 
Dakota  

Pike  and  Pickerel. 

— 



^ 



— 



— 

— 

— 

New  Hampshire  

FISHING 


335 


FISHING 


Perch. 

Maine    ..4....  . 

New  Hampshire 

Herring. 

District  of  Columbia 

Smelt. 

Maine  (except  by  hook  and  line). 

Massachusetts  . . 


Trespassing".  If  the  bottom  of  a 
stream  is  owned  by  any  one, as  it  is  in 
some  cases,  the  owner  alone  has  the 
right  to  fish  in  it,  even  if  it  is  deep 
enough  to  float  a  boat.  If  it  is  not 
deep  enough  for  boats,  then  the  right 
belongs  to  the  owner  of  the  land  on 
the  nearest  bank,  no  matter  how 
wide  the  stream  might  be.  In  tide 
water,  the  right  to  fish  belongs  to 
the  State,  and  it  is  usually  free  to  all; 
but  in  some  cases  the  State  grants  it 
to  particular  persons.  When  a  per- 
son fishes  in  water  without  the  per- 
mission of  the  one  who  owns  the  right 
to  do  so,  he  is  a  trespasser.  What 
has  been  said  on  this  subject,  under 
HUNTING,  applies  to  fishing  also. 
Some  States  have  made  special  laws 
on  this  subject,  but  in  general  the 
law  is  as  it  has  been  given  above. 

History.  The  earliest  tribes  of 
men  caught  fish  with  what  are 


Fig.  32. — Ancient  Bronze  and  Stone 
Gorges. 

called  gorges  (see  Fig.  32),  pieces  of 
pointed  stone  about  an  inch  long, 
and  having  a  groove  in  the  middle 


for  the  line.  The  bait  was  put  on  so 
as  to  cover  the  gorge,  which  turned, 
after  it  was  swallowed,  across  the 
fish's  gullet  and  held  it  fast.  One 
of  these  gorges,  dug  up  in  France, 
was  used  in  what  is  called  the  Stone 
Age,  before  man  understood  the  use 
of  metals,  and  is  estimated  to  be 
eight  or  nine  thousand  years  old. 
Later,  in  the  Bronze  Age,  gorges  of 
bronze  were  used,  and  then  hooks 
of  bone  and  of  bronze  (see  Figs.  33- 


Fig.  33. — Ancient  Bone  Hooks. 

34).  The  Indians  of  California  used 
hooks  made  of  shell  (Fig.  35).  On 
the  coast  of  France  hooks  are  some- 
times made  of  thorns,  and  the  Piute 
Indians  use  the  spine  of  a  cactus. 
The  Bible  shows  us  that  the  use  of 
hook  and  line  was  known,  very  early, 
to  the  Jews.  The  question  in  the 
book  of  Job,  "Canst  thou  draw  out 
Leviathan  with  a  hook  ?  "  is  supposed 
to  refer  to  it.  The  prophet  Isaiah 
says,  "  The  fishers  also  shall  mourn, 
and  all  they  that  cast  angle  in 
the  brooks."  Among  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  angling  was 
much  practiced,  and  Antony  and 
Cleopatra  and  the  Emperor  Trajan 
were  fond  of  it.  The  sport  has 
always  been  a  favorite  with  many 
great  men,  among  them  Lord  Nelson, 
Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  Sir  Humphrey 


FISHING 


336 


FLAT-BOATING 


Davy.     More  than  a  thousand  books 
on   angling    have    been    written    in 


Fig.  34. — Ancient  Double  and  Single 
Bronze  Hooks. 

English  alone,  the  first  of  which,  by 
Juliana   Rerners,    was    mirilished    in 


Fig.  35. — Snell  Hook. 

1496.     One   of  the  most  celebrated 
is  "  The  Compleat  Angler,"  by  Isaac 


Walton,  a  noted  angler,  which  first 
appeared  in  1653  and  has  been  repub- 
lished  many  times.  The  fifth  edition 
(1676)  was  accompanied  by  a  second 
part,  giving  instructions  for  fly  fish- 
mg»  by  h's  adopted  son  Charles 
Cotton,  and  the  two  are  now  always 
printed  together. 

FISH  POND.    See  ANGLING. 

FIVES.     See  RACKETS. 

FLAT-BOATING.  Broad,  flat-bot- 
tomed boats,  called  flatboats,  bear- 
ing a  wooden  cabin,  are  used  on 
shallow  rivers  and  inlets  by  sports- 
men. A  flatboat  is  easily  built  by 
any  one  with  a  taste  for  carpentry 
The  hull  should  be  about  14  feet 
long,  6  feet  wide,  and  18  inches 
deep,  of  two-inch  pine  planks,  with  a 
bottom  of  half-inch  boards  nailed  on 
lengthwise.  The  whole  should  be 
calked  with  oakum  and  painted  with 
coal-tar.  The  cabin  is  a  framework 
covered  with  thin  plank,  and  is  about 
five  feet  high,  and  six  feet  square. 
In  front  of  the  cabin  two  oar-locks 
are  fastened,  which  may  be  made  of 
notched  boards,  and  near  the  bow  a 
small  mast  is  set  up.  Another  oar- 
lock, for  the  steering  oar,  is  placed 
at  the  stern.  The  boat  is  propelled 
by  rowing,  and  sometimes  also  by  a 
square  sail.  It  is  slow,  but  its  object 
is  simply  to  furnish  shelter  to  the 
sportsman,  and  enable  him  to  move 
about  from  place  to  place  in  search 
of  fish  or  game.  It  can  float  in 
water  too  shallow  for  a  rowboat. 
A  simpler  kind  of  flatboat,  which 
has  been  named  a  Crusoe-raft,  is  a 
raft  of  logs,  joined  together  by  cross 
strips,  fastened  by  wooden  pegs 
driven  through  auger  holes.  On  the 
raft  is  a  sort  of  tent  made  of  bent 
saplings,  covered  with  cloth,  like  the 
top  of  an  old-fashioned  emigrant 
wagon.  For  oars,  long  poles,  with 
flat  boards  at  the  ends,  may  be  used, 
and  the  tent  should  be  floored  with 
small  sticks  and  partially  filled  with 
hay  or  straw.  Such  a  raft  may  be 
built  in  the  woods,  floated  down  a 
river,  and  then  abandoned,  the  boat- 
ing party  returning  by  rail.  A  flat- 


FLOUR 


337 


boat  journey  is  a  kind  of  CAMPING 
OUT  on  the  water  and  the  outfit  should 
be  much  the  same  as  for  a  camp  on 
land.  An  oven  of  stones  may  be 
built  on  the  boat,  so  that  cooking 
may  be  done  on  board. 

FLOUR,  an  Explosion  with.  Any 
fine  flour  can  be  used  in  this  experi- 
ment, but  the  best  is  ordinary  corn 
starch.  Nail  together  two  boards, 
each  about  eighteen  inches  square,  in 
the  shape  of  a  V,  so  that  they  make  an 
angle  of  about  60  degrees.  Lay  the  V 
on  its  side  and  at  the  top  of  the  angle, 
fasten  a  candle  by  a  wire,  so  that  it 
projects  into  the  space  within  the 
boards  about  an  inch.  Place  within 
the  V  about  a  handful  of  corn  starch, 
and,  having  lighted  the  candle,  blow 
the  starch  toward  the  angle  vigor- 
ously with  an  ordinary  bellows.  A 
dense  cloud  of  flour  will  rise  at  the 
angle,  and  as  it  passes  the  candle  it 
will  take  fire  with  a  sudden  puff, 
making  a  mass  of  flame.  If  the 
cloud  does  not  catch  fire  at  first  it  is 
probably  because  it  is  not  thick 
enough.  This  can  be  remedied  by 
using  more  corn  starch,  or  blowing 
it  more  vigorously. 

To  blow  the  side  out  of  a  box 
with  an  explosion  of  this  kind,  remove 
one  side  of  a  wooden  box  about  eight 
or  ten  inches  square,  and  replace  it 
with  thick  brown  wrapping  paper, 
gummed  on  tightly.  Bore  a  hole  in 
one  of  the  lower  corners  to  admit  the 
bellows  nozzle,  and  another  in  the  top 
for  ventilation.  Put  in  a  handful  of 
corn  starch  through  the  hole  in  the 
top,  and  lower  a  lighted  candle 
through  the  same  hole  with  a  wire, 
bending  the  wire  so  that  the  candle 
will  hang  within  the  box.  Blow  with 
the  bellows  through  the  lower  hole, 
and  after  a  few  trials  an  explosion 
can  be  produced  which  will  blow 
out  the  paper  side  of  the  box. 

The  reason  why  flour  explodes 
thus,  when  it  is  in  the  form  of  a 
cloud,  is  that  then  each  particle 
is  surrounded  by  oxygen  enough  to 
burn  it  (see  FIRE,  in  C.  C.  T.),  and 
yet  the  particles  are  near  enough  for 


the  fire  to  pass  from  one  to  the  other 
so  that  they  flame  up  all  at  once. 

FLOWERS,  Changes  of  Color  in. 
Pour  some  common  ether  into  a 
wine-glass,  and  to  it  add  about  one- 
tenth  its  bulk  of  strong  ammonia 
water.  This  mixture  has  the  prop- 
erty of  changing  the  colors  of  many 
flowers  when  they  are  dipped  into 
it.  Some  whose  colors  are  red  or 
violet,  such  as  the  red  geranium,  the 
violet,  the  periwinkle,  the  lilac,  the 
rose,  and  the  heliotrope,  are  turned 
bright  green.  The  upper  petal  of 
the  violet  sweet  pea  becomes  dark 
blue  and  the  lower  petal  green.  The 
streaked  carnation  becomes  brown 
and  bright  green.  White  flowers 
generally  turn  yellow  or  orange, 
but  yellow  ones  are  not  changed. 
The  action  of  the  liquid  is  so  quick 
that  flowers  can  be  spotted  simply 
by  sprinkling  it  over  them.  Similar 
changes  can  be  produced  by  using 
ammonia  alone,  through  not  so  quick- 
ly. The  ammonia  may  be  poured  on 
a  glass  plate  and  covered  with  an  in- 
verted dish,  containing  the  flowers. 
Asters  acquire  an  aromatic  odor 
when  thus  treated.  The  colors  of 
flowers  which  have  been  turned 
green  in  either  of  these  ways  may 
be  somewhat  restored  by  placing 
them  in  a  vessel  over  hydrochloric 
acid.  (See  also  SULPHUR.) 

FLUORESCENCE,  Experiments 
on.  See  QUININE. 

FLY  AWAY,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  with  marbles, 
and  an  upright  frame,  seven  inches 
high,  on  which  are  hung  five  small 
weights  by  elastic  cords.  The  cords 
are  kept  stretched  by  fastening  the 
weights  to  a  cross  bar  near  the 
ground,  but,  if  one  of  the  weights  is 
struck  by  a  rolling  marble,  it  is  un- 
fastened and  the  elastic  pulls  it  up 
quickly,  so  that  it  seems  to  fly  away. 
The  players  take  turns  in  rolling  one 
or  more  marbles  at  the  frame,  and 
when  a  weight  is  struck  the  player 
scores  whatever  number  is  written 
above  it.  In  another  form,  the 
weights  are  replaced  by  little  boards 


FLYING  CONE 


338 


FOOT   BALL 


which,  on  being  struck  with  the 
marbles,  turn  over,  showing  a  comi- 
cal picture  on  the  other  side. 

FLYING  CONE,  or  Devil  on  Two 
Sticks,  a  toy  consisting  of  two  cones 
joined  at  their  points  (see  A,  in  illus- 
tration), and  made  to  spin  in  the  air 


RIGHT  HAND 


Flying  Cone. 

by  means  of  a  string  a  yard  long, 
fastened  by  two  sticks,  each  about 
two  feet  long.  The  toy  is  first  laid 
on  a  table  with  the  string  under  it,  the 
player  holding  one  of  the  sticks  in 
each  hand.  The  cone  being  near 
the  right-hand  stick,  the  player  lifts 
that  steadily  so  as  to  make  the  cone 
revolve.  By  tossing  it  up  a  little  way 
the  string  can  be  brought  back  to 
the  same  point,  and  by  repeating  the 
process  the  cone  is  made  to  spin  very 
rapidly.  The  skillful  player  can  then 
toss  it  high  into  the  air,  and  catching 
it,  make  it  dance  on  the  tightened 
string,  cause  it  to  roll  up  one  of  the 
sticks  to  his  arm,  and  perform  many 
other  feats. 

History,  This  toy  had  its  origin 
in  China,  where  peddlers  use  it  to 
announce  their  approach  by  its  hum- 
ming. The  Chinese  form  is  much 
larger  than  ours,  and  consists  of  two 
cylinders  of  metal  or  bamboo  united 
by  a  thin  stem.  The  string  makes 
a  running  knot  around  the  stem,  and 
no  sticks  are  used  in  spinning  it. 
On  its  introduction  into  Europe, 
early  in  this  century,  it  assumed  its 


present  form.     In  France,  where  it 
it   called   Le  diable  (The  Devil),  it 
was  at  one  time  so  popular  that,  says 
a   French    writer,   the    toys   "  were 
made  of  the   most  valuable  woods 
and  even  of  glass.     They  were  played 
with    in    parlors  and   on  roofs,   in 
public   places    and 
promenades ;    the 
sport  was  not  con- 
fined   to    children, 
but  ladies  and  even 
persons  of  emi- 
nence strove  to  ex- 
cel in    it,  often   to 
the  great    risk    of 
the  glass  and  por- 
celain   in    parlors, 
and  often,  too,  with 
danger  to  the  heads 
of  the  passers  by, 
when  the  Devil  was 
sent  from  afar  by 
an  inexpert  player." 
The   English 

scientist,  Maxwell,  a  professor  in  the 
University   of    Cambridge,    devoted 
much  time  to   studying   the   move- 
ments of  the  Double  Cone  in  the 
air,   and    succeeded    in    completely 
explaining  it  mathematically. 
FLYING  TOP.     See  TOPS. 
FLY  THE  GARTER.     See  LEAP 
FROG. 

FOLLOW  MY  LEADER,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
one  of  whom  is  chosen  as  leader, 
while  the  others  follow  him  and  do 
whatever  he  does.  The  players 
form  in  line  behind  the  leader,  who 
generally  begins  the  same  by  doing 
some  simple  thing  like  leaping,  hop- 
ping, or  shouting.  If  any  of  the  play- 
ers fail  to  perform  any  of  the  leader's 
feats,  that  player  must  fall  behind 
all  those  who  were  able  to  do  so. 
The  game  may  be  made  exciting  by 
a  good  leader,  but  he  should  be  care- 
ful not  to  lead  his  followers  into 
danger. 

FOOT  AND  A  HALF.  See  LEAP 
FROG. 

FOOT  BALL,  a  game  played  by 
22  persons,  1 1  on  each  side,  with  a 


FOOT  BALL 


339 


FOOT  BALL 


large  oval  ball,  usually  of  inflated 
rubber  with  a  leather  cover,  on  a 
field  330  feet  long  and  i6ofeet  wide.- 


At  each  end  is  a  goal  made  of  two 
posts  i8i  feet  apart,  with  a  crossbar 
10  feet  from  the  ground.  The 


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Touch  in  Goal. 

Diagram  of  Field. 


posts  project  several  feet  above  the 
crossbar.  The  end  boundaries  of 
the  field  are  called  goal  lines.  The 


space  beyond  these  lines,  on  either 
end  and  between  the  extended  side 
lines,  is  called  a  Goal.  The  space 


FOOT  BALL 


340 


FOOT  BALL 


outside  the  side  lines  and  between 
the  extended  goal  lines  is  called 
Touch,  and  the  space  at  the  corners 
of  the  field,  between  the  extended 
goal  and  side  lines,  is  called  Touch- 
in-Goal,  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
Usually  the  field  is  marked  also  with 
cross-lines  every  five  yards,  to  aid 
the  referee  in  determining  how  far 
the  ball  has  advanced.  These  lines 
give  the  foot-ball  field  the  look  that 
has  led  to  its  popular  name  of  "  the 
gridiron."  Two  of  them,  the  fifth 
from  each  goal  respectively,  are 
called  the  "25-yard  lines."  All  the 
lines  are  marked  with  lime.  Each 
party  or  "  team  "  consists  of  eleven 
persons,  namely,  seven  Rushers  or 
Forwards,  a  Quarter  Back,  two 
Half  Backs,  and  one  Full  Back  or 
Goal  Tend.  The  opposing  players 
face  each  other,  and  each  side  tries 
to  carry  or  kick  the  ball  toward  the 
opposite  goal,  and  either  to  touch 
the  ball  to  the  ground  behind  the 
goal  (called  "making  a  Touch- 
down ")  or  to  kick  it  over  the  cross- 
bar between  the  goal  posts  (called 
"  kicking  a  Goal  ").  In  general,  the 
Rushers  try  to  carry  the  ball  for- 
ward and  also  to  protect  the  Half 
Backs  and  Full  Back,  who  do  all  the 
kicking. 

The  Center  Rusher  or  "  Snapper- 
back,"  should  be  a  large,  powerful 
man,  but  it  is  not  necessary  that  he 
should  run  fast.  His  neighbors  on 
either  side  are  called  "  Guards," 
those  next  to  these  the  "  Tacklers," 
and  the  farthest  ones  the  "  End 
Rushers,"  who  must  be  good  gen- 
eral players  and  fine  runners.  The 
Quarter  Back's  position  is  the  most 
responsible  on  the  field,  as  it  rests 
with  him  to  determine  the  direction 
of  the  playing,  and  at  critical  mo- 
ments he  may  even  change  the  cap- 
tain's policy.  When  the  ball  is  held 
by  the  enemy  the  Quarter  Back  plays 
as  a  Rusher  or  Half  Back.  The 
best  players  in  this  position  have 
usually  been  rather  small  men.  The 
Half  Backs  should  possess  coolness 
and  pluck,  and  must  run,  kick,  and 


tackle  well.  The  Full  Back  must  be 
a  long  kicker  and  fine  tackier,  so 
•that  it  will  be  almost  impossible  for 
a  hostile  man  to  pass  him.  The 
captains  usually  direct  the  play  of 
their  men  by  secret  signals  pre- 
viously agreed  upon. 

The  leaders  of  the  sides  toss  up 
before  the  game,  and  the  winner 
takes  either  the  "  kick-off  "  or  the 
choice  of  goals. 

The  players  on  each  side  now 
stand  with  their  backs  toward  their 
own  goal — the  seven  Rushers  in  a 
line,  the  Quarter  Back  just  behind, 
then  the  Half  Backs  a  few  yards 
away,  and  finally  the  Full  Back  a 
dozen  yards  or  so  to  the  rear.  The 
side  having  the  "  kick-off  "  places 
the  ball  in  the  center  of  the  field,  and 
one  of  that  side  kicks  it  toward  the 
opposite  goal.  As  soon  as  it  is  kicked 
it  is  said  to  be  "  in  play."  Before 
that,  all  on  the  kicking-off  side  stand 
behind  the  kicker,  and  all  on  the 
opposite  side  must  stand  at  least  10 
yards  before  the  ball.  The  player 
who  next  gets  possession  of  the  ball 
has  the  choice  of  kicking  it,  of  run- 
ning with  it,  or  of  throwing  it  to 
some  other  player  on  his  own  side, 
but  he  must  throw  it  sideways  or 
back,  never  straight  or  diagonally 
forward.  If  he  run  with  it,  the 
opposed  players  may  try  to  stop  him 
by  seizing  or  "tackling"  him  any- 
where above  the  knees.  He  may 
try  to  keep  them  off  by  pushing 
with  his  open  hand,  but  not  with  his 
closed  fist.  It  requires  skill  as  well 
as  strength  to  stop  a  good  runner. 
Sometimes  four  or  five  men  will  be 
unable  to  hold  him,  while  at  others  a 
small  player  will  stop  a  large  one 
almost  instantly.  If  he  be  tackled, 
and  the  ball  fairly  held,  he  must  say 
"  Down,"  and  a  player  on  his  side, 
usually  the  Snapper-back,  then  puts 
the  ball  on  the  ground  for  a  "  scrim- 
mage." The  opposing  rushers  form 
in  two  lines,  facing  each  other,  each 
on  their  own  side  of  the  place  where 
the  ball  was  down.  The  Snapper- 
back  takes  the  ball  and  "  snaps  "  it 


FOOT  BALL 


341 


FOOT  BALL 


(see  note  under  Rule  6)  back  to  the 
Quarter  Back,  who  passes  it  io  an- 
other player  on  his  own  side.  That 
player  may  then  try  to  carry  it 
through  the  opposing  rush  line  or 
kick  it,  but  if  in  three  successive 
"  clowns  "  by  the  same  side  the  ball 
is  not  advanced  5  yards,  or  taken 
back  20  yards,  it  must  then  be 
kicked,  or  surrendered  to  the  oppo- 
nents on  the  next  failure  to  advance. 
When  a  ball  is  kicked,  anyone  on 
the  opposite  side  who  catches  it 
fairly,  without  stepping  from  his 
place,  at  the  same  time  making  a 
mark  with  his  heel  on  the  ground, 
may  have  a  "  free  kick."  The  op- 
ponents may  then  come  up  to  that 
mark,  but  must  not  pass  it  till,  after 
retiring  as  far  as  he  wishes,  the  one 
who  made  the  catch  kicks  it.  He 
may  take  a  "  drop-kick,"  or  a 
"  punt,"  or  hold  the  ball  for  a  "  place- 
kick  "  (all  of  which  are  described 
in  Rule  2,  below),  but  if  he  takes 
a  place-kick  the  opponents  may 
advance,  or  "  charge,"  as  soon  as 
the  ball  touches  the  ground.  When 
in  the  course  of  the  game  a  player 
succeeds  in  getting  the  ball  near 
enough  to  his  opponents'  goal,  he 
may  try  to  kick  a  goal,  which  he  may 
do  in  any  way  except  by  a  punt,  or  he 
may  touch  the  ball  down  in  Goal, 
which  iscalled  making  a  Touchdown. 
His  side  must  then  make  a  "  Try  at 
Goal,"  either  by  a  place-kick  or  a 
punt-out  as  described  in  Rules  24 
and  25.  When  a  side  has  the  ball, 
but  is  hard  pressed,  near  its  own 
goal,  it  may  gain  a  temporary  advan- 
tage by  taking  the  ball  back  across 
the  goal  line  and  making  a  Safety 
touchdown,  or  "  Safety,"  as  described 
in  Rule  4  (d).  The  ball  can  then  be 
carried  straight  out,  not  more  than 
25  yards  from  the  goal  line,  and 
kicked.  Till  it  is  so  kicked  the  op- 
posing side  must  not  come  nearer 
the  goal  line  than  25  yards.  A 
"  Safety "  counts  against  the  side 
making  it,  but  if  the  ball  is  kicked 
or  carried  across  the  goal  line  by 
one  of  the  opposite  side  and  then 


comes  into  possession  of  the  owners 
of  the  goal,  who  touch  it  down,  it  is 
called  a  Touchback,  and  does  not 
count  against  them.  If  the  ball 
crosses  the  side  lines,  or  "  goes  in 
touch,"  it  is  put  in  play  again,  as 
described  in  Rule  22. 

During  the  game  every  player  is 
either  "  off-side  "  or  "on-side"  and 
only  those  "  on-side  "  can  take  active 
part  in  the  game.  Rule  io  tells 
when  a  player  is  off-side  and  how 
he  is  put  on-side  again.  The  ball 
must  be  either  "  in  play  "  or  "  dead," 
and  while  it  is  "  dead  "  no  play  may 


I  .. — «j 

Ju 


Drop  Kick. 


be  made.  For  instance,  when  a 
Safety  has  been  made,  the  ball  is 
dead  till  it  is  put  in  play,  according 
to  rule,  by  a  kick-out.  Till  it  is  so 
put  in  play,  the  player  holding  it 
may  not  run  with  it,  kick  it,  nor 
throw  it,  and  the  opposing  players 
must  make  no  effort  to  get  pos- 
session of  it.  Rule  ii  gives  all 
the  cases  where  a  ball  is  dead.  All 
disputed  points  during  a  match  game 
are  decided  by  a  referee,  an  umpire, 
and  a  linesman,  as  described  in  Rule 
29.  In  a  practice  game  one  person 
often  does  duty  for  all  three. 

A  game  consists  of  two  halves, 
each  35  minutes  long,  with  a  ten- 
minute  intermission  ;  and  the  side 
scoring  the  greatest  number  of 


FOOT  BALL 


342 


FOOT  BALL 


points  wins.  The  points  are  deter- 
mined by  the  Goals,  Touchdowns, 
and  Safeties  as  explained  in  Rule  26. 
The  details  of  the  game  will  be 
better  understood  by  studying  the 
rules  given  below. 

The  balls  used  for  playing  are  of 
various  kinds.  The  Rugby,  once 
used  in  all  foot-ball  games  in  this 
country,  is  oval,  and  consists  of  an 
India-rubber  bladder  with  a  leather 
case.  The  English  Association  ball 
has  also  a  bladder  and  case,  but  is 


Foot  Balls. 

round.  These  different  kinds  of  ball 
are  made  in  various  sizes,  from  20  to 
33  inches  in  circumference.  Foot- 
ball players  now  usually  wear  canvas 
jackets  lacing  in  front,  and  trousers 
of  fustian  or  some  other  stout  ma- 
terial, padded  over  the  knees  and 
thighs.  Long  woolen  stockings  are 
worn,  and  sometimes  the  Forwards 
use  shin-guards.  Slices  are  of 
leather  or  canvas,  with  leather-strips 
or  spikes  on  the  sole.  The  Quarter 
Back,  Center  Rush,  and  Full  Back 
often  wear  simply  knit  jerseys. 

Foot-ball  Rules.  Substantially  as 
adopted  in  1898  by  the  University 
Athletic  Club:* 

EQUIPMENT,   OFFICALS,   ETC. 

RULE  I.— (a)  The  game  shall  be 
played  upon  a  rectangular  field,  of 
dimensions  described  in  the  preced- 
ing article. 

(b)  The  game  shall  be  played  by 
two  teams  of  eleven  men  each. 

(L~)  The  officials  shall  be  a  referee, 
an  umpire,  and  a  linesman. 

(//)  The  foot  ball  used  shall  be  of 
leather,  enclosing  an  inflated  rubber 

*  In  the  same  year  associations  of  Western  and 
Southern  colleges  adopted  rules  of  their  own 
which  differ  slightly  from  these. 


bladder.     The  ball  shall    have   the 
shape  of  a  prolate  spheroid. 

DEFINITION  OF  TERMS. 

RULE  2.—  (a)  A  Drop-Kick  is 
made  by  letting  the  ball  drop  from 
the  hands  and  kicking  it  the  instant 
it  rises  from  the  ground. 

(t>)  A  Place-Kick  is  made  by 
kicking  the  ball  after  it  has  been 
placed  on  the  ground. 

(c)  A  Punt  is  made  by  letting  the 
ball  drop  from  the  hands  and  kick- 
ing it  before  it  touches  the  ground. 

(d)  A   Kick-Off'   is  a    place-kick 
from  the  center  of  the  field  of  play, 
and  cannot  score  a  goal.     (Rule  8.) 

(e)  A   Kick-Out   is    a  drop-kick, 
place-kick,  or  punt  made  by  a  player 
of  the  side  which  has  made  a  safety 
or  a  touchback. 

(f)  A  Free  Kick  is  a  term  used 
to  designate  any  kick  when  the  op- 
ponents are  restrained  by  rule  from 
advancing  beyond  a  certain  point. 

RULE  3.— (a)  The  ball  is  Out  of 
Bounds  when  it  or  any  part  of  the 
player  who  holds  the  ball  touches 
the  ground  on  or  outside  the  side 
line  or  side  line  extended. 

(b)  If  the  ball  is  kicked  so  that  it 
goes  out  of  bounds  before  crossing 
the  opponents'  goal  line,  it  shall  be- 
long to  the  opponents.  If,  however, 
it  strikes  any  player  who  is  on-side, 
and  then  goes  out  of  bounds,  it  shall 
belong  to  the  player  who  first  ob- 
tains possession  of  it. 

RULE  4. — (a)  A  Touchdown  is 
made  when  the  ball  in  possession  of 
a  player  is  declared  dead  by  the 
Referee,  any  part  of  it  being  on, 
over,  or  behind  the  opponents'  goal 
line. 

(b)  The   point   where   the  touch- 
down  is   marked,   however,   is    not 
where  the  ball  is  carried  across  the 
line,  but  where  the  ball  is  fairly  held 
or  called  "  down." 

(c)  A    Touchback   is   made  when 
the   ball   in    possession  of  a  player 
guarding  his  own  goal  is  declared 
(lead  by  the  Referee,  any  part  of  it 
being  on,  over,  or  behind   the  goal 
line,   provided   the    impetus    which 


FOOT  BALL 


343 


FOOT  BALL 


sent  it  to  or  across  the  line  was 
given  by  an  opponent. 

(d)  A  Safety  is  made  when  the 
ball  in  the  possession  of  a  player 
guarding  his  own  goal  is  declared 
dead  by  the  Referee,  any  part  of  it 
being  on,  over,  or  behind  the  goal 
line,  provided  the  impetus  which 
caused  it  to  pass  from  outside  the 
goal  to  or  behind  the  goal  line  was 
given  by  the  defending  side. 

RULE  5.  —A  Punt-Out  is  a  punt 
made  by  a  player  of  the  side  which 
has  made  a  touchdown  to  another 
of  his  own  side  for  a  fair  catch. 

RULE  6. — (a)  A  Scrimmage  takes 
place  when  the  holder  of  the  ball 
places  it  upon  the  ground  and  puts  it 
in  play  by  kicking  it  forward  or 
snapping*  it  back. 

(b)  If,  after  the  snapper-back  has 
taken  his  position,  he  should  volun- 
tarily move  the  ball  as  if  to  snap  it, 
the  scrimmage  has  begun. 

(c)  When  snapping  the  ball  back, 
the  player  so  doing  must  be  on-side, 
the  hand  or  foot  used  in  snapping 
the  ball  excepted.     (Rule  10.) 

RULE  7.— (a)  A  Fair  Catch  con- 
sists in  catching  the  ball  after  it  has 
been  kicked  by  one  of  the  opponents 
and  before  it  touches  the  ground,  or 
in  similarly  catching  a  punt-out  by 
another  of  the  catcher's  own  side, 
provided  the  player,  while  making 
the  catch,  makes  a  mark  with  his 
heel.  It  is  not  a  fair  catch  if  the 
ball,  after  the  kick,  was  touched  by 
another  of  his  side  before  the  catch. 
Opponents  who  are  off-side  shall  not 
interfere  in  any  way  with  a  player 
attempting  to  make  a  fair  catch,  nor 
shall  he  be  thrown  to  the  ground 
after  such  catch  is  made  unless  he 
has  advanced  beyond  his  mark. 

(b)  If  a  side  obtains  a  fair  catch, 
the  ball  must  be  put  in  play  by  a 
punt,  drop-kick,  or  place-kick,  and 
the  opponents  cannot  come  within 
ten  yards  of  the  line  on  which  the 
fair  catch  was  made ;  the  ball  must 

*  Snapping  the  ball  means  putting  it  back  by 
hand  or  foot  with  one  quick  and  continuous 
notion  from  its  position  on  the  ground. 


be  kicked  from  some  point  directly 
behind  the  spot  where  the  catch  was 
made,  on  a  line  parallel  to  the  side 
line. 

RULE  8.— A  Goal  is  made  by  kick- 
ing the  ball  in  any  way,  except  by  a 
punt,  from  the  field  of  play  over  the 
crossbar  directly  over  one  of  the  up- 
rights of  the  opponents'  goal. 

RULE  9. — Charging  is  rushing 
forward  to  seize  or  block  the  ball  or 
to  tackle  a  player. 

RULE  10. — (a)  In  a  scrimmage  no 
part  of  any  player  shall  be  ahead  of 
the  ball  when  it  is  put  in  play. 
(Exception  under  Rule  6,  c.) 

(b)  A  player  is  put  off-side  if  the 
ball  in  play  has  last  been  touched  by 
one  of  his  own  side  behind  him. 
No  player,  when  off-side,  shall  touch 
the  ball  except  on  a  fumble  or  a 
muff,  nor  shall  he  interrupt  or 
obstruct  an  opponent  with  his  hands 
or  arms  until  again  on-side.  No 
player  can,  however,  be  called  off- 
side behind  his  own  goal  line. 

(<:)  A  player  being  off-side  is  put 
on-side  when  the  ball  has  touched 
an  opponent,  or  when  one  of  his  own 
side  has  run  in  front  of  him,  either 
with  the  ball,  or  having  been  the  last 
player  to  touch  it  when  behind 
him. 

(d)  If  the  ball,  when  not  in  pos- 
session of  either  side,  is  touched 
when  inside  the  opponents'  ten-yard 
line  by  a  player  who  is  off-side,  it 
shall  go  as  a  touchback  to  the  de- 
fenders of  that  goal. 

RULE  ii. — The  ball  is  Dead: 

(a)  Whenever     the      Referee    or 
Umpire  blows  his  whistle  or  declares 
a  down. 

(b)  When  the  Referee  has  declared 
that  a  down,  touchdown,  touchback, 
safety,  or  goal  has  been  made. 

(c)  When   a   fair   catch  has  been 
heeled. 

(d)  When    it    has   been    downed 
after  going  out  of  bounds. 

RULE  12. — (a)  The  length  of  the 
game  shall  be  70  minutes,  divided 
into  two  halves  of  35  minutes  each, 
exclusive  of  time  taken  out.  There 


FOOT  BALL 


344 


FOOT  BALL 


shall   be    ten   minutes'  intermission 
between  the  two  halves. 

(b)  The  game  shall  be  decided  by 
the  score  at  the  end  of  the  two  halves. 

(c)  Time   shall   not   be  called  for 
the  end   of  a  half  until  the   ball  is 
dead,  and  in  case  of  a  touchdown, 
the  try-at-goal  shall  be  allowed. 

(d)  Time    shall     be     taken     out 
whenever  the  game  is  unnecessarily 
delayed   or  while  the  ball  is  being 
brought  out  for  a  try-at-goal,  kick- 
out,    or   kick-off,   or   when    play   is 
for  any   reason    suspended    by   the 
Referee  or  Umpire.     Time  shall  be- 
gin again  when  the  ball  is  actually 
put  in  play. 

(<?)  No  delay  shall  continue  more 
than  two  minutes. 

RULE  13. — (a)  The  captains  shall 
"toss  up  "  before  the  beginning  of 
the  game,  and  the  winner  of  the  toss 
shall  have  his  choice  of  goal  or  kick- 
off.  The  ball  shall  be  kicked  off  at 
the  beginning  of  each  half.  When- 
ever a  goal,  following  a  touchdown, 
has  been  tried  or  a  goal  from  the 
field  has  been  kicked,  the  side  de- 
fending that  goal  shall  kick  off. 
The  teams  shall  change  goals  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second  half.  The 
same  side  shall  not  kick  off  at  the  be- 
ginning of  two  successive  halves. 

(b)  At  kick-off,  if  the  ball  goes  out 
of  bounds  before  it  is  touched  by  an 
opponent,  it  shall  be  brought  back 
and  kicked  off  again.     If  it  is  kicked 
out  of  bounds  a  second  time  it  shall 
go  as  a  kick-off    \p  the  opponents. 
If  either  side  thus  forfeits  the  ball 
twice,  it  shall  go  to  the  opponents, 
who  shall  put  it  in  play  by  a  scrim- 
mage at  the  center  of  the  field. 

(c)  At  kick-off,  if  the  ball  is  kicked 
across   the   goal  line   and    is    there 
declared  dead  when  in  the  posses- 
sion of  one  of  the  defending  side,  it  is 
a  touchback.     If  it  is  declared  dead 
thus  in  possession  of  the  attacking 
side,  it  is  a  touchdown. 

(d)  At  kick-off  and  on  a  kick  from 
a  fair  catch,  the  opposite  side  must 
stand  at  least  ten  yards  in  front  of 
the  ball  until  it  is    kicked.     On    a 


kick-out,  the  opposite  side  cannot 
stand  nearer  the  goal  than  the  25- 
yard  line,  except  on  a  kick-out  made 
after  a  drop-kick  upon  the  first  down 
inside  the  25-yard  line,  when  the 
15-yard  line  is  the  restraining  mark. 
(See  Rule  23,  exception.) 

RULE  14.— (<0  The  side  which 
has  a  free  kick  must  be  behind  the 
ball  when  it  is  kicked. 

(b)  In  the  case  of  a  kick-off,  kick- 
out,  or  kick  from  a  fair  catch,  the 
ball  must  be  kicked  a  distance  of  at 
least  ten  yards  towards  the  oppo- 
nents' goal  from  the  line  restraining 
the  player  making  the  kick,  unless  it 
is  stopped  by  an  opponent  ;  other- 
wise the  ball  is  not  in  play. 

RULE  15. — (a)  Charging  is  law- 
ful, in  case  of  a  punt-out  or  kick-off, 
as  soon  as  the  ball  is  kicked  ;  and 
the  opponents  must  not  charge  until 
the  ball  is  kicked. 

(b)  In  case  of  any  other  free  kick, 
charging   is   lawful:  (i)  When    the 
player  of  the  side  having  the  free 
kick  advances  beyond  his  restraining 
line  or  mark  with  the  ball  in  his  pos- 
session ;  (2)  When   he  has    allowed 
the   ball   to   touch   the  ground    by 
accident  or  otherwise. 

(c)  If  such  lawful  charging  takes 
place,   and   if    the  side   having   the 
free  kick  fails  to  kick  the  ball,  then 
the  opponents  may  line  up  five  yards 
ahead  of  the  line  which   restrained 
them  before  charging.     In  that  case, 
the  side  having  the  free  kick  must 
kick    the    ball     from     some    point 
directly  behind  its  mark,  if  the  free 
kick    resulted    from  a    fair    catch, 
and  in  other  cases  from  behind  the 
new  restraining  line. 

RULE  1 6. — (a)  The  snapper-back 
is  entitled  to  full  and  undisturbed 
possession  of  the  ball.  The  op- 
ponents must  neither  interfere  with 
the  snapper-back  nor  touch  the  ball 
until  it  is  actually  put  in  play. 

(b)  In  snapping  the  ball  back,  if 
the  player  so  doing  is  off-side,  the 
ball  must  be  snapped  again,  and  if 
this  occurs  again  on  the  same  down 
the  ball  goes  to  the  opponents. 


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345 


FOOT  BALL 


(r)  The  man  who  snaps  back  and 
the  man  opposite  him  in  the  scrim- 
mage cannot  afterward  touch  the 
ball  until  it  has  touched  some  player 
other  than  these  two. 

(if)  If  the  man  who  puts  the  ball 
in  play  in  a  scrimmage  kicks  it  for- 
ward, no  player  of  his  side  can  touch 
it  until  it  has  gone  ten  yards  into  the 
opponents'  territory,  unless  it  be 
touched  by  an  opponent. 

(<?)  The  man  who  first  receives  the 
ball  when  it  is  snapped  back  shall 
not  carry  the  ball  forward  beyond 
the  line  of  scrimmage  unless. he  has 
regained  it  after  it  has  been  passed 
to  and  has  touched  another  player. 

RULE  17. — (a)  Before  the  ball  is 
put  in  play  no  player  shall  lay  his 
hands  upon,  or  by  the  use  of  his 
hands  or  arms  interfere  with,  an  op- 
ponent in  such  a  way  as  to  delay 
putting  the  ball  in  play. 

(b\  After  the  ball  is  put  in  play, 
the  players  of  the  side  that  has  the 
ball  may  obstruct  the  opponents  with 
the  body  only,  except  the  player  run- 
ning with  the  ball,  who  may  use  his 
hands  and  arms. 

(c)  The  players  of  the  side  not  hav- 
ing the  ball  may  use  their  hands  and 
arms,  but  only  to  get  their  opponents 
out  of  the  way  in  order  to  reach  the 
ball  or  stop  the  player  carrying  it. 

RULE  18. — (a)  Before  the  ball  is 
put  in  play  in  a  scrimmage,  if  any 
player  of  the  side  which  has  the  ball 
takes  more  than  one  step  in  any 
direction,  he  must  come  to  a  full 
stop  before  the  ball  is  put  in  play. 

When  the  ball  is  put  in  play  by  a 
scrimmage  : 

(b)  At  least  five  players  of  the  side 
having  the  ball  must  be  on  the  line 
of   scrimmage. 

(c)  If  five  players,  not    including 
the  quarter  back,  are  behind  the  line 
of  scrimmage  and  inside  of  the  posi- 
tions occupied  by  the  players  at  the 
ends  of  said  line,  then  two  of  these 
players  must  be  at  least  five  yards 
back   of   this  line,  but   all   of   these 
players   may    be    nearer    than    five 


two  of  them  are  outside  the  positions 
occupied  by  the  players  at  the  ends 
of  said  line. 

RULE  19. — A  player  may  throw, 
pass,  or  bat  the  ball  in  any  direction 
except  toward  his  opponents'  goal. 

RULE  20. — (a)  If  a  player  having 
the  ball  is  tackled,  and  the  move- 
ment of  the  ball  stopped,  or  if  the 
player  cries  "  clown,"  the  Referee 
shall  blow  his  whistle,  and  the  side 
holding  the  ball  shall  put  it  down  for 
a  scrimmage. 

(b)  As  soon  as  a  runner  attempt- 
ing  to   go  through   is  tackled   and 
goes  down,  being   held  by  an  oppo- 
nent, or  whenever   a  runner  having 
the    ball    in    his     possession    cries 
"  Down,"  or  if  he  goes  out  of  bounds, 
the  Referee  shall    blow  his  whistle, 
and    the    ball  shall   be    considered 
down  at  that  spot. 

(c)  There   shall  be    no  piling    up 
on  the  player  after  the  Referee  has 
declared  the  ball  dead. 

RULE  21. — (a)  It,  in  three  con- 
secutive downs  (unless  the  ball 
crosses  the  goal  line),  a  team  has 
neither  advanced  the  ball  five  yards 
nor  taken  it  back  twenty  yards,  it 
shall  go  to  the  opponents  on  the 
spot  of  the  fourth  down. 

{b)  When  a  distance  penalty  is 
given,  the  ensuing  down  shall  be 
counted  the  first  down. 

RULE  22.—  If  the  ball  goes  out  of 
bounds,  whether  it  bounds  back  or 
not,  a  player  of  the  side  which 
secures  it  must  bring  it  to  the  spot 
where  the  line  was  crossed,  and 
there  either 

(a)  Touch  it  in  with  both  hands  at 
right  angles  to  the  side  line  and  then 
kick  it ;  or 

(b)  Walk    out    with    it    at    right 
angles  to  the  side  line,  any  distance 
not   less   than   five   nor   more  than 
fifteen  yards,  and  there  put  it  down 
for  a  scrimmage,  first  declaring  how 
far  he  intends  walking. 

RULE  23. — A  side  which  has 
made  a  touchback  or  a  safety  must 
kick  out,  from  not  more  than  twenty- 


yards  to  the   line    of  scrimmage  if )  five  yards  outside  the  kicker's  goal. 


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346 


FOOT  BALL 


If  the  ball  goes  out  of  bounds  before 
striking  a  player,  it  must  be  kicked 
out  again,  and  if  this  occurs  twice  in 
succession,  it  shall  be  given  to  the 
opponents  as  out  of  bounds  on  the 
tvventy-five-yard  line  on  the  side 
where  it  went  out.  At  kick-out,  the 
opponents  must  be  on  the  twenty- 
five-yard  line  or  nearer  their  own 
goal,  and  the  kicker's  side  must  be 
behind  the  ball  when  it  is  kicked. 
Should  a  second  touchback  occur 
before  four  downs  have  been  played, 
the  side  defending  the  goal  may  have 
the  choice  of  a  down  at  the  twenty- 
five-yard  line,  or  a  kick-out. 

RULE  24. — (a)  A  side  which  has 
made  a  touchdown  must  try  at  goal, 
either  by  a  place-kick  or  a  punt-out. 

(b)  After  the  try-at-goal,  whether 
the  goal  be  made  or  missed,  the  ball 
shall  go  as  a  kick-off  at   the  center 
of  the  field  to  the  defenders. 

RULE  25. — (a)  If  the  try  be  by 
a  place-kick,  a  player  of  the  side 
which  has  made  the  touchdown 
shall  hold  the  ball  for  another  of  his 
side  to  kick  at  some  point  outside 
the  goal  on  a  line  parallel  to  the  side 
line  passing  through  the  point  where 
the  touchdown  was  declared.  The 
opponents  must  remain  behind  their 
goal  line  until  the  ball  has  been 
placed  upon  the  ground. 

(fi)  If  the  try-at-goal  is  to  be  pre- 
ceded by  a  punt-out,  the  punter  shall 
kick  the  ball  from  the  point  at  which 
the  line  parallel  to  the  side  line,  and 
passing  through  the  spot  of  the 
touchdown,  intersects  the  goal  line. 
The  players  of  his  side  must  stand 
in  the  field  of  play  not  less  than  five 
yards  from  the  goal  line. 

(c)  The  opponents   may    line   up 
anywhere   on    the  goal   line   except 
within  the  space  of  ten.  feet  on  each 
side  of  the  punter's  mark,  but  they 
cannot  interfere  with  the  punter.     If 
a  fair  catch  be  made  from   a  punt- 
out,  the  mark  shall  serve  to  deter- 
mine the  positions  as  the  mark  of 
any  fair  catch,   and  the  try-at-goal 
shall  then  be  made  by  a  place-kick 
from  this  spot,  or  any  point  directly 


behind  it.  If  a  fair  catch  be  not 
made  on  the  first  attempt,  the  ball 
shall  go  as  a  kick-off  at  the  center  of 
the  field  to  the  defenders. 

(d)  The  holder  of  the  ball  in  any 
place-kick  may  be  off-side  or  out  of 
bounds  without  vitiating  the  kick. 

RULE  26. — The  following  shall  be 
the  values  of  plays  in  scoring:  Goal 
obtained  by  touchdown,  6  points ; 
goal  from  field  kick,  5  points  ;  touch- 
down failing  goal,  5  points ;  safety 
by  opponents,  2  points. 

RULE  27. — (a)  No  one  having 
projecting  nails  or  iron  plates  on  his 
shoes,  or  wearing  upon  his  person 
any  metallic  or  hard  substance  that 
in  the  judgment  of  the  Umpire  is 
liable  to  injure  another  player,  shall 
be  allowed  to  play  in  a  match.  No 
sticky  or  greasy  substance  shall  be 
used  on  the  persons  of  the  players. 

(b)  A    player   may    be  substituted 
for  another  at  any  time  at  the,  dis- 
cretion   of  the  captain  of  his  team, 
and    the    player   who   has   been    re- 
placed cannot  return  to  the  game. 

(c)  There  shall    be  no  tripping  or 
tackling  below  the  knees. 

PENALTIES. 

RULE  28. — A  foul  is  any  violation 
of  a  rule.  [The  latest  rules  prescribe 
minutely  the  penalties  for  each  kind 
of  foul.  In  general,  when  the  of- 
fending side  has  the  ball,  it  is  pun- 
ished by  being  made  to  surrender  it 
to  the  other  side;  if  not,  the  ball  is 
advanced  from  5  to  15  yards.] 

DUTIES  OF  OFFICIALS. 
I. —  The  Referee. 

RULE  29. — The  Referee  is  respon- 
sible for  the  enforcement  of  Rules 
I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  (a  and  b) ;  7  (except 
as  relates  to  interference,  throwing 
catcher,  and  positions  of  players);  8, 
ii,  12,  13  (except  <•/) ;  14,  £/  16,  e; 
19,  20  (a  and  b);  21,  22,  23  (except 
as  relates  to  positions  of  players) ; 
24,  25  (except  as  relates  to  positions 
of  players  and  interference) ;  26. 

In  making  his  decisions  the 
Referee  must  recognize  and  allow 
precedence  to  any  penalty  inflicted 
by  the  Umpire  fora  foul. 


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347 


FOOT  BALL 


The  Referee's  decisions  are  final 
upon  all  points  not  specified  in  the 
duties  of  the  Umpire. 

The  Referee  shall  see  that  the  ball 
is  properly  put  in  play,  and  he  is 
judge  of  its  position  and  progress. 

At  the  beginning  of  a  game  and 
after  time  has  been  taken  out,  he  shall 
ascertain  from  each  captain  that  his 
team  is.ready,  before  ordering  play. 

He  is  sole  authority  for  the  score 
of  the  game  and  is  judge  of  forfeit- 
ure of  the  game  under  the  rules. 

The  Referee  may  appeal    to   the 
Umpire  and  Linesman  for  testimony. 
//. —  The  Umpire. 

The  Umpire  is  responsible  for  the 
enforcement  of  all  rules  whose  in- 
fringement is  punishable  by  a  dis- 
tance penally  or  by  the  surrender  of 
the  ball  to  the  opponents,  except  13, 
b  ;  16,  e  ;  19.  and  23,  viz. :  Rules  6, 
c;  9,  10,  13  (f;  14  a;  15,  16,  (except 
#)  ;  17,  1 8,  20  c;  27. 

The  Umpire  is  judge  of  the  con- 
duct of  the  players,  and  his  decision 
is  final  regarding  such  fouls  as  are 
not  specifically  placed  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Referee. 

The  Umpire  is  judge  of  charging, 
and  of  the  positions  of  players  when- 
ever the  ball  is  put  in  play. 

He  may  appeal  to  both  the  Ref- 
eree and  Linesman  for  testimony  in 
cases  of  fouls  seen  by  them. 

The    Umpire  shall  not    blow   his 
whistle   nor  declare   the   ball  dead, 
nor  call   time,   except   to    grant    a 
penalty  for  a  foul  committed. 
///.  —  The  Linesman. 

The  Linesman  shall,  under  the 
supervision  of  the  Referee,  mark 
the  distances  gained  or  lost  in  the 
progress  of  the  play. 

He  shall  be  provided  with  two 
assistants,  who  shall  remain  outside 
the  field  of  play  and  who  shall  use,  in 
measuring  distance,  a  rope  or  chain. 

The  Linesman  shall,  under  the 
direction  of  the  Referee,  also  keep 
the  time  and  shall  notify  the  captains 
of  the  time  remaining  for  play,  not 
more  than  ten  nor  less  than  five 
minutes  before  the  end  of  each  half. 


History.  Foot  ball  was  a  favorite 
game  in  ancient  Greece  and  Rome. 
The  game  comes  to  us  from  England, 
where  it  has  been  played  for  cen- 
turies. It  was  customary  at  one 
time  for  the  different  villages  in  the 
Midland  counties  to  play  against 
each  other,  and  desperate  strug- 
gles often  took  place  which  some- 
times grew  into  riots  and  produced 
long  and  bitter  feuds.  Foot  ball  was 
early  played  at  the  great  English 
schools,  and  at  each  of  them  new 
features  were  introduced,  till  several 
forms  of  the  game  were  developed. 
About  1860,  foot-ball  clubs  began  to 
be  formed  near  the  large  cities,  and 
on  May  8,  1866,  these  clubs  sent 
delegates  to  a  convention,  and 
adopted  rules,  excluding  features  of 
the  school  games  that  were  consid- 
ered too  rough.  Foot  ball,  as  thus 
played,  did  not  become  popular  in 
this  country  till  about  ten  years  after 
the  adoption  of  these  rules.  1111875 
Harvard  and  Yale  played  their  first 
game  of  foot  ball  with  Rugby  rules, 
and  soon  afterwards  the  game  be- 
came a  favorite  at  other  colleges. 
The  game  just  mentioned  was  played 
with  eleven  men  on  a  side,  and  this 
is  the  number  that  the  present  col- 
lege rules  allow,  though  in  the 
years  1878  and  1879  it  was  played 
with  fifteen  on  a  side.  The  game 
is  played  in  this  country  from  about 
the  1st  of  October  till  the  end  of 
November.  The  last  official  foot- 
ball guide  contains  records  of  77 
school  and  college  teams  and  of 
6  others,,  chiefly  from  athletic 
clubs.  To  play  foot  ball  well  re- 
quires strength,  skill,  and  cour- 
age, and  an  English  general  once 
attributed  much  of  the  pluck  of 
the  English  troops  to  their  experi- 
ence of  the  game.  It  is  very  rough, 
and  often  results  in  injury  to  the 
players,  but  the  roughness  is  now 
restrained,  by  strict  rules,  within 
reasonable  limits,  and  a  slight  degree 
of  danger  adds  to  the  fascination  of 
the  game  for  most  persons.  There 
are  no  professionals,  or  paid  foot-ball 


FORFEITS 


348 


FORTUNE-TELLING 


clubs,  and  the  game  is  seldom  played 
by  men  more  than  twenty-five  years 
old. 

FORFEITS,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  in  which  articles 
given  up  by  each  of  them  are 
restored  on  the  performance  of 
some  difficult  or  ridiculous  feat. 
Usually  the  forfeits  have  been  paid 
in  a  previous  game,  as  punishment 
for  breaking  some  rule.  One  of  the 
players,  who  has  been  selected  as 
judge,  sits  in  a  chair,  while  another, 
who  must  know  to  whom  the  forfeits 
belong,  holds  them  over  the  judge's 
head  one  by  one,  saying  :  "  Heavy, 
heavy,  what  hangs  over  your  head  ?  " 
The  judge  then  asks,  "  Fine  or 
Superfine  ?  "  to  which  the  other 
answers  "  Fine,"  if  the  owner  of  the 
forfeit  is  a  boy,  or,  "  Superfine,"  if  a 
girl,  adding,  "  What  shall  the  owner 
do  to  redeem  it  ?  "  The  judge  then 
tells  what  the  owner  must  do  to  get 
back  his  property.  Sometimes  in- 
stead of  the  first  question  the  follow- 
ing is  used :  "  Here  is  a  forfeit, 
a  very  fine  forfeit.  What  shall  be 
clone  to  redeem  it?"  A  few  of 
the  most  common  tasks  are  given 
below. 

Forfeits  for  either  boys  or  girls  : 

1.  Plow  out  a  candle  as  it  is  passed 
rapidly   back   and    forth  before   the 
mouth. 

2.  Place  a  candle  at  one  end    of 
the  room,  and  then    walk  toward  it 
blindfold  from  the  other,  and  blow  it 
out. 

3.  Laugh   in    one   corner  of    the 
room,    sing   in    another,  cry    in    the 
third,  and  whistle  in  the  fourth. 

4.  Bow  to  the  prettiest  person  in 
the  room,  kneel   to  the  wittiest,  and 
kiss  the  on?  you  love  best. 

5.  Count     any   required    number 
backward. 

6.  Pay  a  compliment  to  each  per- 
son in  the  room. 

7.  Hop  around  the  room  on  one 
foot. 

8.  Kiss  your  shadow. 

9.  Answer  "  No  "  to   a  question 
from  each  one  of  the  company. 


10.  Answer  five  questions  without 
saying  "  yes"  or  "  no." 

11.  Make  a  courtesy  to  each  girl  in 
the  room,  and  a  bow  to  each  boy. 

12.  Make  a  speech  on  any  subject 
assigned  by  the  judge. 

13.  Repeat  a  sentence   after  the 
judge  without  making  a  mistake. 

F)rfeits for  boys  only: 

1.  Crawl  under  the   table  on  all 
fours  and  bark  like  a  dog. 

2.  Stand  on  your  head,  or  try  to 
do  so,  in  the  middle  of  the  room. 

3.  Hold  one  foot  in  your  hand,  and 
hop  on  the  other  around  the  room. 

4.  Join    your    hands    and    jump 
through   your  arms. 

5.  Sit  on  the  floor  and  rise  without 
the  aid  of  your  hands. 

5.  Pick  three  coins  from  the  floor 
with  your  teeth. 

7.  Jump   up  and   catch    in   your 
teeth  a  piece  of  paper  pinned  on  the 
wall  just  above  your  head.     (Some- 
times called  "  browsing.'1) 

8.  Kiss  the  sole  of  each  shoe. 

9.  Balance  a  ruler  on  your  chin  or 
nose. 

Forfeits  for  two  persons  : 

1.  Each  holds  a  lighted   candle, 
and  they  pass  and  repass  each  other, 
while  they  hold   the   following  dia- 
logue, without  smiling  : 

"  The  King  of  Morocco  is  dead." 
"  Sad  news  !     Sad  news  !  " 
"  Alas !  " 
"  Alas !  " 

2.  Two  or  more  boys  are  "trussed" 
(see  TRUSSING  GAME)  and  placed  in 
a  row.     The  end  boy  is  pushed  over, 
and  they  all  go  clown  like  a   row  of 
building  blocks. 

3.  Hop  on  one  foot  from  one  end 
of  the  room  to  the  other,  and  back. 
He  who  does  this  in  the  quickest 
time  redeems  his  forfeit ;  the  other's 
is  returned  to  the  pile. 

4.  Two  are   blindfolded,  and  re- 
quired to  start  from  opposite  corners 
of  the  room  and  shake  hands. 

FORTUNE-TELLING,  a  sport  in 
which  one  person  pretends  to  fore- 
tell what  is  going  to  happen  to 
another.  If  this  is  done  merely  as  a 


FORTUNE-TELLING 


349 


FORTUNE-TELLING 


game,  it  often  furnishes  much  harm- 
less amusement.  Games  of  SOLI- 
TAIRE are  often  played  as  fortune- 
telling  games,  and  others  are  de- 
scribed in  the  articles  on  HALLOW- 
E'EN, and  SPORTS  WITH  FLOWERS 
AND  FRUIT. 

A  simple  fortune-telling  game  is 
played  with  a  disk  of  paper  over 
which  turns  a  pointer.  The  pointer 
may  be  cut  out  of  wood,  and 
fastened  to  the  center  of  the 
disk  with  a  pin,  on  which 
it  can  turn  easily.  The  pin 
should  be  bent  as  in  the 
cut  so  that  the  pointer  will 
not  rub  against  the  paper. 
Around  the  edge  of  the  disk 
are  numbers  in  regular  order, 
and  on  a  separate  piece  of  paper 
are  written  sentences  predicting  good 
or  evil  fortune.  For  instance  : 

"  You  will  inherit  a  large  sum  of 
money." 

"  You  will  marry  a  widow  60  years 
old." 

"  You  will  move  to  California  with- 
in a  year." 

Some  of  the  sentences  may  also  be 
warnings.  For  instance : 

"  Beware  of  a  red-haired  boy." 

"  Keep  away  from  Twenty-third 
street." 

Indeed, the  sentences  may  be  varied 
almost  infinitely  to  suit  the  writer. 
They  must  be  numbered  in  order  to 
correspond  with  the  numbers  on  the 
disk.  The  players,  one  by  one,  set 
the  pointer  in  motion,  and  each,  not- 
ing the  number  opposite  which  it 
stops,  seeks  his  fortune  in  the  sen- 
tence opposite  the  corresponding 
number.  Sometimes  the  sentences 
are  written  directly  on  the  disk,  but 
it  is  not  possible  to  have  much  variety 
in  this  way.  A  numbered  disk  can 
be  used  with  various  sets  of  sen- 
tences. 

Fortune-telling  with  Cards.  I.  A 
method  which,  like  the  one  above, 
requires  no  skill  is  to  place  face  up- 
ward, in  a  row,  four  Kings,  if  the 
person  whose  fortune  is  told  be  a 
girl,  or  four  Queens,  if  it  be  a  boy. 


The  boy  or  girl  gives  to  each  card  the 
name  of  an  acquaintance,  calling 
them  after  boys,  if  they  are  Kings, 
and  girls,  if  Queens.  The  names 
are  usually  kept  secret  till  the  close 
of  the  game.  The  fortune-teller  now 
takes  the  cards  one  by  one  as  they 
come  from  the  pack,  and  lays  one 
oeneath  each  of  the  four  Kings  or 
Queens,  then  four  others  on  these, 
and  so  on.  Whenever  he  deals  an 
Ace  or  face  card  (called  a  "  turning 
card  ")  he  turns  the  King  or  Queen 
above  it  a  quarter-way  around,  so 
that  when  four  turning  cards  have 
fallen  on  the  pile  below  any  King  or 
Queen  it  will  be  turned  completely 
around.  When  one  has  been  thus 
turned  quite  around,  the  fortune- 
teller announces  that  the  person 
whose  name  it  bears  is  the  "best 
friend  "  of  the  one  whose  fortune  is 
told.  He  then  continues,  in  the  same 
way,  till  the  other  three  complete 
their  turns.  The  one  whose  fortune 
is  being  told  is  informed,  in  order, 
that  these  are : 

The  one  whose  best  friend  he  is ; 

The  one  he  loves  best ;  and, 

The  one  he  is  to  marry. 

Sometimes  when  one  card  has 
made  a  complete  turn,  the  pack  is 
gathered  up,  the  Kings  replaced,  and 
the  operation  begun  anew.  Thus  it 
may  happen  that  the  same  card 
turns  first  twice,  thrice,  or  even  four 
times.  The  Kings  or  Queens  must 
all  be  turned  in  the  same  direction, 
so  that  one  which  has  turned  a 
quarter-way  around  can  be  told  from 
one  three-quarters  around.  The 
best  direction  is  that  in  which  the 
hands  of  a  watch  move.  Double- 
headed  cards  must  of  course  be 
marked  to  distinguish  one  end  from 
the  other. 

II.  Another  method,  which  re- 
quires quickness  and  skill  in  the  for- 
tune-teller, is  to  deal  the  cards  slowly 
face  upward  on  the  table  just  as  they 
come  from  the  pack,  and  by  attaching 
some  meaning  to  each  one  to  pretend 
to  predict  the  future.  This  shouM 
be  done  as  quickly  as  possible  and 


FORTUNE-TELLING 


35° 


FORTUNE-TELLING 


can  be  made  very  amusing.  Each 
fortune-teller  should  decide  on  a 
system  of  his  own  ;  but  some  of  the 
usual  meanings  attached  to  cards 
are  as  follows : 

King  or  Queen — man  or  woman. 

Knave — boy  or  villain. 

Red  face-cards — blondes. 

Black  face-cards — brunettes. 

Diamonds — wealth. 

Hearts — love. 

Clubs — violence,  war,  or  force. 

Spades — hard  work. 

Thus,  suppose  the  cards  to  fall  as 
indicated  below,  the  fortune-teller 
might  talk  somewhat  in  this  way. 


The  words  suggested  by  the  cards 
are  in  italics.  "  You  will  have  a 
slight  quarrel  (i)  with  a  dark  man, 
(2)  and  will  have  to  spend  a  great 
deal  of  money  (3)  to  get  out  of  your 
trouble,  but  a  light  woman  (4)  will 
fall  deeply  in  love  (5)  with  you,  and 
give  you  all  you  want.  But  her  love 
will  grow  less  (6)  and  less  (7),  until 
finally  she  will  run  off  with  a  dark 
haired  villain  (8),  and  leave  you  to 
•work  for  your  living." 

Fortune-Telling  by  Dots,  The 
person  whose  fortune  is  to  be  told  is 
directed  to  make  four  horizontal 
rows  of  pencil  dots,  without  count- 
ing the  number  in  each.  The  for- 
tune-teller now  counts  them,  and 
makes  opposite  each  row  a  single 
spot  if  its  number  is  odd,  or  two 


spots,  if  even.      Thus,  if  the  rows  of 
dots  are  as  follows  : 


o  •»••••••« 


•     • 


the  fortune-teller  would  place  his 
spots  as  shown  at  the  right,  forming 
a  sort  of  figure.  There  are  sixteen 
possible  kinds  of  these  figures  and 
each  is  given  a  name,  as  shown 
below. 

The  usual  method  is  for  the  in- 
quirer to  ask  a  question,  which  is 
answered  by  the  fortune-teller  in 
accordance  with  the  figure  resulting 
from  the  dots.  The  meaning  of  the 
figures  is  further  explained  below. 

I.  Gain  :  A  distinguished  suitor, 
riches,  a  wish  fulfilled,  a  happy  re- 
sult, regaining  lost  property,  many 
friends,  new  clothes,  sickness  cured, 
etc. 

-  2.  Loss  :  Extravagance,  dancing, 
music,  unfaithfulness,  deceit,  false 
friends,  bitter  enemies,  thieves,  etc. 

3.  Joy  :    A   betrothal,   a  pleasant 
change,   victory,   advancement,   and 
honor,  etc. 

4.  Sorrow  :  Quarrels  with  friends, 
an      unfortunate      speculation,     an 
anonymous     letter,    shipwreck,    an 
accident,  sickness,  etc, 

5.  Union,   or   Harmony  :    Hopes 
fulfilled,   the   discovery  of  treasure, 
advancement,  plots,  conspiracy. 

6.  Captivity  :    Something  caught 
or  reached,  an  interrupted  journey, 
buried   goods,  a   mine,   treacherous 
love,  death,  honor  attained,  etc. 

7.  White  :  Good  fortune,  a  short 
life,  a  happy  marriage,  increase  of 
wealth  by  silver,  certainty. 

8.  Red  :     Wounds,    death    in    a 
foreign  land,  bad  fortune,  fire. 

9.  The  Public  :  Mingled  good  and 
bad  luck,  enemies  and  friends,  much 
work,  tears,  and  journeys. 

10.  The  Road  :    also  both  good 
and  bad.      In  case  of  right  manage- 
ment all  will  turn  out  well,  otherwise 
badly. 


FORTUNE-TELLING 


351 


FORTUNE-TELLING 


11.  The  Dragon's  Head  :    A  good 
sign,  though  what  is  wished  for  will 
meet  many  obstacles. 

12.  The  Dragon's  Tail  :    A  bad 
sign,  desolation,  bereavement. 

13.  Great  Luck  :    The  full  attain- 
ment of  all   wishes,  wealth,  honor, 
love,  etc. 

14.  Little  Luck :    Good    fortune, 


though  not  as  great  as  the  above,  a 
moderate  amount  of  success,  etc. 

15.  The  Maiden  :    Success  in  even 
a  less  degree  than  the  last. 

16.  The  Youth  :  Bad  luck  in  a  less 
degree  than  Number  12. 

From  what  has  been  given  above, 
the  skillful  fortune-teller  will  be  able 
to  return  an  elaborate  answer  to  any 


Gain. 
5 


Loss. 
6 


Joy. 
7 


Sorrow. 
8 


Union. 
9 


Captivity. 
IO 


White. 
ii 


Red. 

12 


The  Public. 
13 


The  Road. 
14 


The  Dragon's  Head. 
IS 


The  Dragon's  Tail 
16 


Great  Luck. 


Little  Luck. 


The  Maiden. 


The  Youth. 


question.  It  is  a  good  plan,  espe- 
cially if  the  result  shows  nothing  but 
evil,  to  try  again,  and  combine  the 
two  results  in  one  prediction. 

Palmistry,  fortune  telling  by 
means  of  the  palm  of  the  hand. 
Different  parts  of  the  hand  are 
called  "mountains"  and  named 
after  the  seven  planets  known  to  the 
ancients,  including  the  sun  and 
moon.  The  lines  on  the  palm  also 
are  given  names.  Both  "  moun- 


tains "  and   lines  are   shown  in  the 
cut. 

The  mountains  have  different 
meanings  according  as  they  are 
high  or  low ;  the  lines  according 
as  they  are  complete  or  broken,  as 
shown  in  the  following  table  : 

THE  LINE  OF   COMPLETE.     BROKEN. 

Life  Long  Life  Short  Life 

The  Liver  Health  Sickness 

The  Brain  Wisdom  Stupidity 

The  Table  Evil  Good 


FORTUNE-TELLING 


352 


FOURTEEN 


Venus 
Jupiter 
Saturn 
The  Sun 


THE  MOUNT  OF         HIGH. 

Love 
Honor  and 

Rank 
Riches 
Good  for- 
tune 

(  Luck  on  a 
The  Moon  •] 

Mercury        Adroitness 

(  B  a  d  for- 
Mars  -    -    •?      tune  in 

(      war 

History.  In  ancient  times  most 
people  believed  that  certain  persons 
could  predict  the  future.  Fortune- 


journey 


LOW. 
Hate 
Humble 
condition 
Poverty 
Bad  fortune 

111  fortune 
on  a  jour- 
ney 

Blundering 
Good  for- 
t  u  n  e    in 
war 


i.  Mount  of  Venus.  2.  Mount  of  Ju- 
piter. 3.  Mount  of  Saturn.  4.  Mount  of 
the  Sun.  5.  Mount  of  Mercury.  6.  Mount 
of  the  Moon.  7.  Mount  of  Mars. 

A.  Line  of  Life.  B.  Line  of  the  Liver. 
C.  Line  of  the  Brain.  D.  Line  of  the 
Table. 

telling  was  carried  on  regularly  at 
the  temples  of  some  of  the  Greek 
gods,  the  most  celebrated  of  which 
was  that  of  Apollo  at  Delphi  (see  C. 
P.  P.).  The  Roman  fortune-tellers, 
called  harusptces,  were  consulted  be- 


fore undertaking  any  public  enter- 
prise. They  pretended  to  tell  for- 
tunes by  examining  the  bodies  of 
slaughtered  animals  or  fowls,  by  the 
flight  of  birds,  by  the  appearance  of 
the  heavens,  and  by  all  sorts  of  signs 
and  omens.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the 
favorite  method  of  fortune-telling 
was  by  Astrology  (science  of  the 
stars,  from  Greek  aster,  star,  and 
logos,  a  word),  a  pretended  science 
by  which  events  were  foretold  from 
the  appearance  and  positions  of  the 
planets.  The  people  called  Gipsies 
often  tell  fortunes  for  money,  gener- 
ally by  means  of  palmistry.  With 
the  increase  of  education  belief  in 
real  fortune-telling  has  disappeared, 
though  ignorant  or  foolish  people 
are  now  and  then  deceived  by  some 
rogue,  who  pretends  to  be  able  to 
tell  them  about  the  future.  Fortune- 
telling  is  now  used  by  sensible  people 
merely  as  a  game.  At  fairs,  a  girl, 
dressed  usually  as  a  Gipsy,  often 
tells  fortunes  for  money,  and,  if  she  is 
clever,  is  sometimes  very  successful. 

FOUNTAIN,  To  make  a.  In  the 
side  of  an  ordinary  wooden  pail, 
close  to  the  bottom,  bore  an  auger 
hole,  and  plug  it  with  a  cork  or  rub- 
ber stopper  through  which  passes  a 
glass  tube  about  two  inches  long 
(see  CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS). 
Put  the  pail  on  a  high  shelf,  and  at- 
tach to  the  glass  tube  enough  rubber 
tubing  to  reach  to  the  nearest  sink, 
or  out  of  doors.  At  the  end  of  the 
rubber  tube  fasten  a  glass  jet.  If 
the  pail  be  tilled  with  water  and  the 
rubber  tube  closed  with  a  pinch-cock, 
the  fountain  will  play  when  the  cock 
is  opened. 

FOURTEEN,  a  SOLITAIRE  game 
of  CARDS,  played  with  two  full  packs. 
Five  rows  of  five  cards  each  are  first 
laid  out  at  random  to  form  a  square. 
If  in  any  row,  either  crosswise  or  up 
and  down,  there  are  two  cards  the 
sum  of  whose  pips  is  14,  they  must 
be  taken  out,  and  their  places  filled 
with  the  next  two  in  the  pack,  in  the 
same  order  in  which  the  cards  were 
first  laid  down.  The  Knave,  Queen. 


FOURTH   OF  JULY 


353 


FOURTH   OF  JULY 


and  King  count  respectively  as  II, 
12,  and  13.  If  no  cards  can  thus  be 
removed,  two  may  exchange  places, 
but  this  cannot  be  done  twice  in 
succession  and  is  allowed  only  before 
the  pack  has  all  been  used.  When 
the  pack  is  exhausted,  the  lower  row 
is  taken  up,  shuffled,  and  used  to  fill 
the  spaces  in  what  remains  of  the 
square.  Then  the  next  row  is 
treated  in  like  manner.  If  this  can 
be  continued  till  all  the  cards  are 
gone,  the  game  is  won. 

FOURTH  OF  JULY,  or  Indepen- 
dence Day,  the  anniversary  of  the 
signing  of  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. It  is  a  National  holiday, 
and  is  made  the  occasion  of  many 
sports,  chief  among  which,  for  boys, 
are  the  discharge  of  fire-crackers  and 
fire-works. 

Decoration.  The  colors  for  Fourth 
of  July  decorations  are  of  course  the 
National  colors,  red,  white,  and  blue. 
Foremost  among  the  decorations 
should  be  a  large  United  States  flag 
(C.  C.  T.),  to  be  raised  on  a  staff  on 
or  near  the  house.  The  flag  has  a 
piece  of  rope  sewed  along  the  edge 
next  the  Union,  the  ends  of  which 
project  a  little  and  are  made  into 
loops.  When  the  flag  is  to  be  raised, 
the  ends  of  the  halliards  are  fastened 
to  these  loops,  and  the  flag  is  then 
pulled  to  the  top  of  the  pole,  when 
the  halliards  are  fastened  below 
around  a  cleat  near  the  bottom. 
The  illustrations  show  the  process  of 
raising  (Fig.  i),  and  the  appearance 
of  the  flag  when  raised  (Fig.  2). 

The  proper  time  to  raise  the  flag 
is  at  sunrise,  when  it  should  be  given 
a  national  salute;  as  many  guns  as 
there  are  States  in  the  Union.  Fire- 
crackers, or  even  torpedoes.will  do  for 
this,  if  you  have  no  cannon.  Other 
flags,  of  all  sizes,  may  be  draped  about 
a  house  in  many  ways.  A  rosette  may 
be  made  of  a  flag  by  laying  it  flat  on 
the  floor  (Fig.  3),  pulling  the  middle 
of  one  edge  down  (Fig.  4),  and  then 
pinning  together  the  halves  of  that 
edge  (Fig.  5).  The  flag  is  then 
arranged  in  rough  folds  from  the 


center  to  the  outside  of  the  rosette, 
and  projecting  corners  are  pinned 
under,  so  as  to  make  the  edge  cir- 
cular (Fig.  6).  The  whole  must  be 
pinned  together  firmly  as  it  lies  01* 
on  the  floor,  and  then  it  can  be  fast- 
ened with  tacks  to  the  wall  of  the 


Fig.  i. 

house.  If,  instead  of  one  flag,  two 
be  pinned  together  lengthwise,  so 
that  the  unions  adjoin,  the  stars  will 
be  at  the  center  of  the  rosette.  Many 
other  designs  can  thus  be  formed  of 
one  or  more  flags,  by  any  one  with 


FOURTH   OF  JULY 


354 


FOURTH   OF  JULY 


ingenuity.  •  Strips  of  colored  bunting 
may  be  arranged  in  festoons,  or 
wound  spirally  about  the  posts  of 
verandas.  Little  flags,  about  six 
inches  long,  can  be  utilized  by  fast- 
ening then  in  rows,  or  arranging  them 
to  form  figures  or  letters.  Patriotic 


Fig.  2. 

mottoes  may  be  made  of  letters  cut 
out  of  red  and  blue  paper,  and  framed 
in  flags.  For  the  interior  of  the 
house,  red,  white,  and  blue  flowers 
are  the  best  decoration.  Portraits  of 
eminent  Americans,  draped  in  flags, 


may  be  displayed  on  the  walls,  and  if 
there  is  in  the  house  some  relic  of  the 
Revolution,  an  old  sword  or  musket, 


Fig.  3- 

for  instance,  it  should  be  brought  out 
and  similarly  draped. 

Evening  Decorations.  In  the  even- 
ing the  house  and  yard  may  be  illumi- 


Fig.  4- 
nated;    that    is,  brilliantly    lighted. 


nated;    that    is,  brilliantly    lighted. 
The  simplest  way   to   illuminate  a 


Fig.  5. 

house  is  to  open  wide  all  the  blinds 
and  curtains  and  place  one  or  more 


FOURTH    OF    JULY 


355 


FOURTH   OF  JULY 


lights  in  each  room.  The  house 
may  be  made  more  brilliant  by  plac- 
ing candles  in  the  windows.  Cross 
bars  are  often  made  to  fit  on  the  in- 
side of  the  sash,  and  on  these,  bits  of 
candle  about  three  inches  long  are 
fastened  in  rows.  Colored  designs 


may  be  cut  from  tissue  paper  and 
hung  in  the  window,  with  lights 
directly  behind  them.  Designs  made 
thus  can  be  pasted  on  the  panes  and 
will  give  the  effect  of  stained  glass  at 
a  distance.  They  can  be  washed  off 
afterwards  with  hot  water.  Chinese 
or  Japanese  lanterns  are  very  effec- 
tive. The  usual  way  of  arranging 
them  is  on  strings,  or  wires,  which 
are  festooned  from  one  tree  or  post 
to  another. 

Fire-crackers  and  Fire-works. 
These  are  '  described  in  C.  C.  T. 
The  noise  of  fire-crackers,  when 
set  off  in  packs,  is  much  increased 
by  placing  them  under  a  box  or  bar- 
rel. When  fired  singly,  the  knot 
at  one  end  of  the  pack  must  be 
untied,  and  the  crackers  can  be  then 
easily  pulled  out,  one  by  one.  It  is 
usually  better  to  break  off  part  of  the 
fuse  before  lighting,  as  the  end 
burns  slowly  and  is  apt  to  go  out. 
If  the  cracker  is  to  be  exploded  in 
the  air,  it  should  be  held  in  the  hand, 
and  thrown  just  as  the  fuse  has 
burned  clown  to  the  end.  Many 
fuses  burn  by  fits  and  starts,  so  one 


should  never  bend  down  close  to  a 
cracker  to  see  whether  or  not  the 
fuse  has  gone  out.  Persons  have 
been  seriously  injured  by  the  explo- 
sion in  their  faces  of  crackers, 
especially  of  cannon-crackers,  an 
accident  with  which  might  be 
serious.  Poor  crackers  may  be 


Fig.  7. — Fizzer. 


made  into  "  fizzers  "  by  breaking 
them  in  two,  placing  on  the  ground, 
and  applying  a  piece  of  punk  to  the 
broken  place,  taking  care  that  the 
fingers  are  not  in  the  way  of  the 
flame  which  shoots  out.  A  fizzer 
may  be  held  in  the  thumb  and  finger, 
in  such  a  way  that  the  flame  cannot 
reach  the  hand,  from  whichever 
end  of  the  cracker  it  may  issue. 
Fire-crackers  may  be  fired  by  elec- 
tricity, by  winding  around  the  fuse, 
close  to  the  cracker,  a  piece  of  plati- 
num wire  connected  with  an  ELEC- 
TRIC BATTERY.  When  the  circuit 
is  closed  the  wire  will  be  heated  red- 
hot,  lighting  the  fuse  and  exploding 
the  cracker.  The  wire  should  be 
connected  with  the  battery  before 
trying  to  fire  the  cracker,  to  see 
whether  it  will  heat  it  red-hot.  If 
not,  either  the  wire  is  too  large  or 
the  battery  not  strong  enough. 
Very  fine  iron  wire  will  do  as  well  as 
platinum  if  it  can  be  obtained,  and 
is  not  so  expensive.  To  explode 
the  cracker  instantaneously,  which 
is  not  done  by  the  above  method,  a 
needle  must  be  passed  through  it, 
and  the  wire  threaded  through  the 
hole  thus  made,  instead  of  being 
wound  around  the  fuse.  For  an 


FOURTH   OF   JULY 


356 


FOURTH   OF  JULY 


ordinary  exhibition  of  fire-works,  a 
post  must  be  prepared  for  tire-wheels, 
and  a  trough  for  rockets.  It  is  a 
good  plan  to  have  the  wheels  fastened 
to  the  post  all  ready  to  light,  and  to 
see  that  they  revolve  easily,  so  that 


there  will  he  no  trouble  when  even- 
ing comes.  If  it  should  be  necessary 
to  start  the  wheels,  as  it  often  is,  it 
should  be  remembered  that  they  turn 
in  the  opposite  direction  from  that 
of  the  sparks.  The  rocket  trough 
can  be  made  of  two  boards,  each 


Fig:.  9- 

above  five  feet  long  and  four  inches 
wide,  nailed  together  at  right  angles 
along  the  edges.  It  is  leaned  against 
a  fence,  and  the  rockets  are  placed 
in  it,  one  by  one,  just  before  firing 
(Fig.  8).  Tripod  rockets  require  no 


trough  but  stand  alone,  the  stick 
being  made  in  three  pieces,  which 
open  out  to  form  legs  like  those  of  a 
three-legged  table  (see  Fig.  9). 

Fire-crackersandfire-worksareusu- 
ally  lighted  by  punk,  which  is  made 
of  any  substance  which  will  smolder 
slowly  without  flaming.  One  kind 
may  be  made  at  home  by  soaking 
strips  of  ordinary  thick  pasteboard 
in  salt  and  water,  and  other  kinds 
may  be  bought.  Instead  of  punk, 
pieces  of  exploded  fire-crackers  may 
be  used.  It  can  be  put  out  by  rub- 
bing the  lighted  part  off  on  a  stone. 

Chromotropesi  revolving  colored 
designs,  lighted  from  behind. 
They  consist  of  two  parts,  a  fixed 
and  a  moving  part.  The  fixed  part 
(Fig.  10)  may  be  almost  any  design, 


Fig.  10. 

cut  out  of  thick  paper ;  the  moving 
one  (Fig.  11),  which  revolves  behinc 


it,  is  painted  with  transparent  colors 
on  oiled  paper  in  a  spiral  pattern. 


FOURTH   OF  JULY 


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Or  it  may  be  composed  of  strips  of 
colored  tissue  paper  pasted  on  a 
background  of  white  tissue  paper. 
The  moving  part  is  stretched  on  a 
barrel  hoop,  across  which  a  lath  is 
nailed  (Fig.  12).  A  hole  is  bored 


Fig.  12. 

through  the  center  of  the  lath  so 
that  the  whole  can  be  made  to  re- 
volve on  a  nail  in  an  upright  post, 
close  behind  the  fixed  design.  One 
or  more  lamps  are  held  just  behind 
theChromotrope,  and  then  the  barrel 
hoop  is  spun  around  by  a  person 
standing  at  one  side.  The  effect  is 
very  pretty,  as  the  changing  colors 
are  seen  through  the  holes  in  the 
fixed  piece,  and  forms  a  good  sub- 
stitute for  fire-works.  Chromotropes 
made  of  glass  are  often  shown  on 
screens  by  means  of  the  MAGIC  LAN- 
TERN. The  word  Chromotrope  is 
from  two  Greek  words,  chroma, 
color,  and  trepein,  to  turn.  It  is 
sometimes  called, also, "Chinese  fire- 
works." The  inventor,  Mr.  Allen,  an 
Englishman,  called  it  "  pyreido- 
trope,"  from  the  Greek  pur,  fire, 
idein,  to  see.  and  trepein,  to  turn. 

Another  kind  of  Chromotrope  con- 
sists of  three  disks  which  partially 
overlap,  as  shown  in  Figs.  13  and  14. 
Each  disk  has  several  different  colors, 
and  as  the  disks  revolve  the  colors 
appear  to  change.  These  can  be 
mpHe  on  a  large  scale  for  exhibition 


on   the  Fourth  of  July  in  the  same 
way  as  those   described   above,  by 


Fig.  13. — Front  View. 

stretching  oiled  paper  or  tissue  paper 
over  barrel  hoops. 


Fig.  14. — Rear  View. 

Day  Fire-works,  colored  paper  cut 
into  different  shapes  and  scattered 
through  the  air  in  various  ways. 
The  simplest  way  is  to  throw  them 
from  a  window.  Descriptions  of 
some  kinds  are  given  below,  and 
others  can  easily  be  devised. 

I.  The  Whirligig.  A  square 
piece  of  paper  is  cut  and  folded  to 


FOURTH    OF  JULY 


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FOURTH   OF  JULY 


make  a  windmill  as  shown  in  Fig.  15. 
A   pin   is   passed  through  the  mid- 


15- 


die,  the  point  is  bent  into  a  hook, 
and  to  it  is  fastened  a  slight  weight, 
like  a  very  small  pebble,  or  a  shot, 
wrapped  in  tissue  paper  and  hooked 
to  the  pin.  When  such  a  whirligig 
is  thrown  from  a  window  it  will  spin 
rapidly  as  it  falls,  and  a  number  of 
them  of  various  colors,  falling  at  once, 
make  a  pretty  sight. 

2.    Spirals.       These   can    be  cut 


Fig.  16. 

from   circular    pieces    of    paper    as 
shown    in   Fig.    16,  and  then   pulled 


rig. 


out,  as  in  Fig.  17.     When  dropped, 
they  too  will  spin  around. 


3.  Shreds  of  gilt  or  silvered  paper  : 
and  stars,  circles,  or  other  figures  of 
the  same  material  may  be  thrown 
into  the  air  in  great  numbers. 

4.  Bombs.      Another  way  of  dis- 
charging Day  Fire-works  is  by  means 
of  a  bomb,  which  consists  of  from 
four  to  eight  whalebones    fastened 
to  two  curtain  rings.     The  rings  are 
tied  together  with  three  strings.    The 
whalebones  are  fastened  tightly  to 
the    lower    ring    but   the   ends  are 
merely  caught  under  the  upper  one, 
so  that  a  slight  knock  will  dislodge 
them  (see  Fig.  18). 

Quantities  of  paper  fire-works  are 
secured  very  loosely  around  the  top 


Fig.  18. 

ring,  so  that  when  the  whalebones 
are  released  they  will  be  thrown  'in 
all  directions.  There  are  several 
ways  of  setting  the  bombs  off.  One 
is  to  fasten  a  string  to  the  lower  ring, 
pass  it  through  the  upper,  and  then, 
holding  the  end,  drop  the  bomb,  giv- 
ing the  string  an  upward  jerk  just  as 
it  reaches  its  full  length.  Another 
is  to  pass  it  over  an  upright  fixed 
pole,  arrange  the  string  as  before, 
pass  it  over  a  pulley  at  the  top,  and 
haul  up  the  bomb.  When  the  top 
ring  hits  the  pulley,  the  whalebones 


Fig.  19. 

will  be  dislodged  and  the  fireworks 
will  fly  (see  Fig.  19). 

Balloons.     Large  balloons  are  de- 
scribed in  C.  C.    T.    Toy  balloons, 


FOURTH   OF  JULY 


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FOURTH   OF  JULY 


made  of  tissue  paper,  which  can  be 
bought  at  toy  stores  or  made  at 
home.are  often  sent  up  on  the  Fourth. 
Home-made  balloons  are  constructed 
by  pasting  together  gores  cut  out  of 
tissue  paper  and  shaped  as  in  Fig.  20. 


Fig.  20. 

One  of  these  is  folded  lengthwise 
down  the  middle  and  a  second  placed 
on  it  so  that  only  a  little  margin  of 
the  first  shows  ;  this  margin  is  lapped 
over  and  pasted  to  the  second,  which 
is  then  folded  lengthwise  like  the 
first.  The  desired  number  of  gores 
is  pasted  together  thus,  and  then  the 
free  edges  of  the  first  and  last  are 
pasted,  thus  forming  the  complete 
balloon.  The  shape  of  the  balloon 
depends  on  the  shape  and  number  of 
the  gores.  Different  shapes  are  shown 
in  Figs.  21,  22,  and  23.  The  length  of 


Fig.  21. 

the  line  A  B,  allowing  for  pasting, 
multiplied  by  the  number  of  gores,  is 
the  circumference  at  the  neck,  and 


that  at  the  largest  part  may  be  found 
in  like  manner.  The  length  of  the 
balloon  will  be  somewhat  less  than 
that  of  the  gores,  The  best  shape 
for  a  balloon  is  as  nearly  spherical  as 
possible.  A  narrow  balloon,  or  one 


Fig.  22. 


with  a  neck,  takes  fire  easily.  When 
the  tissue  paper  has  been  pasted,  a 
circle  of  wire  the  size  of  the  opening 
at  the  neck,  is  made,  with  two  cross 
pieces  at  right  angles,  and  fastened 
by  lapping  the  paper  over  it  and 
pasting.  A  paper  loop  is  pasted  at 


Fig.  23. 

the  top  of  the  balloon,  and  a  small 
ball  of  lamp-wick,  about  an  inch 
thick,  is  rolled  together  and  fastened 
by  passing  wire  through  it  (Fig.  24). 
The  ends  of  the  wire  are  hooked  so 
that  the  wick  can  quickly  be  fastened 


FOURTH    OF  JULY 


360 


FOURTH    OF  JULY 


Fig1.  24. 


to  the  wire  cross  at  the  neck  of  the 
balloon.  A  plan  of  the  arrangement 
is  shown  in  Fig.  25,  and 
a  perspective  view  in 
Fig.  26.  To  send  up 
the  balloon  the  best 
plan  is  to  make  a  fire 
of  sticks  or  shavings 
on  the  ground,  and  put 
above  it  a  piece  of  stove  pipe  to 
conduct  a  current  of  the  heated  air 
upward.  The  neck  of  the  balloon 
is  held  over  this  by  one  person,  while 
another  holds  the  top  up  by  a  stick 
passed  through  the  paper  loop. 
Where  the  balloon  is  full  of  hot  air, 
the  wick  is  saturated  with  alcohol, 


Fig.  25. 

hooked  to  the  wire  cross  pieces,  and 
lighted,  and  the  balloon,  being  re- 
leased, rises  in  the  air.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  hold  it  so  far  above  the 
fire  that  there  is  no  danger  of  its 
burning.  The  balloon  would  rise  a 
little  way  without  any  lighted  wick, 
but  the  latter  is  necessary  to  keep 
the  air  within  it  heated.  For  a  small 
balloon  it  is  not  necessary  to  build  a 


Fig.  26. 

fire,  but  simply  to  light  the  wick,  and 
hold  the  balloon  till  the  air  is  heated 
enough ;  but  a  large  balloon  needs  a 
better  and  quicker  mode  of  filling  it 
with  hot  air.  If  a  wind  is  blowing, 


the  balloon  should  be  sent  up  from 
the  sheltered  side  of  a  building,  and 
care  must  also  be  taken  that  no  tree 
or  building  is  near  enough  to  its  path 
to  obstruct  it  as  it  rises. 

Toy  balloons  are  sometimes  ar- 
ranged to  carry  up  fire-works  which 
are  set  off  in  the  air.  Any  fire-work 
not  too  heavy  may  be  fastened  by  a 
string  to  the  middle  of  the  cross 
pieces,  a  piece  of  slow-burning  fuse 
being  attached  and  lighted  just  be- 
fore the  balloon  is  sent  off.  In  the 
case  of  most  fire-works  the  explosion 
would  destroy  the  balloon.  A  small 
rocket  may  be  thus  taken  up,  being 
suspended  by  two  strings,  so  that  it 
will  point  horizontally,  or  slightly  up- 
ward. A  good  plan  is  to  open  a 
roman  candle,  take  out  the  stars, 
and  wrap  each  in  tissue  paper  with 
a  little  powder.  The  stars  are  then 
arranged  at  intervals  on  a  string  and 
a  fuse  running  through  them  all  is 
lighted  at  the  lower  end  as  the  bal- 
loon is  set  off.  The  stars  explode 
one  by  one  in  the  air. 

Parachutes,  (C.  C.  T.).  Toy  para- 
chutes can  be  made  by  crossing  two 
long  pieces  of  string  cornerwise  on  a 
square  piece  of  tissue  paper,  and 
then  pasting  another  piece  to  it,  so 
that  the  string  is  thus  fastened  be- 
tween. The  ends  of  the  string  are 
then  tied  together  and  fastened  to  a 
small  weight,  for  instance,  a  lead 
fish-line  sinker.  The  parachute  may 
be  attached  to  a  fuse,  like  the  fire- 
works, so  that  when  the  fuse  burns 
up  to  it,  it  will  fall.  It  should  be 
fastened  to  the  balloon  at  the  mid- 
dle of  the  paper,  where  the  strings 
cross,  and  will  hang  down  like  a 
closed  umbrella  ;  but  when  it  falls  it 
will  open  and  then  drop  very  slowly. 
Fire-works  may  be  fastened  to  a 
parachute  instead  of  to  the  balloon. 

Fourth  of  July  Parties.  Public 
celebration  of  the  Fourth  used 
always  to  include  the  reading  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence,  a 
patriotic  oration,  and  a  parade. 
Fifty  years  ago  such  celebrations 
were  held  in  almost  every  town ; 


FOX   AND    GEESE 


361 


FOX  AND   GEESE 


The  orations  were  often  very  flowery 
and  boastful,  a  style  of  talking  now 
often  called  "  Fourth  of  July  oratory." 
These  public  celebrations  are  less 
frequently  held  than  formerly,  but 
friends  now  often  meet  at  a  party  or 
a  picnic,  and  indulge  in  amusements 
appropriate  to  the  day.  An  excur- 
sion to  some  place  of  historical 
interest  may  be  made,  especially  if 
it  be  connected  with  Revolutionary 
history. 

FOX  AND  GEESE,  a  name 
given  to  several  different  games.  I. 
A  game  played  by  two  persons,  one 
of  whom  has  one  piece,  or  man, 
called  the  Fox,  and  the  other  17  men, 
called  Geese,  on  a  board  like  that  in 
Fig.  i.  The  Fox  is  usually  larger 


Fig.  i. — Fox  and  Geese. 

than  the  Geese,  and  of  a  different 
color.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
game  the  pieces  are  placed  as  shown 
in  the  illustration,  the  Fox  being  in 
the  middle  of  the  board.  The  play- 
ers take  turns,  the  Fox  moving  first. 
The  pieces  may  move  from  one  dot 
to  the  next  along  any  line.  The 
object  of  the  Geese  is  to  pen  up  the 
Fox  so  that  he  cannot  move,  and  that 
of  the  Fox  is  to  capture  so  many  of 
them  that  they  cannot  do  this.  The 
Fox  may  capture  a  Goose  by  leaping 
over  it,  if  the  space  next  beyond  it 
be  unoccupied,  as  in  CHECKERS,  and 
the  Goose  so  leaped  is  removed  from 
the  board.  The  Fox  is  not  obliged 
to  leap  when  he  has  a  chance,  but 


may  move  instead,  if  he  wishes. 
The  Fox  cannot  be  penned  anywhere 
by  less  than  six  Geese,  as  will  be 
seen  by  looking  at  the  board,  and 
therefore  when  only  five  Geese  are 
left,  the  Fox  has  won.  If  the  Geese 
are  played  skillfully,  it  is  said  that 
they  must  always  win,  and  the  game 
is  therefore  sometimes  played  with 
two  Foxes.  Holes  may  take  the  place 
of  the  dots  on  the  board  and  the 
game  is  then  played  with  pegs  or 
marbles  instead  of  men.  It  may  be 
so  played  on  a  SOLITAIRE  board. 

The  Battle  Came,  or  Siege,  a 
kind  of  Fox  and  Geese  in  which  part 
of  the  board  is  separated  from  the 
rest,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

This  is  called  the  Fortress,  and  is 
occupied  at  the  opening  of  the  game 
by  two  Sharpshooters,  who  corre- 
spond to  the  two  Foxes  in  the  older 
game.  The  rest  of  the  board  is  called 
the  Battlefield,  and  is  occupied  by 
24  common  Soldiers,  who  are  like 
the  Geese.  The  Sharpshooters  may 
stand  anywhere  within  the  For- 
tress at  the  beginning  of  the  game, 
and  they  can  move  from  one  spot  to 
the  next,  in  any  direction,  to  any  part 
of  the  board.  A  Sharpshooter  can 
take  any  Soldier  by  leaping  over  him 
to  the  next  spot  beyond,  if  it  is  vacant, 
as  in  CHECKERS.  The  Soldiers  can 
move  forward  (either  straight  or  diag- 
onally), or  sidewise,  if  in  so  doing 
they  approach  the  Fortress,  but  never 
backward,  and  they  cannot  take  the 
Sharpshooters  by  leaping.  The 
player  who  moves  the  Soldiers  wins 
if  he  can  place  his  men  so  that  the 
Sharpshooters  cannot  leave  the  For- 
tress, or  if  he  can  pen  them  up  in 
any  part  of  the  Battlefield,  so  that 
they  cannot  move  at  all.  The  one 
who  has  the  Sharpshooters  wins  if 
he  can  take  so  many  of  the  Soldiers 
that  not  enough  are  left  to  pen  him 
up.  This  is  done  when  he  has  cap- 
tured all  but  nine.  As  a  Sharp- 
shooter, when  in  the  middle  of  the 
board,  can  move  in  any  one  of  eight 
different  directions,  he  has  great 
power.  The  same  Sharpshooter  is 


FOX   AND   OEESE 


362 


FOX   AND   GEESE 


allowed  to  make  as  many  leaps  as 
he  can  in  one  turn,  as  in  Checkers. 


History.     This   variation    of   Fox 
and    Geese    is    called    in    Germany 


Fig.  2. — Battle  Game,  or  Siege. 


"  Belagerungspiel "  (The  Beleaguer- 
ing Game).  Though  it  is  an  old 
game,  a  description  of  it  was  recently 
published  in  a  New  York  paper  as  if 
it  were  a  new  invention. 

Chinese  Fox  and  Ceese.  This  is 
played  on  a  board  like  that  in  Fig.  3, 
which  also  shows  the  arrangement  of 
the  men.  The  Commander  (corre- 
sponding to  the  Fox)  is  placed  in  the 
middle  and  surrounded  by  26  sol- 
diers (corresponding  to  the  Geese). 
The  Commander  may  take  a  soldier 
by  leaping,  as  in  CHECKERS,  and  all 
the  pieces  may  move  forward,  back- 
ward, or  sidewise.  The  object  of 
the  soldiers  is  to  pen  up  the  Com- 
mander in  the  triangular  space  a,  c,  b. 
As  in  ordinary  Fox  and  Geese,  the 
soldiers  will  always  win  in  this  game, 
if  it  is  played  well.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  "  Chinese  Rebel  Game," 


and  the  Chinese  call  it  Yang  Lo  See, 
after  the  leader  of  a  famous  rebellion. 


<h- ( > 


Fig.  3. — Chinese  iox  and  Geese. 

French  Military  Game.     This  re- 
sembles Chinese  Fox  and  Geese,    A 


FOX   AND    GEESE 


363 


FOX   AND   GEESE 


black  piece,  called  an  Army  Corps, 
corresponds  to  the  Fox,  and  the  three 
pieces  of  a  different  color  called 
Brigades  of  Cavalry,  to  the  Geese. 
The  object  of  the  Cavalry,  as  in  the 
other  forms  of  the  game,  is  to  pen  up 
the  Army  Corps  so  that  it  cannot 
move.  The  Army  Corps  is  allowed 
to  move  in  any  direction  along  a 
line,  but  each  Brigade  of  Cavalry  can 
'move  backward  only  once  during  the 
game,  all  other  moves  being  forward 
or  sidewise.  The  Army  Corps  is 
given  the  first  move.  This  game  is 
said  to  have  been  devised  by  Louis 
Dyen,  a  French  army  officer,  in 
1886.  It  has  been  shown  in  a  French 
scientific  paper  that,  as  in  other 
forms  of  the  game  where  there  is  one 
Fox,  the  Geese  (in  this  case  the  Bri- 
gades of  Cavalry)  must  win,  if  played 
properly. 

II.  A  game  played  by  any  number 
of  persons,  one  of  whom  takes  the 
part  of  the  Fox  and  the  others  stand 
in  a  double  circle,  facing  inward. 
At  one  place  in  the  circle  there  are 
three  players  instead  of  two  as  shown 
in  Fig.  4.  The  object  of  the  Fox  is  to 

o       o 
o    o      Oo 

o  ~          o 


o   o 


Fig.  4. — Fox  and  Geese,  or  Tierce. 

touch  the  outside  one  of  three,  who 
tries  to  escape  by  running  into  the 
circle  and  standing  inside  two  of 
the  others,  thus  exposing  the  outside 
player  to  the  Fox.  If  any  one  is 
caught  he  must  take  the  Fox's  place. 
When  the  number  of  players  is  large 
there  may  be  two  or  more  groups  of 


three.  The  Fox  may  not  enter  the 
circle,  and  there  should  be  plenty  of 
room  left  between  the  groups  of 
players,  so  that  the  Geese  may  run  in 
easily. 

In  England  this  game  is  some- 
times called  Round  Tag  and  Tierce. 
Its  ancient  name  was  The  Faggots, 
the  pairs  of  players,  one  in  front  of 
the  other,  being  called  Faggots,  and 
the  Fox  and  Goose  the  Hound  and 
Hare.  A  similar  game  was  played 
there  in  ancient  times,  called  Trick 
the  Rabbit. 

In  France  it  is  called  Deux  c'est 
assez,  trots  c'est  trap  (Two  is  Com- 
pany, Three  is  a  Crowd),  and  in 
Germany,  Den  Dritten  Jagen  (Hunt 
the  Third). 

III.  An  outdoor  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons  on  a  figure 
marked  on  the  ground  or  in  the  snow, 
like  that  in  Fig.  5.  There  may  be  any 


Fig.  5.— Fox  and  Geese. 

number  of  circles  and  lines  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  players  and 
the  size  of  the  ground.  One  of  the 
players  is  selected  as  Fox,  and  the 
others  represent  Geese.  The  Geese 
may  run  on  any  of  the  paths,  but 
the  Fox  must  keep  on  the  straight 
ones.  If  he  touch  any  one  of  the 
Geese,  that  one  must  take  his  place 
as  Fox.  In  some  parts  of  New  Eng- 
land this  game  is  called  Pickadill. 

FRENCH   AND   ENGLISH.      See 
TUG  OF  WAR. 


FRENCH   SOLITAIRE 


364 


FUSIBLE   METALS 


FRENCH    BLIND  MAN'S  BUFF, 

See  BLIND  MAN'S  BUFF. 

FRENCH  SOLITAIRE,  a  SOLI- 
TAIRE game  of  CARDS,  played  with 
one  full  pack.  The  four  Aces  are 
placed  in  a  row,  as  they  appear,  and 
the  other  cards  on  these,  in  order, 
without  following  suit.  Cards  that 
cannot  be  so  placed  must  be  ar- 
ranged in  four  piles  beneath  the 
others,  without  regard  to  suit  or 
rank.  The  top  card  of  a  lower  pile 
must  be  placed  on  one  of  the  upper 
piles  whenever  possible.  It  requires 
skill  so  to  place  the  cards  in  the 
lower  piles  that  they  will  be  available 
in  making  the  upper  piles.  No  cards 
in  any  of  the  lower  piles  must  be 
looked  at,  except  the  top  card. 

This  is  one  of  the  simplest  Soli- 
taire card-games.  It  is  made  more 
difficult  by  requiring  the  upper  piles 
to  be  made  in  suits,  and  still  easier 
by  permitting  the  player  to  examine 
the  lower  piles. 

FUN  ALIVE,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons  with  8  large 
cards  called  "  Game  Cards,"  and 
40  smaller  "  Forfeit  Cards."  The 
Game  Cards  are  all  blank  except  one, 
called  the  "  Catch  Card,"  on  which 
the  words  "Fun  Alive"  are  printed 
in  large  letters.  On  each  of  the  For- 
feit Cards  a  FORFEIT  is  printed. 
The  Forfeit  Cards  are  spread,  face 
downward,  in  the  middle  of  the  table, 
and  the  same  is  begun  by  one  player's 
taking  the  Game  Cards,  shuffling 
them,  and  presenting  them  to  his 
left-hand  neighbor,  who  draws  one. 
If  it  be  the  Catch  Card,  he  must  at 
once  draw  a  Forfeit  Card,  and  do  as 
it  directs.  Then  the  player  who 
draws,  shuffles  the  Game  Cards  and 
presents  them  to  his  left-hand  neigh- 
bor, and  so  on.  When  a  player 
draws  a  blank  card  he  takes  no  For- 
feit Card,  and  the  next  one  draws  at 
once.  The  game  continues  thus  as 
long  as  the  players  choose. 

FUNGO,  a  game   of  ball   played 


by  any  number  of  persons  with  a 
BASE-BALL  and  bat.  One  player 
takes  the  bat,  and  tossing  the  ball 
into  the  air  strikes  it  before  it 
falls.  The  other  players,  who  stand 
from  50  to  200  feet  from  the  batter, 
try  to  catch  the  ball.  The  batter 
usually  holds  the  bat  in  his  right 
hand,  tosses  the  ball  into  the  air  with 
his  left,  at  the  same  time  raising  the 
bat,  and  then,  seizing  the  bat  with 
both  hands,  strikes  the  ball  before  it 
falls.  Fungo  is  generally  played  to 
give  the  fielders  in  BASE-BALL  prac- 
tice in  "  fly-catching  "  or  catching 
the  batted  ball  before  it  bounds,  but 
it  is  often  played  merely  for  amuse- 
ment. In  the  latter  case  it  may 
be  agreed  that  when  a  catch  is  made, 
the  catcher  shall  take  the  batter's 
place. 

FUSIBLE  METALS,  To  make. 
Fusible  metals  are  alloys  (see  C.  C. 
T.)  which  will  melt  at  a  very  low 
temperature.  Many  of  them  are 
made  of  bismuth,  lead,  and  tin.  The 
fusible  metal  called  Rose's  Metal  is 
made  by  melting  in  an  iron  spoon 
some  bismuth  with  half  its  weight 
of  lead  and  half  its  weight  of 
tin.  The  resulting  alloy  will  melt 
in  boiling  water.  If  the  melted 
metal  be  poured  into  a  test  tube  it 
will  expand  on  cooling,  and  break 
the  tube. 

These  fusible  metals  are  made  use 
of  in  many  ways.  For  instance, 
many  factories  are  now  fitted  with 
water  pipes  running  over  the  ceil- 
ings of  all  the  rooms.  These  are 
fitted  at  intervals  with  nozzles  closed 
with  plugs  of  fusible  metal.  If  a 
fire  should  start  in  any  room  the 
heat  would  melt  out  the  plugs  near 
it  at  once,  and  the  water,  rushing 
through  the  nozzle,  would  put  it  out. 
Common  solder  is  another  example 
of  a  fusible  metal,  though  this  must 
melt  at  a  higher  heat,  so  that  it 
will  bear  that  of  a  ordinary  cook 
stove. 


GALLANTY  SHOW 


365 


GALLANTY  SHOW 


G 


GALLANTY  SHOW,  a  kind  of 
shadow  pantomime,  in  which  the  . 
characters  are  represented  by  figures  ' 
cut  from  cardboard.  A  frame  about 
three  feet  high  by  four  wide  is  fixed 
in  a  doorway,  and  covered  with  white 
cloth  tightly  stretched,  tacked  on 
the  side  toward  the  spectators.  The 
rest  of  the  doorway  is  screened  by 
curtains,  and  the  exhibitor  stands  on 
the  opposite  side.  A  piece  of  tape, 
stretched  close  to  the  frame  along 
its  bottom,  holds  the  figures  by 
means  of  cardboard  continuations 
of  their  legs.  The  exhibitor,  by 
means  of  these  continuations,  which 
project  below  the  tape,  can  slide  the 
figures  along,  make  them  rock 
backward  and  forward,  or  cause 
them  suddenly  to  disappear  by  pull- 
ing them  downward.  Scenery  of 
various  kinds  may  be  fastened  to 
the  sides  or  top  of  the  frame,  and  if 
a  scene  is  desired  which  will  fill  the 
whole  frame,  the  cloth  may  be  re- 
placed by  a  sheet  of  paper  on  which 
such  a  scene,  cut  out  of  thin  paper, 
is  pasted.  A  forest  or  the  interior 
of  a  building  may  thus  be  repre- 
sented. With  some  practice,  scen- 
ery can  be  built  up  of  different  thick- 
nesses of  paper,  so  as  to  show  any 
number  of  degrees  of  light  and 
shade,  after  the  mannerof  the  porce- 
lain transparencies  often  hung  in 
windows.  The  "  high  lights  "  of  the 
scene  have  no  paper  pasted  on  them 
at  all.  The  deep  shadows  should 
have  several  thicknesses,  and  the 
shades  between  these  extremes 
more  or  less  according  to  the  de- 
sired tone.  For  the  stained  glass 
windows  of  a  church,  colored  tissue 
paper  may  be  used,  and  the  sun, 
moon,  or  flowers  may  also  be  repre- 
sented in  color  in  the  same  way. 
If  desired,  the  arms  or  heads 
of  the  figures  may  be  made  to 
work  on  pivots,  and  moved  by 


thread  so  fine  that  its  shadow  is  not 
noticed  by  the  spectators.  The 
performance  may  be  a  pantomime, 
or  the  exhibitor  may  talk  for  the 
various  characters.  The  figures 
not  used  should  be  placed  on  a 
chair  or  shelf  within  easy  reach  of 
the  exhibitor,  or  held  by  an  assist- 
ant. A  procession  can  be  repre- 
sented by  gluing  figures  upright  on 
a  piece  of  tape  stretched  around 
two  wooden  wheels,  or  large  spools. 
One  of  these  is  fitted  with  a  crank, 
by  turning  which  the  tape  is  moved 


Gallanty  Show. 

steadily.  Only  the  upper  part  of 
the  tape  must  be  thrown  on  the 
screen,  as  the  figures  on  the  tower 
half  are  heads  downward.  The 
shadows  must  pass  out  of  sight  be- 
fore they  begin  to  turn  downward, 
and  must  not  come  into  view  again 
till  they  have  ceased  to  rise.  A 
continual  procession  thus  passes 


GALVANIC  TASTE 


366 


GALVANOMETER 


across  the  screen  as  long  as  the 
crank  is  turned.  A  great  many 
curious  effects  can  be  produced,  as 
in  SHADOW  PLAYS.  Thus,  a  man 
can  be  shown  climbing  out  of  a 
chimney  or  jumping  into  a  croco- 
dile's mouth.  These  effects  are  even 
more  simple  in  a  gallanty  show,  for 
the  figures  and  scenery  are  both 
smaller  and  easier  to  manage.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  make  all  the 
movements  as  naturally  as  possible. 

History.  A  gallanty  show  is  called 
in  France  Les  Ombres  Chinoises 
(Chinese  Shadows).  This  form  of 
entertainment  is  said  to  have  orig- 
inated in  China  ;  at  any  rate,  it  has 
long  been  a  favorite  there.  It  was 
brought  thence  to  Germany,  and  in 
1770  a  theatre  specially  devoted  to 
it  was  established  in  Versailles, 
France,  by  Seraphin,  who  conduct- 
ed it  for  many  years  and  was  suc- 
ceeded in  its  management  by  his 
nephew  of  the  same  name. 

GALVANIC  TASTE,  Experi- 
ment on.  Place  a  piece  of  zinc 
above  the  tongue  and  a  silver  coin 
below  it,  or  "vice  versa,  and  after 
.leaving  them  there  a  few  seconds, 
to  get  used  to  the  taste  of  the 
metals,  touch  the  edges  over  the 
tip  of  the  tongue.  A  singular  taste, 
or  sensation,  will  be  at  once  felt  in 
the  tongue.  The  reason  of  this  is 
that  the  metals,  with  the  tongue  be- 
tween them,  form  a  little  ELECTRIC 
BATTERY,  and  when  the  circuit  is 
closed,  by  touching  the  metals  a 
very  slight  current  flows  through 
the  tongue. 

The  taste  is  slightly  different,  ac- 
cording to  which  metal  is  above 
and  which  below,  being  slightly 
acid  in  one  case  and  alkaline  in 
another.  Some  people  think  this 
is  because  the  salt  fluids  in  the 
tongue  are  decomposed  by  the 
current  into  an  acid  and  an  alkali 
(see  ELECTRICAL  DECOMPOSITION). 

A  similar  experiment  may  be  per- 
formed with  a  strip  of  zinc  and  a 
silver  spoon,  by  putting  one  as  far 
as  possible  between  the  lower  lip 


and  gum,  and  the  other  between 
the  upper  lip  and  gum,  and  then 
touching  the  ends.  Just  as  they 
touch,  a  flash  of  light  will  appear  to 
pass  before  the  eyes. 

GALVANOMEtER,  an  instrument 
for  showing  the  direction  and  force 
of  electric  currents.  Some  kind  of 
galvanometer  is  needed  for  many  of 
the  electric  experiments  described 
in  this  book.  The  simplest  kind 
consists  merely  of  a  magnetized 
sewing-needle,  hung  horizontally  by 
a  thread  ;  or  a  pocket  compass  may 
be  used.  The  following  experi- 
ments may  be  tried  with  such  a 
galvanometer. 

1.  Allow  the  needle  to  come  to 
rest,  when  it  will  point  north  and 
south.     Hold   a  wire,   whose   ends 
are   connected   with   an  ELECTRIC 
BATTERY,  over  it  lengthwise.     The 
needle  will  turn,  and  if  the  current 
in  the  wire  is  strong  enough,  will 
come  to  rest  nearly  at  right  angles 
to  the  wire. 

2.  Reverse   the    current    in    the 
wire  by  exchanging  the  ends  which 
are    connected    with    the    battery. 
The  needle  will  turn  in  the  opposite 
direction. 

3.  Hold  the  wire  just  under,  in- 
stead of  just  over,   the  needle.     It 
will  turn  in  the  opposite  direction. 

4.  Make  a  loop  of  the  wire  so  that 
the  current  will  flow  in  one  direc- 
tion   above   the  needle  and  in  the 
opposite   direction    below   it.     The 
needle  will  turn  farther  than  before. 

These  experiments,  which  were 
discovered  by  Oersted,  a  Danish 
physicist,  first  showed  scientists  that 
there  was  a  connection  between  elec- 
tricity and  magnetism,  and  they  were 
therefore  the  beginning  of  the  tele- 
graph, the  dynamo,  and  many  of  the 
wonderful  inventions  of  our  day. 

To  detect  very  slight  currents  it 
is  necessary  to  surround  the  needle 
with  many  coils  of  wire.  Thus  very 
expensive  and  delicate  galvanom- 
eters are  constructed,  but  a  simple 
one  can  be  made  by  any  one,  as  fol- 
lows : 


GALVANOMETER 


367 


GENTEEL  LADY 


Make  a  wooden  frame.  A,  about 
four  inches  square  and  about  an 
inch  thick,  either  glued  together  or 
fastened  with  brass  or  wooden  pins. 
No  iron  or  steel  must  be  used. 
Wind  on  it  about  60  turns  of  insu- 
lated number  16  wire,  in  three  layers, 
leaving  a  space  in  the  centre,  as 
shown  ;n  the  nirfirf.  Insert  the 


Home-made  Galvanometer. 


ends  of  the  wire  in  the  brass  bind- 
ing-screws H  and  K.  Fix  an  arch 
of  copper  wire,  D,  in  the  frame,  on 
which  is  a  cork,  E.  From  the  cork 
is  suspended  a  narrow  strip  of  paper- 
G,  by  a  silk  fibre  or  a  hair,  F.  No 
twisted  thread  must  be  used.  The 
hair  is  best  fastened  to  the  paper  by 
wax.  Through  the  lower  part  of 
the  paper  thrust  a  magnetized  sew- 
ing-needle, H,  and  through  the  up- 
per part  a  copper  wire,  I,  about  2-J- 
inches  long,  for  a  pointer.  The 
paper  must  be  so  suspended  that 
the  needle  will  turn  freely  between 
the  upper  and  lower  windings  of 
wire,  and  the  pointer  above  the 
wire,  where  it  will  be  easily  seen.  If 
desired,  a  dial  or  disk  of  paper,  M, 
may  be  laid  over  the  wire  just  under 
the  pointer.  A  hole  must  be  cut  in 
the  centre,  to  allow  the  suspended 


strip  of  paper  to  turn.  This  gal- 
vanometer must  be  kept  out  of  the 
least  draught  of  wind,  and  it  is  best 
to  cover  it  with  a  glass  globe,  or  with 
a  box,  N,  having  a  glass  top,  O. 
When  it  is  to  be  used  with  weak 
currents,  it  must  be  turned  so 
that  the  coils  of  wire  are  parallel 
with  the  needle,  that  is,  north 
and  so-uth.  When 
the  instrument  is  used 
with  stronger  currents 
it  must  be  placed  at 
first  so  that  the  coils 
will  point  across  the 
needle.  When  the 
current  passes  turn  the 
instrument  back  slow- 
ly till  the  coils  are 
north  and  south.  A 
strong  current  must 
not  be  passed  through 
it  when  the  coils  are 
parallel  with  the 
needle,  or  the  needle 
will  spin  around, 
twisting  the  hair  and 
making  it  necessary  to 
hang  it  over  again. 

GAS  BURNED 
THROUGH  A  HAND- 
KERCHIEF. Tie  an  or- 
dinary handkerchief  tightly  over  a 
gas-burner  with  metal  tip,  as  shown 
in  the  illustration  on  next  page. 
Unless  the  tip  be  metal,  the  experi- 
ment will  not  succeed.  Turn  on  the 
gas  and  light  it,  and  it  will  burn  with- 
out even  scorching  the  handkerchief, 
which  may  be  removed  uninjured 
when  the  gas  has  been  turned  off. 
The  reason  the  handkerchief  is  not 
burned  is  that  there  is  not  great 
heat  in  the  lower  part  of  a  gas- 
flame,  and  what  there  is,  is  con- 
ducted away  rapidly  by  the  metal 
tip  of  the  burner.  If  the  tip  be 
not  metallic  the  heat  will  not  be 
conducted  away,  and  the  handker- 
chief will  be  scorched. 

GENTEEL  LADY,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons.  The 
leader  of  the  game  says  to  the  player 
on  his  right,  "Good  morn  ing,  genteel 


GENTEEL  LADY 


368 


GEOGRAPHY 


lady.always  genteel;  I,  a  genteel  lady, 
always  genteel,  come  from  yonder 


Gas  burned  through  a  Handkerchief. 
(See  page  367.) 

genteel  lady,  always  genteel,  to  tell 
you  that  she  has  an  eagle  with  a 
golden  beak."  This  sentence  is  re- 
peated by  each  in  turn  to  his  right- 
hand  neighbor,  and  then  goes  the 
rounds  again  as  many  times  as  the 
leader  chooses,  each  time  with  an 
addition  to  the  description  of  the 
eagle.  Thus,  in  the  second  round, 
it  may  be  "with  a  golden  beak  and 
silver  feathers;"  in  the  third,  "with 
a  golden  beak,  and  silver  feathers, 
and  steel  claws,"  and  so  on.  Every 
time  that  any  player  makes  a  mis- 
take, a  piece  of  paper  is  twisted  in 
his  hair  to  resemble  a  horn,  and  he 
is  then  called  "  one-horned,"  "  two- 
horned,"  etc..  as  the  case  may  be, 
instead  of  "genteel."  Thus,  if  a 
player  have  no  horns,  while  his 
left-hand  neighbor  has  two,  and  his 
right-hand  neighbor  one,  he  should 
address  the  latter  with  the  words, 
"Good  morning,  one-horned  lady, 
always  one-horned ;  I,  a  genteel 
lady,  always  genteel,  come  from 
yonder  two-horned  lady,  always 


two-horned,  to  tell  you,"  etc.  An 
extra  horn  is  given  for  every  mis- 
take, and  the  number  generally  in- 
creases rapidly.  The  game  lasts  as 
long  as  the  players  desire,  or  it 
may  cease  when  one  of  them  has 
a  number  of  horns  that  is  agreed 
upon  beforehand.  Sometimes,  at 
the  close  of  the  game,  each  player 
pays  as  many  forfeits  as  he  has 
"  horns"  on  his  head.  In  beginning 
the  game,  the  leader  may  substitute 
anything  he  chooses  for  the  "  eagle;" 
thus,  he  may  speak  of  a  house  with 
a  gold  chimney,  diamond  windows, 
and  iron  roof;  or  a  locomotive  with 
a  paper  smoke-stack  and  India-rub- 
ber wheels. 

Sometimes  the  first  player  in- 
forms the  second  that  his  "ship  has 
just  come  from  China,  laden  with 
apricots"  (or  anything  beginning 
with  A).  The  next  adds  an  article 
beginning  with  B.  and  so  on  through 
the  alphabet.  The  "  horns "  are 
sometimes  lighted  paper  lamp- 
lighters, but  their  use  is  dangerous. 

This  game  had  its  origin  in  France, 
where  it  is  called  "  Le  Chevalier 
Gentil"  (The  Gentle  Knight). 

GEOGRAPHY,  the  name  of  sev- 
eral games,  all  of  which  require  a 
knowledge  of  geography. 

I.  The  players  choose  sides,  and 
the  leader  of  one  side  commences  by 
calling  out  the  name  of  a  city  or  town 
beginning  with  A,  and  then  count- 
ing ten  distinctly.  Before  he  fin- 
ishes counting  the  leader  of  the 
other  side  must  call  out  the  name 
of  another  city  beginning  with 
A,  and  then  count  in  like  man- 
ner. This  goes  on  till  the  leader 
of  one  side  is  able  to  count  ten 
before  his  opponent  can  think  pf  a 
city  that  has  not  been  named.  The 
winner  chooses  as  his  follower  one 
of  the  opposite  side,  and  then  begins 
the  game  anew,  this  time  using 
names  of  towns  that  begin  with  B. 
The  leader  can  be  chosen  only  when 
he  is  left  alone  on  his  side.  When 
either  side  has  chosen  all  the  players 
on  the  other,  it  wins,  and  the  game 


GEOGRAPHY 


369 


GEOGRAPHY 


ends;  but  if  all  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet  have  been  used,  and  players 
remain  on  each  side,  the  larger  party 
is  declared  the  winner.  No  one  but 
the  leader  may  call  out  the  names, 
but  the  other  players  on  his  side 
think  of  new  ones  and  whisper  them 
to  him  one  by  one  as  he  needs  them. 
At  first  the  names  usually  follow 
one  another  as  quickly  as  they  can 
be  spoken,  but  when  the  memory 
of  the  players  is  almost  exhausted, 
they  come  slowly.  A  longer  time 
for  thought  may  be  given  by  count- 
ing 25,  or  even  50,  instead  of  ten, 
and  the  game  may  also  be  varied  by 
using  names  of  rivers  or  mountains, 
or  those  of  historical  characters. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  No  city  may  be  named  more 
than   once,  but  different   places  of 
the  same  name  may  be  used,  if  their 
situation  is  clearly  defined,  either  by 
giving  the  State  or  country  where 
they   are,    or    in    any    other  way; 
as,    "Stratford.    Connecticut,"  and 
"  Stratford-on-Avon,"    or    "  Phila- 
delphia,  where   one    of    the   seven 
churches  was  situated."    In  such  a 
case   only  the   name,    not    the   ex- 
planation, must   be  spoken   before 
the  word  "  ten." 

2.  In  case  an  unfamiliar  place  is 
named,  the  side  that   used   it  may 
be  required  to  tell  where  it  is.     If 
they  cannot  do  so,  or  do  so  incor- 
rectly, the  opposite  side  may  choose 
one  of  their  players  and  proceed  to 
the  next  letter. 

II.  The  leader  on  one  side  calls 
out  any  letter,  and  says,  "  Sea," 
"  Bay,"  "  Mountain,"  "  City,"  or 
some  other  division  of  water  or 
land.  The  leader  on  the  other  side 
names  one  beginning  with  the  letter 
mentioned,  and  is  followed  by  all 
on  his  side  in  regular  order.  If  any 
one  pause,  the  leader  of  the  first 
side  counts  ten,  and  says,  "  Next !" 
and  the  pausing  player  takes  his 
seat  unless  he  can  answer  while 
the  leader  is  counting.  The  leader 
of  the  second  side  now  calls  out  a 


letter  and  a  division  of  land  or 
water,  which  the  players  on  the  first 
side  must  give  in  like  manner,  and 
the  sides  continue  to  alternate  thus. 
If  any  one  make  a  mistake,  such  as 
giving  to  a  river  the  name  of  a 
mountain,  or  using  the  wrong  initial 
letter,  it  musi  be  corrected  by  some 
one  on  the  same  side  before  the 
opposite  leader  says  "  Miss,"  other- 
wise the  opposite  side  scores  2,  and 
the  turn  comes  to  an  end.  If  no 
one  on  a  side  makes  a  mistake  or 
is  obliged  to  take  his  seat,  that  side 
scores  3.  A  side  wins  when  it  has 
scored  10,  or  when  all  on  the  other 
side  have  taken  their  seats. 

III.  Another  game  of  geography 
is  played  with   pencils   and   paper, 
every  one  writing  all  the  geographi- 
cal names  he  can  think  of,    begin- 
ning first  with  A,  then  with  B,  and  so 
on  through  the  alphabet,  a  minute 
or  more  being  allotted  to  each  let- 
ter.    If  all  have  the  same  name  on 
their  lists,    it   scores    nothing,    but 
others  score  as  many  points  as  the 
number  of  players  who  have  omitted 
it,  as  in  the  game  of  DICTIONARY. 

IV.  Another  geographical    game 
is  played  with  a  board  on  which  is  a 
map,  having  holes  in  place  of  spots 
to  represent  cities.      Each  hole  has 
its  corresponding  peg  with  the  name 
of  the   city  on    it,  and  the    object 
of  the   game  is   to  place   the   pegs 
aright.     The  game  may  be  played 
in  various    ways.     A  single  player 
may  treat  it  as  a  game  of  PATIENCE, 
placing  all  the  pegs  and  then  com- 
paring  an   ordinary  map   with  the 
board,  to  see  whether  he  has  suc- 
ceeded   or   not.      When   there   are 
several  players  the  pegs  may  be  dis- 
tributed equally,  and  then  each  in 
turn  places  one  of  them  in  a  hole. 
After  each   play   the  other  players 
examine  the  peg,  and  in  turn  have 
a  chance  to  say  whether  or  not  they 
think    it    is   rightly   placed.     If  all 
agree   that  it    is    right,   the    player 
scores  one  point ;    if  one   or    more 
think  it  is  wrong,  a  map  is  consulted, 
and  if  the  objectors  are  right  they 


GIVE-AWAY 


370 


GOLF 


each  score  one,  while  if  they  are 
wrong  one  point  is  subtracted  from 
the  score  of  each.  The  number  of 
points  necessary  to  win  should  be 
agreed  upon  beforehand. 

A  board  for  playing  the  game  can 
be  made  by  pasting  an  ordinary  map 
on  a  smooth  piece  of  wood,  and  bor- 
ing gimlet  holes  through  the  dots 
representing  the  cities.  The  name 
of  each  city  must  be  carefully  erased 
with  pen  and  ink,  and  then  little 
wooden  pegs  must  be  provided, 
which  may  be  made  of  matches. 
The  names  may  be  written  on  the 
side  of  the  pegs,  on  a  place  shaved 
flat  with  a  knife,  or  on  bits  of  paper 
glued  to  the  top  of  the  pegs. 

GIVE-AWAY.     See  CHECKERS. 

GLASS  OF  WATER,  Experiment 
with.  See  COINS,  Experiment  7. 

GO-BANG,  a  game  played  by  two 
to  five  persons,  each  of  whom  has 
usually  50  pieces  or  men,  on  a  board 
divided  into  256  squares  colored  al- 
ternately dark  and  light.  The  pieces 
are  of  different  colors,  and  each 
player  has  one  color,  that  one  set 
may  be  distinguished  from  the  others. 
The  players  take  turns,  each  in  order 
placing  on  the  board  one  of  his 
pieces,  on  any  unoccupied  squares, 
dark  or  light.  The  object  is  to  get 
five  in  a  row,  either  diagonally  or 
from  side  to  side  of  the  board,  and 
he  who  succeeds  in  doing  this  wins 
the  game.  When  the  players  have 
put  all  their  pieces  on  the  board, 
they  may  move  them  one  at  a  time 
to  any  unoccupied  adjacent  square, 
in  any  direction. 

Go-Bang  may  be  played  on  an 
ordinary  checker-board,  each  player 
having  twelve  pieces.  Sometimes 
the  total  number  of  pieces  is  made 
equal  to  the  number  of  squares,  in 
which  case  there  can  be  no  moving 
of  pieces,  and  the  game  ends  when 
all  are  placed  on  the  board,  if  no  one 
has  made  a  row  of  five  before  that 
time. 

Go-Bang  is  a  Japanese  game,  and 
means  in  the  Japanese  language 
"Five-Board."  "Go"  (Five)  is  the 


Japanese  name  of  the  game.  It  is 
said  to  have  been  played  in  China 
(where  it  is  called  Kee)  2000  years 
before  Christ,  and  to  have  been  car- 
ried about  the  8th  century  A.D.  to 
Japan,  where  it  is  a  great  favorite. 
The  Japanese  have  schools  for  the 
study  of  the  game,  and  a  periodical 
is  published  in  their  country  devoted 
entirely  to  it,  just  as  we  have  papers 
devoted  to  Chess.  The  Japanese 
play  it  on  a  board  of  more  than  300 
squares. 

GOLF,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons  with  sticks  or 
clubs  like  SHINNY  sticks,  and  small 
balls  about  an  inch  and  a  half  in 
diameter.  The  ball,  formerly  of 
leather  stuffed  with  feathers,  is  now 
usually  made  of  gutta-percha, 
"  nicked  "  or  cut  in  crossed  lines  on 
the  surface,  to  roughen  it. 

The  course,  usually  circular  and 
properly  between  three  and  five 
miles  long,  is  marked  out  on  a  piece 
of  open  ground,  and  at  intervals  on 
it  are  cut  holes  four  inches  in  di- 
ameter and  from  100  to  500  yards 
apart.  The  golf  grounds  are  usually 
called  "  links,"  because  the  sandy 
stretches  by  the  seashore,  known  in 
Scotland  by  this  name,  are  there  re- 
garded as  best  adapted  to  it.  The 
links  should  contain  "hazards" — a 
general  term  for  obstacles  of  any 
sort  (see  Rule  15,  below).  Two 
players,  starting  from  the  first  hole, 
take  turns  in  striking  their  balls  into 
the  next,  and  he  who  does  so  in  the 
fewest  strokes  scores  a  point  or  "  a 
hole,"  as  it  is  called.  They  then 
play  for  the  next  hole  in  like  manner, 
and  so  on  till  they  have  gone  around 
the  course  (usually  eighteen  holes). 
If  they  make  any  hole  in  the  same 
number  of  strokes,  that  hole  is  scored 
by  neither.  He  who  scores  the 
greatest  number  of  holes  with  the 
fewest  strokes  wins.  The  reckoning 
of  the  strokes  is  made  technically 
thus:  If  a  player's  opponent  has 
played  one  more  stroke  than  he,  the 
player's  next  stroke  is  called  "  the 
like  ";  if  two  more,  "  the  one  off 


GOLF 


371 


GOLF 


two,"  if  three  more,  "  the   one   off 
three,"  etc. 

Each  p:ayer  has  his  own  ball,  and 
clubs  of  various  shapes  and  sizes. 
He  selects  the  one  he  needs  at  any 
particular  time,  according  to  the 
natue4  of  the  ground,  and  the  others 
are  carried  by  an  attendant  called 
a  "  caddie."  Each  club  has  its 
peculiar  name.  All  have  wooden 
handles,  but  are  called  "  wood- 
clubs"  or  "irons,"  according  to  the 
material  of  the  head.  A  wood  club 
shod  or  soled  with  brass  is  called  a 
"  brassie."  The  following  is  a  com- 
plete list  of  golf  clubs :  Wood 
Clubs— Drivers,  Long  Spoons,  Mid 
Spoons,  Short  Spoons,  Daffy,  Bras- 
sie Niblicks,  Bulger  Drivers,  Bulger 
Brassies,  Brassies,  Putters.  Irons — 
Cleeks,  Iron  Niblicks,  Putting  Cleeks, 
Driving  Cleeks,  Lofting  Irons,  Driv- 
ing Irons,  Mashies,  Gun  Metal  Put- 
ters, Medium  Irons.  The  Driver  or 
Play  Club  is  generally  used  if  the 
distance  from  the  hole  is  too  great  to 
be  covered  in  a  single  stroke  ;  the 
Putter  for  striking  the  ball  into  a 
hole ;  the  Spoon  (now  generally 
superseded  by  the  iron  clubs)  for 
getting  the  ball  out  of  a  depres- 
sion in  the  turf,  called  a  "cup"; 
the  Sand  Iron  for  driving  the  ball 
out  of  a  sand-pit  or  "bunker." 
Should  the  ball  lie  deep  in  the 
sand,  or  beside  a  stone,  the  Cleek 
or  the  Niblick  may  be  used.  Some 
golfers  use  the  iron-headed  clubs  as 
"  Putters."  Besides  these  there  are 
the  Driving  Iron  (not  so  long  a 
driver  as  the  Cleek,  but  able  to  pitch 
the  ball  higher);  the  Lofting  Iron,  for 
lifting  the  ball  very  high ;  and  the 
Mashie,  a  compromise  between  Loft- 
ing Iron  and  Niblick,  used  for  short 
approaches.  A  set  of  six  clubs  is 
considered  enough  for  an  expert,  and 
the  beginner  can  get  along  with  two 
or  three.  In  striking  the  ball,  the 
club  must  be  held  with  both  hands 
as  close  together  as  possible,  the  left 
being  about  two  inches  from  the  end. 
The  club,  grasped  firmly  with  the 
left  and  guided  with  the  right,  is 


lifted  over  the  shoulder,  and  brought 
down  sharply  on  the  ball,  letting  the 
lower  end  just  scrape  the  ground. 


•f!IMIWU-»  ,Ml,,> 

l?*f ,,":;  .""•J*5 
f »-:::.  v?t~,i 


Driving. 

The  club  should  follow  the  ball  in 
the  stroke.  The  distance  to  which 
the  ball  can  be  sent  depends  more 


Putting. 

on  the  manner  of  hitting  than  the 
actual  strength  used.  The  exact 
manner  of  standing,  called  the 


GOLF 


372 


GOLF 


"  stance,"  is  a  matter  about  which 
there  is  a  great  difference  of  opinion 
among  good  golf  players.  The  ob- 
ject is  to  stand  so  and  at  such  a  dis- 
tance that  the  ball  will  be  struck 
squarely  behind  and  exactly  in  the 
middle  of  the  club-head.  If  it 
strikes  too  near  the  end  of  the  head 
(called  the  "  toe  ")  or  too  near  the 
bend  (called  the  "  heel  ")  it  is  said  to 
he  "  toed  "  or  "  heeled  "  and  will 
swerve  to  one  side  or  the  other. 
The  majority  of  players  place  the 
right  foot  a  little  in  advance.  When 
thus  standing,  ready  to  strike,  the 
player  is  said  to  "  address  "  the  ball. 
Before  striking  the  ball  it  is  custom- 
ary to  sway  the  club  gently  over  it 
to  measure  its  position.  This  move- 
ment is  called  the  "  waggle  "  and  is 
done  with  the  wrists  only. 

The  last  stroke  between  any  two 
holes,  by  which  the  player  tries  to 
place  the  ball  in  the  hole,  is  called 
putting  (pronounced  to  rhyme  with 
cutting),  and  is  the  most  difficult 
part  of  the  game,  the  preliminary 
strokes,  called  driving,  being  much 
more  simple.  The  ground  for  some 
distance  around  each  hole  is  usually 
covered  with  smooth  turf  and  called 
the  "  putting  green  "  (see  Rule  30, 
below).  In  putting,  the  nature  and 
condition  of  the  ground,  the  position 
of  the  playing  ball,  and  that  of  his 
adversary's  must  all  be  taken  into 
consideration,  as  well  as  the  state  of 
the  score,  on  which  it  sometimes  de- 
pends whether  the  player  will  risk  a 
difficult  "  put  "  or  not.  The  stroke 
that  drives  the  ball  on  the  putting 
green  is  called  the  "  approach  shot." 
In  putting,  a  rapid  straight  stroke  is 
called  a  "  gobble,"  and  a  successful 
long  stroke  a  "steal."  When  the 
opponent's  ball  lies  directly  between 
the  player's  and  his  hole  it  is  called 
a  "  stimy,"  and  when  the  player 
sends  his  ball  over  the  obstacles  he 
is  said  to  "  loft  over  the  stimy." 
When  the  player  strikes  the  ground 
as  well  as  the  ball,  he  is  said  to 
"  baff,"  and  when  his  club  razes  the 
grass  slightly  he  is  said  to  "  scruff." 


When  a  hole  has  been  gained  the 
player  lifts  his  ball  and  places  it  on 
a  little  heap  of  sand  called  a  "  tee," 
from  which  he  plays  it  toward  the 
next  hole.  When  a  ball  is  thus 
placed  it  is  said  to  be  "  teed." 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME.  * 
The  following  rules  are  substanti- 
ally those  of  the  St.  Andrew's  Royal 
and  Ancient  Golf  Club,  as  modified 
in  1897  by  the  United  States  Golf 
Association  : 

1.  The  game  of  golf  is  played  by 
two  or  more  sides,  each  playing  its 
own  ball.     Two  sides  of  single  play- 
ers constitute  a  match  called  a  "  sin- 
gle."    Two  sides  of  two  players  each 
constitute  a  "  Foursome." 

2.  The  game  consists  in  each  side 
playing  a  ball  from  a  tee  into  a  hole 
by  successive  strokes,  and  the  hole  is 
won  by  the  side  holing  its  ball  in  the 
fewest  strokes,  except  as  otherwise 
provided  in  the  Rules.     If  two  sides 
hole    out   in    the  same   number  of 
strokes,  the  hole  is  halved. 

"  Match  Play,"  in  which  the  player 
has  an  opponent,  is  decided  by  the 
number  of  holes  won. 

"  Medal  Play,"  in  which  all  the 
players  are  called  "competitors,"  is 
decided  by  the  aggregate  number  of 
strokes. 

Unless  otherwise  agreed,  a  match 
shall  consist  of  the  play  of  the  game 
over  eighteen  holes  of  the  links. 

3.  The  teeing  ground  shall  be  in- 
dicated   by  two   marks  placed  in  a 
line  at  right  angles  to  the  course,  and 
the  players  shall  not  tee  in  front  of, 
nor  on  either  side  of  these  marks, 
nor  more  than  two  club  lengths  be- 
hind them.     A  ball  played  from  out- 

!  side  the  limits  of  the  teeing  ground, 
!  as  thus  defined,  may  be  recalled  by 
the  opposite  side. 

The  option  of  recalling  a  ball  is  in 
all  cases  forfeited  unless  exercised  at 
once  before  another  stroke  has  been 
played. 

The  hole  shall  be  four  and  one- 
quarter   inches  in  diameter,  and  at 
j  least  four  inches  deep. 


GOLF 


373 


GOLF 


4.  The  ball  must  be  fairly  struck 
at   and    not    pushed,    scraped,   nor 
spooned,  under  penalty  of  the  loss  of 
the  hole. 

Any  movement  of  the  club  in- 
tended to  strike  the  ball  is  a 
stroke. 

5.  The  game  commences  by  each 
side  playing  a  ball  from  the  first  tee- 
ing ground.     In  a  match  with  two  or 
more  on  a  side,  the   partners  shall 
strike  off  alternately  from  the  tees, 
and  shall  strike  off  alternately  during 
the  play  of  the  hole. 

The  players  who  are  to  strike 
against  each  other  shall  be  named  at 
starting,  and  shall  continue  in  the 
same  order  during  the  match. 

The  player  who  shall  play  first  on 
each  side  shall  be  named  by  his  own 
side. 

6.  If  a  player  shall  play  when  his 
partner  should    have   done   so,  his 
side   shall    lose   the  hole,  except  in 
case  of  the  tee  shot,  when  the  stroke 
shall  be  recalled  at  the  option  of  the 
opponents. 

7.  The  side  winning  a  hole  shall 
lead    in   starting   for  the  next  hole, 
and  may  recall  the  opponent's  stroke 
should  he  play  out  of  order.     This 
privilege  is  called  the  "  honor." 

8.  One  round  of  the  links,  gener- 
ally eighteen  holes,  is  a  match,  unless 
otherwise  agreed  upon.     The  match 
is  won  by  the  side  which  gets  more 
holes  ahead  than  there  remain  holes 
to  be  played,  or  by  the  side  winning 
the  last  hole  when  the  match  was  all 
even  at  the  second  last  hole. 

9.  After  the  balls  are  struck  from 
the  tee,  the  ball  furthest  from  the 
hole  to  which  the  parties  are  playing 
shall  be  played  first,  except  as  other- 
wise provided  for  in  the  Rules. 

10.  Unless   with   the   opponent's 
consent,  a  ball  struck  from  the  tee 
shall  not  be  changed,  touched,  nor 
moved  before  the  hole  is  played  out, 
except  as  otherwise  provided  for  in 
the  Rules. 

11.  In  playing  through  the  green, 
all  loose  impediments  within  a  club 
length  of  a  ball,  which  is  not  lying  in 


or  touching  a  hazard,  may  be   re- 
moved. 

Ice,  snow,  and  hail  within  a  club 
length  of  the  ball  through  the  green 
may  be  removed ;  but  on  the  putting 
green  it  may  only  be  removed  as 
provided  in  Rule  34. 

12.  Before  striking  at  the  ball  the 
player  shall    not    move,    bend,    nor 
break  anything  fixed  or  growing  near 
the  ball,  except  in  the  act  of  placing 
his  feet  on  the  ground  and  in  soling 
his  club. 

13.  A  ball  stuck  fast  in  wet  ground 
or  sand  may  be  taken  out  and  re- 
placed loosely  in  the  hole  which  it 
has  made. 

14.  When  a  ball  lies  in  or  touches 
a  hazard,  the  club  shall  not  touch 
the   ground,  nor  shall   anything  be 
touched  or  moved  before  the  player 
strikes  at  the  ball. 

The  club  shall  not  be  soled,  nor 
the  surface  of  the  ground  be  touched 
within  a  radius  of  a  club  length  from 
the  ball. 

When  a  ball  lies  on  turf  in  a  hazard 
or  surrounded  by  a  hazard,  it  shall 
be  considered  as  being  on  the  fair 
green  ;  t.  <?.,  the  club  may  be  soled. 

15.  A  hazard  shall  be  any  bunker 
of    whatever    nature — water,    sand, 
loose  earth,  mole-hills,  paths,  roads 
of  railways,  whins,   bushes,  rushes, 
rabbit   scrapes,   fences,    ditches,   or 
anything  which  is  not  the  ordinary 
green    of    the   course,  except    sand 
blown   onto   the   grass   by  wind  or 
sprinkled  on  the  grass  for  the  pres- 
ervation of  the  links,  or  snow  or  ice 
or  bare  patches  on  the  course. 

16.  A  player,  or  a  player's  caddie, 
shall  not  press  down  nor  remove  any 
irregularities  of  surface  near  the  ball, 
except  at  the  teeing  ground,  under 
the  penalty  of  the  loss  of  the  hole. 

"  Near  the  ball  "  shall  be  consid- 
ered within  a  club  length. 

17.  If    any    vessel,   wheelbarrow, 
tool,  roller,  grass-cutter,  box,  or  other 
similar  obstruction  has  been  placed 
upon    the   course,  such   obstruction 
may  be  removed. 

18.  When  a  ball  is  completely  cov- 


GOLF 


374 


GOLF 


ered  with  fog,  bent,  whins,  etc.,  only 
so  much  shall  be  set  aside  as  that 
the  player  may  have  a  view  of  his 
ball  before  he  plays,  whether  in  a 
line  with  the  hole  or  otherwise. 

19.  When  the  ball  is  to  be  dropped, 
the  player  shall  drop  it.     He   shall 
front  the  hole,  stand  erect  behind  the 
hazard,  keep  the  spot  from  which  the 
ball  was  lifted,  or  in  the  case  of  run- 
ning water,  the  spot  at  which  it  en- 
tered, in  a  line  between  him  and  the 
hole,  and  drop  the  ball  behind  him 
from    his   head,  standing  as  far  be- 
hind the  hazard  as  he  may  please. 

The  player  must  drop  the  ball 
himself,  not  his  caddie  nor  his  part- 
ner. A  dropped  ball  shall  not  be 
considered  in  play  until  at  rest. 

20.  When   the   balls    in    play   lie 
within    six    inches   of    each    other, 
the  ball    nearer   the    hole   shall    be 
lifted  until  the  other  is  played,  and 
shall    then    be  placed    as  nearly  as 
possible  into  its  original  position. 

21.  If  a  ball  lie  or  be  lost  in  water, 
the    player   may   drop  a  ball  under 
the  penalty  of  one  stroke. 

22.  Whatever  happens  by  accident 
to  a  ball  in  motion,  such  as  its  being 
deflected  or  stopped  by  any  agency 
outside  of  the  match,  or  by  the  fore- 
caddie,  is  a  "rub  of  the  green,"  and 
the  ball  shall  be  played  from  where 
it  lies.     Should  a  ball  lodge  in  any- 
thing moving,  such  ball,  or  if  it  can- 
not be  recovered,  another  ball,  shall 
be  dropped  as  nearly  as  possible  at 
the  spot  where  the  object  was  when 
the  ball  lodged  in  it.     But  if  a  ball 
at  rest  be  displaced  by  any  agency 
outside  of  the  match,  the  player  shall 
drop  it,  or  another  ball,  as  nearly  as 
possible  at   the   spot    where  it   lay. 
On  the  putting  green  the  ball  may  be 
replaced  by  hand. 

23.  If  a  player's  ball  strike,  or  be 
accidentally  moved  by  an  opponent 
or  an  opponent's  caddie  or  clubs,  the 
opponent  loses  the  hole. 

If  the  player's  ball  strike  the  other 
competitor  or  his  caddie  or  clubs,  it 
is  a  "  rub  of  the  green,"  and  the  ball 
shall  be  played  from  where  it  lies. 


If  a  player's  ball  at  rest  be  accident- 
ally or  intentionally  moved  by  the 
other  competitor  or  his  caddie,  the 
ball  must  be  replaced. 

24.  If  the  player's  ball  strike  or  be 
stopped    by    himself   or  his  partner 
or  either  of  their  caddies  or  clubs,  or 
if,  while  in  the  act  of  playing,  the 
player  shall  strike  the  ball  twice,  his 
side  loses  the  hole. 

25.  If  the  player,  when  not  making 
a  stroke,  or  his  partner  or  either  of 
their  caddies,  touch  their  side's  ball, 
except  at  the  tee,  so  as  to  move  it,  or 
by  touching    anything    cause   it    to 
move,  the  penalty  is  one  stroke. 

Except  at  the  tee,  if  the  ball  move 
while  the  player  is  addressing  it,  the 
player  loses  one  stroke. 

Except  at  the  tee,  if  the  ball  be 
struck  while  moving,  the  penalty  is 
one  stroke  ;  /.  e.,  one  stroke  for  the 
moving  and  one  stroke  for  the  play. 

Except  at  the  tee,  if  struck  at 
while  moving  and  missed,  one  stroke 
shall  be  counted  for  the  moving  and 
another  for  the  miss. 

26.  A  ball   is  considered  to  have 
been  moved  if  it  leaves  its  original 
position  in  the  least  degree  and  stops 
in  another. 

27.  A  player's  side  loses  a  stroke 
if  he  play  the  opponent's  ball,  unless  : 
(i)    the     opponent    then    play    the 
player's  ball,  whereby  the  penalty  is 
canceled,    and    the    hole    must    be 
played  out  with  the    balls  thus  ex- 
changed ;   or  (2)   the  mistake  occur 
through     wrong    information    given 
by  the  opponent,  in  which  case,  the 
mistake,  if  discovered  before  the  op- 
ponent has  played,  must  be  rectified 
by  placing  a  ball  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible where  the  opponent's  ball  lay. 

28.  If  a  ball  be  lost,  and  be  not 
found  within  five  minutes, the  player's 
side  loses  the  hole. 

Where  both  balls  are  lost  at  the 
same  time,  neither  side  wins  the 
hole,  which  should  be  called  halved, 
irrespective  of  the  number  of  strokes 
that  either  side  may  have  played. 

29.  A  ball  must  be  played  wher- 
ever  it   lies,  or   the  hole   given  up, 


GOLF 


375 


GOING  TO  JERUSALEM 


except  as  otherwise  provided  for  in 
the  Rules. 

30.  The    term    "  putting  green " 
shall  mean  the  ground  within  twenty 
yards  of  the  hole,  excepting  hazards. 

31.  All  loose  impediments  may  be 
removed   from    the    putting    green, 
except  the  opponent's  ball,  when  at 
a  greater  distance  from  the  player's 
than  six  inches. 

32.  In  a  match  of  three  or  more 
sides,  a  ball  in  any  degree  lying  be- 
tween the  player  and  the  hole  must 
be  lifted,  or,  if  on  the  putting  green, 
holed  out. 

33.  When  the  ball  is  on  the  put- 
ting green,  no  mark  shall  be  placed 
nor  line  drawn  as  a  guide. 

The  player  may  have  his  own  or  his 
partner's  caddie  to  stand  at  the  hole, 
but  none  of  the  players,  nor  their  cad- 
dies, may  move  so  as  to  shield  the 
ball  from  or  expose  it  to  the  wind. 

34.  The  player  or  his  caddie  may 
remove  (but  not  press  down)  sand, 
worm  casts,  or  snow  lying  around  the 
hole  or  on  the  line  of  his  put.     This 
shall   be   done  by   brushing   lightly 
with   the 'hand  only  across  the  put 
and  not  along  it.     Dung  may  be  re- 
moved to  a  side  by  an  iron  club,  but 
the  club  must  not  be  laid  down  with 
more  than  its  own  weight. 

35.  Either  side  is  entitled  to  have 
the   flag   stick    removed,    when   ap- 
proaching the  hole.     If   a  ball  rest 
against    the  flag  stick   when  in  the 
hole,  the  player  shall  be  entitled  to 
remove  the  stick,  and  if  the  ball  fall 
in,  it  shall   be   considered  as  holed 
out  in  the  previous  stroke. 

36.  A  player  shall   not  play  until 
the  opponent's  ball  shall  have  ceased 
to   roll,   under   the   penalty    of   one 
stroke.     Should     the    player's    ball 
knock   in    the   opponent's   ball,   the 
latter  shall  be  counted  as  holed  out 

I  in  the  previous  stroke.     If,  in  play- 
|  ing,  the   player's   ball   displace   the 
opponent's  ball,  the  opponent  shall 
have  the  option  of  replacing  it. 

A  player  having  holed  out  his  ball 
in  the  like  or  the  odd,  may  knock 
away  the  opponent's  ball  from  the 


lip  of  the  hole,  and  claim  the  hole, 
if  he  had  holed  in  the  like,  or  a  half 
if  he  had  holed  in  the  odd. 

37.  A    player  shall    not   ask    for 
advice,    nor   be   knowingly    advised 
about  the  game  by   word,  look,  or 
gesture  from  anyone  except  his  own 
caddie  or   his    partner   or  partner's 
caddie,  under  the  penalty  of  the  loss 
of  the  hole. 

38.  If  a   ball   split  into   separate 
pieces,  another  ball  may  be  put  down 
where  the  largest  portion  lies  ;  or  if 
two  pieces  are  apparently  of  equal 
size,  it  may  be  put  where  either  piece 
lies,  at  the  option  of  the  player.     If 
a  ball  crack,  or  become  unplayable, 
the  player  may  change  it  on  intimat- 
ing his  intention  to  his  opponent. 

39.  A    penalty   stroke   (a    stroke 
added  to  the  score  of  a  side  for  in- 
fringing rules)  shall  not  be  counted 
the  stroke  of  a  player,  and  shall  not 
affect  the  rotation  of  the  play. 

History.  Golf  is  a  Scotch  game, 
and  is  derived  from  the  same  sources 
as  SHINNY  and  POLO.  It  is  a  great 
favorite  in  Scotland,  and  has  been 
called  the  national  game  of  that 
country.  It  became  popular  in  Eng- 
land and  her  colonies  long  ago,  but  it 
was  almost  unknown  in  this  country, 
except  among  natives  of  Scotland, 
till  about  1890,  after  which  it  gained 
rapidly  in  favor,  and  about  1895  be- 
came a  very  fashionable  sport.  The 
United  States  Golf  Association  now 
includes  nearly  one  hundred  clubs. 

As  early  as  1457  Golf  was  for- 
bidden by  law,  lest  it  should  inter- 
fere with  Archery,  but  in  1744  the 
city  of  Edinburgh  voted  a  silver 
club  to  be  played  for  every  year. 
Charles  I.  of  England  was  fond  of 
the  game,  and  James  II.  was  expert 
at  it.  The  word  Golf  is  derived  from 
the  Dutch  Kolf,  a  club.  It  is  \>\o- 
nounced^v^and  sometimes  spelled 
that  way. 

GOING  TO  JERUSALEM,  a  game 
in  which  the  players  sit  at  first  in 
two  rows  of  chairs  placed  closely 
back  to  back  in  the  middle  of  a 
room.  A  march  is  played  on  the 


GOOD  FAT   HEN 


376 


GRACE   HOOPS 


pianoforte,  or  some  one  not  in  the 
game  may  sing  or  whistle.  As  soon 
as  the  music  begins,  all  rise  and 
march  in  line  around  the  chairs. 
While  they  are  marching,  some  one 
who  is  not  playing  takes  away  one 
chair  from  the  end  of  the  line.  The 
music  stops  suddenly,  and  all  who 
can  do  so,  sit  down.  Of  course  one 
player  is  left  standing,  as  one  chair 
has  been  taken  away ;  and  that 
player  is  out  of  the  game.  The 
music  begins  again,  and  the  game 
goes  on,  a  new  chair  being  taken 
away  each  time  until  only  one  play- 
er is  left.  He  is  said  to  "  get  to  Je- 
rusalem." 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  No  one  must    touch  a  chair 
while  marching,  on  penalty  of  being 
put  out  of  the  game. 

2.  If  two  players  sit  on  the  same 
chair  at  once,  the  umpire  shall  de- 
cide which  has  the  right  to  it,  and 
in  case  of  doubt  may  order  the  play- 
ers to  march  again. 

3.  The  person  who  removes  the 
chair  shall  act  as  umpire. 

History.  This  game  is  known  also 
as  "  Musical  Fright." 

In  England  it  is  sometimes  called 
"  The  Watchman,"  but  instead  of 
marching  to  music,  and  seating 
themselves  when  it  stops,  the  play- 
ers choose  a  captain  or"  fugleman," 
and  follow  him  about  the  room,  re- 
peating the  lines, 

"  The  Watchman  comes,  beware,  beware  ! 
He'll  spy  us,  if  we  don't  take  care." 

The  other  players  imitate  the 
leader's  movements  and  when  he 
seats  himself  they  all  do  likewise. 
Sometimes  when  only  three  players 
are  left,  the  game  is  ended  by  hold- 
ing a  mock  trial  in  which  they  are 
the  accused. 

GOOD  FAT  HEN,  A.  See  RE- 
PEATING GAMES. 

GRABOUGE,  a  game  of  CARDS 
played  by  four  persons,  two  against 
two,  with  12  full  packs.  The  dealer 
deals  to  each  player  21  cards,  one  at 
a  time,  which  are  piled  face  upward 


at  each  player's  right,  to  form  what 
are  called  "Desperation  Piles." 
The  rest  of  the  cards  are  divided 
equally  among  the  players,  and  are 
placed  in  piles,  face  downward. 
The  one  who  has  the  lowest 
card  on  the  top  of  his  Desperation 
Pile  begins  to  play,  and  the  others 
follow  in  regular  order  to  the  left. 
Each,  in  playing,  turns  up  five  cards, 
one  by  one,  from  those  that  are 
back  upward,  and  lays  them  in  four 
piles  before  him,  face  upward.  As 
fast  as  the  Aces  appear  they  are 
laid  in  the  centre  of  the  table,  and 
on  them  the  Twos,  Threes,  and  so 
on,  are  placed  in  order,  without 
regard  to  suit.  He  who  puts  on  the 
King  takes  the  trick.  Besides  the 
five  cards  turned  up  by  each,  the 
top  card  of  his  Desperation  Pile,  or 
any  exposed  card  of  his  four  piles, 
may  be  used  by  any  player,  to  put 
on  the  packs  in  the  centre  of  the 
table,  and  his  partner  also  may  as- 
sist, where  it  can  be  done  without 
turning  up  a  card.  Each  trick 
counts  one  to  the  side  taking  it.  If 
any  Desperation  Pile  remain  after 
all  the  others  have  been  used,  every 
card  in  it  counts  one  to  the  oppo- 
site side. 

GRACE  HOOPS,  or  GRACES,  a 
game  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons (each  of  whom  has  two  sticks 
about  four  feet  long)  with  wooden 
rings  or  hoops  from  12  to  18  inches 
in  diameter.  A  player,  holding  a 
stick  firmly  in  each  hand,  places 
the  hoop  over  them,  crosses  them, 
and  then  draws  them  quickly  apart, 
thus  sending  the  hoop  into  the  air 
towards  another  player,  who  catches 
it  on  his  sticks;  and  the  sport  thus 
goes  on,  each  player  receiving  the 
hoop  in  turn.  More  than  one  hoop 
can  be  kept  in  the  air  if  the  players 
are  expert.  It  may  be  agreed  that 
when  a  miss  is  made  it  shall  be 
scored  against  the  person  missing, 
and  that  at  the  end  of  a  certain 
time  the  one  having  the  fewest 
misses  shall  be  winner  of  the  game. 
Or,  each  player  may  have  a  hoop, 


GRAND   MUFTI 


377 


GUESSING  THE  SIGN 


tossing  it  up  and  catching  it  again 
on  his  own  sticks,  in  which  case  he 


Grace  Hoops  and  Sticks. 

who  can  do  so  the  longest  time, 
without  a  miss,  wins. 

The  Grace  Hoops  sold  at  toy 
stores  are  usually  covered  with  vel- 
vet or  colored  cloth.  The  Germans 
call  this  game  Reifeniverfen  (Ring- 
throwing)  and  each  player  has  but 
one  stick.  In  France  it  is  called 
Les  Graces  (The  Graces),  as  with  us, 
because  when  skilfully  played  it  is 
a  graceful  sport. 

GRAND  MUFTI,  THE,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
all  of  whom  form  a  ring,  excepting 
the  Grand  Mufti,  who  stands  in  the 
middle.  The  Grand  Mufti  strikes 
an  attitude  or  makes  a  ridiculous 
gesture,  saying  at  the  same  time 
either,"  Thus  says  the  Grand  Mufti," 
or  "  So  says  the  Grand  Mufti."  If 
the  former,  each  of  the  other  players 
must  imitate  him ;  if  the  latter,  no 
one  must  move.  Any  one  that  im- 
itates the  Grand  Mufti  when  he 
should  not,  or  fails  to  do  so  when 
he  should,  must  change  places  with 
him.  If  two  or  more  thus  break 
the  rules  the  Grand  Mufti  selects 
one  of  them  to  take  his  place. 

GROMMETS,  or  RING  TOSS,  a 
game  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons, who  try  to  throw  rings  over 
an  upright  peg.  The  rings,  ten  in 
number,  may  be  made  of  wood  or 
of  tarred  rope  covered  with  cloth, 
and  are  usually  about  five  inches  in 
diameter.  The  peg,  which  is  about 
12  inches  long,  may  be  driven  into 
the  ground,  or  fastened  to  a  base- 


board. The  players  take  turns, 
standing  at  whatever  distance  from 
the  peg  may  be  agreed 
on  beforehand  (usually 
about  15  feet),  and 
each  throws  all  the 
rings,  one  by  one,  be- 
fore the  next  one's 
turn.  He  who  throws 
the  greatest  number 
of  rings  over  the  peg 
wins  the  game.  The 
players  may  throw  each 
for  himself  or  may 
be  divided  into  sides, 
and  each  may  have  two  or  more 
turns  as  agreed  upon  beforehand. 
Grommet  is  a  word  used  by  sailors 
to  mean  a  ring  of  rope,  and  the 
game  was  first  played  on  shipboard. 
When  more  than  one  stake  is  used, 
as  is  sometimes  the  case,  they  are 
given  different  values,  and  some- 
times they  are  fixed  on  a  board 
which  can  be  placed  on  the  floor  or 
raised  at  an  angle.  Several  differ- 
ent forms  of  the  game  are  to  be, 
bought  at  toy  stores,  some  of  which 
are  called  Pitchette. 

GUESSING  THE  SIGN,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
two  of  whom  are  chosen  to  act  as 
questioner  and  guesser.  These  two 
retire  from  the  room  and  agree  on 
a  secret  sign.  The  players  select 
any  object  in  the  room  and  after 
telling  the  questioner  what  it  is,  call 
in  the  guesser.  The  questioner 
then  names  any  number  of  objects, 
one  at  a  time,  and  by  giving  the 
secret  sign  at  the  proper  moment, 
enables  the  guesser  to  tell  the  one 
chosen.  The  company  must  guess 
what  the  sign  is,  and  when  that  has 
been  done,  the  player  who  guesses 
it  takes  the  place  of  the  one  from 
whom  he  guessed  it.  The  game 
must  be  repeated  as  often  as  the 
company  desires,  using  the  same 
sign,  either  till  it  is  guessed  or  till 
the  company  gives  up  trying  to  do 
so,  when  the  two  that  know  it  may 
tell  it  or  not,  as  they  please. 

The  simolest  si^ns  are  motions  of 


GUESSING   THE   SIGN 


378 


GUESSING  THE  SIGN 


the  hands  or  body,  or  changes  in 
the  tone  of  voice,  made  by  the 
questioner  as  he  names  the  object 
chosen  ;  but  these  are  usually 
guessed  in  a  few  trials.  An  ingen- 
ious questioner  and  guesser  will 
often  invent  a  sign  that  can  be 
guessed  only  after  playing  the  game 
several  evenings.  Several  signs  are 
given  below  as  examples  : 

1.  "The  Black  Art."     The  ques- 
tioner always  mentions  some  black 
object  just  before  that   which  the 
company  has  chosen.  Although  this 
sign  is  so  simple,  it  is  very  puzzling 
to  one  who  has  never  heard  of  it, 
nor  any  like  it.     It  can  be  varied  in 
many  ways  ;  for  instance,  the  object 
chosen  may  be  the  first,  second,  or 
third  after  something  white,  some- 
thing made  of  glass,  or  something 
worn  by  a  particular  person. 

2.  The  object  chosen  and  several 
others,  usually  not  more  than  five 
or  six  in  all,  are  placed  in  a  row, 
and    the    questioner    and     guesser 
agree  that  they  shall  be  thought  of 
as    numbered,  either  from  right  to 
left  or  left  to  right.     The  questions 
are  also  numbered  in  order,  and  are 
so  asked  that  the  object  chosen  is 
mentioned  in  the  question  that  has 
the   same   number.    Thus,  suppose 
five  objects  are  arranged  in  the  fol- 
lowing order: 

a  hat,  a  book,  a  glove,  a  handkerchief,  a  pen, 

1234  5 

and  that  they  are  numbered  as  above 
in  the  minds  of  the  questioner  and 
guesser.  The  handkerchief  is  shown 
by  the  company.  The  questioner 
asks : 

(i)  "Is  it  the  glove?"  "No."  (2) 
"The  hat?"  "No."  (3)  "  The  pen  ?" 
"No."  (4)  "The  handkerchief?" 
"Yes."  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
guesser  says  "  no "  whenever  the 
numbers  of  the  question  and  object 
are  different,  and  "  yes  "  as  soon  as 
they  coincide.  The  questioner 
must  be  careful,  of  course,  not  to 
make  the  numbers  agree  before  he 
reaches  the  chosen  object.  It  is  still 


more  puzzling  if  the  questioner 
simply  points  to  the  objects,  with- 
out speaking  a  word.  This  sign  is 
guessed  by  hardly  more  than  one 
out  of  a  hundred  persons. 

3.  The  questioner  may  say,  "  well  " 
or  "then"  before  one  of  li  is  ques- 
tions,   agreeing     that    the    object 
chosen    shall   be   mentioned    in    a 
given    number    of    questions  after 

I  that. 

4.  The  question  may  mention  an 
!  object  made  of  the  same  material  as 
!  the  one  chosen  directly  before  it. 
I  In  this  case  he  must  be  careful  not 
I  to  have  an  object  follow  one  of  the 

same  material  anywhere  else  in  his 
questions. 

5.  "  The  Wizard  of  the  Esist,  or 
The  Magic  Stick."     The  questioner 
tells  the  company  that  the  guesser 
will  remain  outside  the  room  and  yet 
tell  the  name  of  the  person  to  who..i 
he  points  his  stick.     This  is  done 
by  always  pointing  to   the  person 
who    spoke    last    just    before    the 
guesser  left  the  room.     The  ques- 
tioner should  encourage  conversa- 
tion.    When  the  "  Wizard"  is  shown 
as  a  parlor  trick,  as  it   frequently 
is,  the  questioner  may  pretend   to 
perform    magic    incantations,    and 
point  in  turn  to  several  players,  say- 
ing as  he  does  so:    "The  Wand 
passes !"      When    he  points  to  the 
one    that    spoke    last     before    the 
guesser  went   out,   he   says,  "  The 
Wand    rests!"    and     the    gucccer, 
who    must   be    within    hearing,  in- 
stantly names  the  player  indicated. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  The  sign  must  remain  exactly 
the  same  till  it  has  been  guessed  by 
the  company.    The  slightest  change, 
as  altering  the  direction  of  number- 
ing in   example  2,  is  forbidden  by 
this  rule. 

2.  Any  of  the  company  may  ask 
the  questioner  to  put  his  questions 
under  certain  conditions,  for  instance 
with  his  eyes  shut,  or  his  hands  be- 
hind   his  back.     He  must  comply, 
but  if  he  knows  that  the  condition 


GUITAR 


379 


GYMNASTICS 


would  prevent  giving  the  sign,  he 
may  simply  say  so  without  taking 
up  time  in  the  trial. 

3.  Any  player  who  thinks  he  has 
guessed  the  sign,  may  take  the 
place  of  the  guesser  to  test  his 
knowledge,  for  one  or  more  trials, 
as  the  questioner  may  agree. 

GUITAR,  Experiments  with.  See 
VIOLIN. 

GYMNASTICS  properly  include 
those  exercises  that  are  taken  in- 
doors for  the  purpose  of  developing 
the  body.  Outdoor  exercises,  such 
as  walking,  running,  rowing,  etc.,  are 
now  called  ATHLETICS,  and  the 
prominent  idea  in  them  is  sport  or 
recreation. 

Gymnastic  exercises  are  usually 
practised  in  specially  arranged  build- 
ings called  gymnasiums,  because 
the  association  of  many  people  to- 
gether for  exercise  enables  them  to 
have  more  complete  apparatus  and 
the  instruction  of  experts  that  could 
not  otherwise  be  obtained.  Gym- 
nastic exercises  have  been  classified 
as  Light  and  Heavy,  without  regard 
to  the  amount  of  exertion  required. 
Those  exercises  are  called  Light 
where  no  apparatus  is  used  (free 
gymnastics),  and  where  the  exercise 
is  obtained  by  moving  the  apparatus 
(calisthenics)  as  dumb-bells,  wands, 
etc. 

Heavy  gymnastics  are  those  exer- 
cises where  the  body  is  the  resist- 
ance moved,  the  apparatus  being 
fixed,  as  exercises  on  the  horizontal 
and  parallel  bars,  rowing,  etc. 

The  exercises  described  in  this 
article  come  chiefly  under  the  head 
of  light  gymnastics.  The  more  vio- 
lent exercises  are  appropriate  only 
for  those  who  wish  well  developed 
muscles. 

The  regular  practice  of  some  of 
the  gentler  forms  of  gymnastics 
should  be  begun  early  in  life,  and 
more  difficult  movements  taught  as 
the  child  acquires  strength. 

The  outdoor  sports  and  games  of 
children  furnish  enough  exercise  in 
Heavy  gymnastics  until  the  age  of 


twelve  or  fourteen  years  ;  but  after 
that  age,  and  especially  in  the  win- 
ter, when  the  weather  forbids  out- 
door sports,  such  as  skating,  some 
form  of  exercise  that  shall  teach  how 
to  control  and  handle  the  body  may 
well  be  undertaken. 

Some  exercises  develop  particular 
muscles  or  groups  of  muscles,  while 
others  develop  nearly  every  muscle. 
Some  exercises  make  the  joints 
supple,  while  others  tend  to  make 
them  stiff.  Some  exercises  make 
the  muscle  act  slowly  and  power- 
fully, while  others  give  swiftness 
and  deftness  without  great  strength. 

Aside  from  the  development  of 
the  muscles,  gymnastic  exercises 
are  important  to  health,  because 
they  help  the  system  to  throw  off 
waste  material ;  and  by  improving 
the  circulation  they  bring  new  ma- 
terial to  all  parts,  so  that  growth  is 
promoted,  and  each  organ  is  better 
supplied  with  what  it  needs. 

It  is  evident  that  the  mind  will 
get  more  recreation  or  rest  from  ex- 
ercise if  it  is  pleased  or  amused. 

Therefore  the  gymnast  must  be 
interested  in  his  work,  and  not 
merely  exercise  from  a  sense  of 
duty.  This  is  the  reason  why  games 
like  Base-ball  or  Tennis  often  do 
more  good  than  a  regular  system  of 
exercise.  Gymnastics  are  made 
amusing  in  various  ways.  The  feats 
on  the  horizontal  bar  and  similar 
ones  are  entertaining  in  themselves, 
because  they  give  an  exhibition  of 
both  strength  and  skill  that  is  re- 
assuring to  the  performer,  and  make 
him  feel  that  he  can  do  something 
that  not  many  others  can  do,  and  we 
all  like  to  excel  in  something.  The 
more  monotonous  movements,  like 
those  with  dumb-bells,etc.,  are  often 
made  interesting  by  being  performed 
by  a  large  number  of  persons  at 
once  accompanied  by  music.  When 
performed  by  one  person  alone,  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  whistle  or  sing  or 
count,  making  the  motions  in  time. 
Where  a  motion  is  to  be  repeated 
over  from  ten  to  twenty  times. 


GYMNASTICS 


380 


GYMNASTICS 


counting  grows  very  tiresome  ;  but 
if  the  performer  takes  notice  of  the 
part  of  the  tune  where  he  must 
change  from  one  motion  to  an- 
other, he  need  not  count  at  all,  so 
long  as  he  keeps  time. 

Gymnastic  exercises,  to  be  of 
benefit,  should  be  performed  regu- 
larly, the  simpler  kinds  daily. 

A  short  rest  should  be  taken  after 
each  group  or  series  of  movements, 
especially  if  the  heart  has  been 
made  to  beat  rapidly.  Some  slow 
exercises  can  be  taken  at  the  end  of 
a  series  that  will  tend  to  make  the 
heart  beat  more  slowly  before  actual 
rest  begins,  as  it  is  not  a  good  plan 
to  begin  or  stop  violent  exercise 
suddenly.  The  exercise  should  only 
be  continued  until  the  gymnast  is 
slightly  fatigued  and  never  until  he 
is  tired.  One  set  of  muscles  may 
be  weaker  than  others  and  hence 
tire  sooner;  but  this  should  never 
be  an  excuse  for  not  giving  the 
weak  parts  the  most  attention  and 
exercise.  The  work  should  simply 
be  made  lighter. 

The  best  time  for  exercise  de- 
pends on  the  occupation  of  the  per- 
son. For  children  at  school  the 
best  time  is  at  an  intermission,  in 
order  to  give  mental  rest  by  the 
change.  For  those  persons  who 
can  control  their  time  as  they  wish, 
the  morning  hours  from  ten  to 
twelve,  if  the  midday  meal  is  eaten 
at  i  o'clock,  are  best ;  but  for  those 
who  are  obliged  to  keep  still  all  day, 
the  evening  from  eight  to  ten  o'clock 
is  preferable  to  any  hour  before 
seven  in  the  morning.  Gymnastic 
work  should  not  be  done  just  before 
or  after  meals,  because  then  the 
blood  is  needed  at  the  stomach,  and 
the  tendency  of  the  system  is  to 
send  it  to  the  surface  more  freely 
during  and  after  exercise.  Sleep 
may  be  delayed  by  too  vigorous  ex- 
ercise immediately  before  retiring, 
so  a  short  period  of  rest  and  amuse- 
ment should  follow,  so  that  the  ex- 
citement of  the  heart  will  subside, 
and  the  gymnast  will  sleep  soundly. 


Costume.  The  best  dress  for  a 
gymnast  is  a  pair  of  easy-fitting 
white  flannel  trousers,  a  gauze  un- 
dershirt from  which  the  sleeves  have 
been  cut,  and  a  pair  of  canvas  shoes 
without  heels.  He  should  also  have 
a  knit  "sweater,"  or  a  blanket-coat, 
reaching  well  down  to  the  heels  to 
put  on  while  resting,  or  after  ex- 
ercise while  waiting  for  a  rub-down. 

A  belt  should  not  be  worn,  as  it 
prevents  free  action  of  the  abdomi- 
nal muscles  and  hinders  digestion. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  corsets. 
The  dress  of  girls  should  be  loose 
enough  to  avoid  any  restraint  of  ac- 
tion. The  divided  skirt  is  preferable 
for  heavy  gymnastics. 

Free  Exercises  are  movements 
without  any  apparatus.  They  are 
of  many  kinds,  but  only  a  few  are 
described  here.  In  addition  to  those 
given  below,  the  ones  given  farther 
on  as  dumb-bell  exercises  may  be 
made  free  by  performing  them 
without  the  dumb-bells. 

1.  Turn    the    head   slowly   alter- 
nately to  the  right  and  left,  looking 
over  each  shoulder. 

2.  Bend    the    head    forward   and 
backward    steadily,  and  then  from 
side  to  side. 

3.  Rotate  the    head,   bending   it 
forward,   to  the  left,  back,   and   to 
the  right. 

4.  The  reverse  of  No.  3.     (These 
four  exercises  strengthen  the  mus- 
cles of  the  throat  and  neck.) 

5.  With  the  hands  on  the  hips,  or 
outstretched,   and   without  moving 
the  feet,  twist  the  body   as   far  as 
possible  to  the  right  and   left,   al- 
ternately.    The   head    must    move 
with  the  body,  but  not  independent- 
ly of  it. 

6.  With  the   hands  on   the  hips, 
bend   the  body  forward   and  back, 
and  from  side  to  side,  and  then  ro- 
tate it  as  the  head  was  rotated  in 
exercise  3. 

7.  Raise  and  lower  the  shoulders. 

8.  Bend    the   elbows    and   move 
them,  together  with  the  shoulders, 
forward    and  backward. 


GYMNASTICS 


GYMNASTICS 


9.  Raise   the   body   up  as  far  as 
possible  by  standing  on  tiptoe. 

10.  Raise  the  toes   high   as   pos- 
sible, standing  on  the  heels. 

11.  Raise  the  thigh  up  against  the 
abdomen  on  alternate  sides  by  bend- 
ing the  leg. 

12.  Raise  the    heel    up    to  the 
buttock  on  alternate  sides. 

13.  Stretch    the    arms    in    front, 
palms  together,  and  throw  them  as 
far  back   as  possible,  on   the  same 
level,  keeping  the  body  erect. 

14.  Clenching    the    fists,   as   the 
arms  are  held  at  the  sides,  lift  them 
suddenly    till     they    are    extended 
straight  forward.     Return  them  in 
like  manner. 

15.  Raising  the  fists  to  the  shoul- 
ders,    extend    the     arms     quickly 
straight   upwards.      Return   in  the 
same  manner. 

16.  Extend  the  arms  on  each  side, 
palms  up,  and  bend  the  elbows  till 
the  tips  of  the    fingers   touch  the 
shoulders. 

17.  Standing,    with    legs    a    little 
apart,    and  arms  hanging  in   front, 
describe  circles  with  the  fists,  using 
each  arm  in  turn,  and  keeping  them 
perfectly   straight.     First    describe 
each  circle  to  the  right,  then  both  to 
the  left,  then  one  to  the  right  and 
the  other  to  the  left. 

1 8.  With  the  hands  on  the  hips, 
raise  each  leg  in  turn,  so  that  it  is 
at    right    angles     with    the    body. 
Keep  both  legs  straight. 

19.  In  addition  to  the  preceding, 
swing  the  leg  backward   as   far  as 
possible,  keeping  the  body  upright. 

20.  With  the  knee  raised,  throw 
the    leg   straight  out  in  front,  and 
then  bring  it  to  the  ground. 

21.  Sit     down     slowly     till     the 
thighs  touch  the  calves. 

22.  Lie  on  the  back  and  raise  the 
legs  up  to  a  perpendicular  position. 

Each  exercise  should  be  repeated 
a  stated  number  of  times,  beginning 
perhaps  with  10  and  increasing 
to  25,  and  as  rapidly  as  the  gymnast 
is  able.  Such  exercise  may  be  made 
entertaining  if  it  is  performed  by 


several  at  once,  keeping  perfect  time 
in  their  movements,  with  or  with- 
out music. 

Other  free  exer- 
cises  are  named 
from  actions  which 
they  imitate,  such 
as  hewing,  mowing, 
hashing,  and  chop- 
ping (see  illustra- 
tions). The  free 
exercises  described 
are  suitable  for 
both  boys  and  girls, 
and  most  of  the  ex- 
ercises which  fol- 
low under  the 
heads  of  dumb- 
bells, wands,  and 
Indian  clubs  are 
also  appropriate 
Hewing.  for  girls,  except 


Mowing. 

that    the    apparatus    used    should 
be  lighter. 

Wand  Exercises.  These  require  a 
straight  smooth  stick  four  feet  long 
and  three  fourths  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  An  ordinary  broom- 
handle  or  cane  can  be  used. 

1.  The  wand  is  held  in  both  hands, 
palms    downward.     The   arms   are 
first   extended  straight    down,  and 
then  raised  above  the  head  without 
bending  the  elbows.     The  body  is 
held  erect    throughout   the   move- 
ment. 

2.  The  arms  being  held  down  as 
before,  the  wand   is   raised  to  the 


GYMNASTICS 


382 


GYMNASTICS 


chest  by  bending  the  elbows  out- 
ward. 

3.  The  arms  are  extended  straight 
forward,  and  returned  to  the  chest. 

4.  From  the  chest   the  arms  are 
extended     straight    up    and    then 
brought  down  so  that  the  wand  rests 
on  the  shoulders  behind  the  head. 

5.  The  wand  is  held  at  the  ends 
as  in  exercise  No.  I,  and  then  car- 
ried to  the  same  position  behind  the 
back. 

6.  With  the  wand  held  straight 
above   the   head, the  body  is   bent 
backward  and  then  forward,  keeping 
the  knees  unbent,  and  bringing  the 
cane  as  near  the  floor  as  possible. 

7.  With  the  wand  above  the  head 
as  before,  the  body  is  bent  as  far  as 
possible  to  the  right  and  left. 

8.  With  the  wand  above  the  head, 
the  right  arm  is  advanced  and  the 
left  moved  back,  and  vice  -versa. 

9.  With    the  arms  extended  for- 
ward, the  body  is  turned  to  and  fro 
from  right  to  left,  without  moving 
the  feet. 

10.  The  wand    is   rested   on   the 
floor,  both  hands  grasping  the  top, 
and  the  heels  are   raised  from  the 
ground  so  as  to  stand  on  tiptoe. 

11.  From  the  same  position,  keep- 
ing the  heels  above  the  floor,  the 
gymnast  sits  so  that  his  thighs  rest 
on  his  calves,  and  then  rises  again. 

12.  The    wand    extended    down- 
ward  is  touched  to  the  floor  by 
stooping,  and  then  raised  above  the 
head. 

The  exercises  just  given  call  into 
play  nearly  all  the  muscles  in  the 
body.  When  they  have  been  learned 
in  proper  order,  each  should  be  ex- 
ecuted four  times,  as  rapidly  as 
possible.  The  number  of  times 
should  be  gradually  increased  to 
twenty-five. 

Dumb-bell  Exercises.  A  dumb-bell 
consists  of  two  pieces  of  wood  or 
metal  nearly  -ound  like  a  ball  con- 
nected bv  a  bar  long  enough  to  form 
a  good  handle.  The  weight  may 
vary  from  a  few  ounces  up  to  a  hun- 
dred pounds,  but  heavy  durnb-bells 


Dumb-bells. 
Fig.  i. 


are  only  used  for  trials  of  strength 
and  not  for  developing  muscle. 
The  ordinary  weight  is  from  one  to 
six  pounds. 

The  position  for  work  with'dumb- 
bells  (see  Fig.  i)  is 
standing  erect,  with 
heels  together  and  feet 
at  an  angle  of  about 
60°,  arms  at  the  sides 
and  a  dumb-bell 
grasped  firmly  in  each 
hand.  Each  move- 
ment is  usually  per- 
formed eight  times. 
There  are  many  move- 
ments, of  which  only  a 
few  are  given  here. 

i.  Move  the  bells 
out  far  enough  to  clear 
the  thigh  and  twist  the 
arms  vigorously  by 
turning  the  forward 
end  of  the  bell  out- 
ward, then  inward  as  far  as  possible. 

2.  Stand  as  before,  and  bend  the 
arm  from  the  elbow  till  the  forearms 
are  extended  straight  forward.  Then 
twist  the  bells  as  before. 

3.  Keeping     the     arms    straight, 
raise  them   forward  from  the  sides 
till    they   are  on   a  level   with  the 
shoulders,  and  then  twist  as  before. 

4.  Draw  the  elbows  to  the  sides, 
and   double  the  arms  so  as  to  bring 
the  bells  to  the  shoulders. 

5.  Bring  up  the  bells  as  in  the  last 
exercise,  and  then   carry  them   up 
until  the  arms   are  extended  verti- 
cally.    Then  twist  as  in  the  first  ex- 
ercise. 

6.  Bring  the  bells  to  the  shoulder, 
extend  the  arms  to  the  right   and 
left,  and  twist  as  before. 

7.  Bring  the  bells  up   under  the 
armpits  as  far  as  possible. 

8.  Bring  the  bells  to  the  armpit, 
and  then  thrust  them  out  to  sides. 

9.  Bring  the  bells  to  the  armpit, 
and  then  thrust  the   arms  straight 
up. 

10.  Repeat   No.  8,   bringing  the 
bells  down  to  the  chest  and  then  to 
the  first  position. 


GYMNASTICS 


383 


GYMNASTICS 


11.  Repeat    No.  9,    carrying  the 
bells   down  to  the  shoulders,  then 
straight  out  to  each  side,  back  to 
the  chest,  and  down. 

12.  Repeat  No.  9.  and  then  bring 
them  down  together  as  near  as  possi- 
ble to  the  toes,  with  a  sweep,  bend- 
ing   the    body   and    keeping    legs 
straight  at  knee. 

13.  Repeat   No.    12,    stoop,    and 
recover  to  first  position.     Then  take 
a  long  step  forward  with  the  right 
foot,  keeping   the  left  leg  straight 
and  the  left  arm  parallel  with  it,  but 
extending   the  right   arm    so  as  to 
form  nearly  a  straight  line  with  the 
left.     Then  bend  the  extended  arm, 
bringing   the  bell  to  the  shoulder, 
and  repeat.     Practise  the  extension 
about  ten  times,  stretching  the  arm 
well   out    and   holding    the    trunk 
straight.     The  exercise  is  then  re- 
peated with  left    leg   and  arm  ad- 
vanced, and  then  both  arms  are  ad- 


Dumb-bells. — Fig.  2. 

vanced   (Fig.  2),  first  with  the  right 
leg  and  then  with  the  left. 

14.  Keeping   the   arms    straight, 
bring   them    up   to   the    horizontal 
position  at   the  sides ;    then  swing 
them    around    in    front    until  they 
touch,  then  let  them  fall  to  sides. 
Then  reverse  the  movement. 

15.  Swing   the  bells  up    in    front 
until  the  arms  are  horizontal,  then 
sweep  them  apart  and  back  as  far  as 
possible,  then  raise   them  up  untill 


the  bells  strike  overhead,  then  bring 
them  to  the  chest,  etc.,  bring  the 
bells  to  the  chest.  This  and  the 
preceding  exercise  should  be  re- 
peated, first  taking  a  step  forward 
with  the  right  foot  and  then  one 
with  the  left  foot. 

1 6.  Bring  the  bells  to  the  armpits, 
then  carry  them  straight   up,   and 
twist  the  body  to   the  left  as  far  as 
possible  without   moving  the   legs. 
In  this  position   bring   the  bells  to 
the  chest,  and  lift  and  lower  them 
ten  times  or  more.     Repeat,  twisted 
to  the  left. 

17.  Raise  the  bells  overhead  and 
then  sink  till  the  calves  touch  the 
thighs  (Fig.  3).     In  this  position,  go 

through  as  many 
of  the  simple  exer- 
cises as  desired, 
rising  and  falling 
again  after  each 
exercise. 

1 8.  Sit  as  before, 
but  as  the  body 
sinks,  the  bells 
must  be  brought 
to  the  chest.  Then 
extend  the  arms 
horizontally  to  the 
sides,  and  sweep 
them  around  to 
the  front  till  the 
bells  strike.  Re- 
cover to  the  chest. 
Apparatus  for 
Heavy  Cymnastics. 
Some  of  the  more 
common  and  use- 
ful pieces  of  ap- 
paratus found  in  every  gymnasium, 
with  the  exercises  easily  performed 
on  each  are  as  follows  : 

i.  The  Horizontal  Bar  is  a  bar  of 
hickory,  or  other  hard  and  tough 
wood,  about  six  feet  long  and  one 
and  three-quarter  inches  in  diam- 
eter. 

It  is  usually  strengthened  by  a 
steel  cord  and  can  be  adjusted  to 
any  height  by  sliding  up  or  down  in 
grooves  in  the  upright  posts  to 
which  it  is  lastened  at  each  end. 


GYMNASTICS 


384 


GYMNASTICS 


Horizontal  bars  of  this  form  are 
used  for  vaulting  or  jumping  by 
grasping  the  bar  firmly  with  the 
hands  and  using  the  arms  to  assist 
in  carry  ing  the  body  up  and  over  the 
bar.  The  modern  method  of  sus- 
pending the  bar  is  by  iron  posts  rest- 
ing on  the  floor  and  held  firm  by 
guys  of  copper  wire,  or  by  hang- 
ing all  from  the  ceiling.  The  ad- 
vantage of  this  form  of  support  is 
that  the  bar  can  be  easily  removed 
and  leave  the  floor  free,  and  the  bar 
is  held  much  firmer  when  in  place. 

The  bar  should  be  kept  clean  by 
wiping  frequently  with  a  dry  cloth, 
especially  when  the  handsare  sweat- 
ing freely.  Powdered  rosin  should 
never  be  used  on  the  bar,  as  it  makes 
the  bar  sticky,  and  blisters  or  pulls 
the  skin  from  the  palms  in  the  diffi- 
cult movements. 

The  first  exercise  on  this  bar  may 
be  to  jump  up  to  it,  catching  it  with 
the  hands  so  as  to  hang  at  full  length. 
The  bar  should  be  placed  at  such  a 
height  that  the  feet  will  clear  the 
ground.  Some 
gymnasts  hold  the 
bar  with  the 
thumb  on  the  op- 
posite side  from 
the  fingers,  and 
some  with  it  on 
the  same  side. 
While  hanging  at 
full  length,  draw 
the  body  steadily 
up  till  the  chin  is 
above  the  bar 
(Fig.  i),  and  then 
lower  it  slowly  un- 
til  it  hangs  again 
F'S-1-  at  full  length. 

This  feat  should  be  practised  till 
it  can  be  done  several  times  in 
succession.  The  learner  should 
now  practise  hanging  by  each  hand 
alternately,  then  "walking"  along 
the  bar,  hand  over  hand,  and  then 
swinging  the  body  backward  and 
forward  till  he  can  bring  it  up  al- 
most into  a  horizontal  position. 
To  get  on  the  bar  (Fig.  2),  the 


body  is  raised  till  the  chin  is  above 
the  bar,  and  then  the  right  side  is 
allowed  to  fall  while  the  left  leg 


Horizontal  Bar. 


Horizontal  Bar. — Fig.  2. 
is  raised,  bending  the  knee,  and 
thrown  over  the  bar.  The  right 
leg  is  then  swung  back  and  forth 
till  sufficient  impetus  is  gained  to 
aid  the  gymnast 
in  bringing  him- 
self uprightabove 
the  bar  which 
passes  between 
his  legs  (Fig.  3). 
In  this  position 
he  should  prac- 
tise swinging, 
fi  rst  backward 
and  t  h  e  n  f  or- 
ward  around  the 
bar,  ending  each 
time  in  the  up- 
Horizontal  Bar.  right  position. 
Fig-  3-  In  the  backward 

swing  (Fig.  4),  which  is  the  easier, 
the  hands  should  be  in  front,  and 


Horizontal  Bar. — Fig.  4. 
in  the  forward  swing  (Fig.   5),  be- 
hind the  bar.    In  each,  the  arms 


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385 


GYMNASTICS 


should  be  kept  straight  and  the 
body  erect,  and 
the  swing  should 
be  begun  with 
sufficient  impe- 
tus to  carry  the 
body  entirely 
around  the  bar. 
In  this  move- 
ment the  left  leg 
is  kept  well  fixed 
and  the  bar  rests 
at  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  thigh. 
The  learner 
may  now  throw 
the  right  leg  also 
over  the  bar,  and 
learn  to  balance 
himself  on  it  in 
various  sitting  positions  without 
holding  by  his  hands.  The  sitting 


Horizontal  Bar. 
Fig:-  5- 


Horizontal  Bar. — -Fig.  6. 

swings,  backward  (Figs.  6-7)  and 
forward  (Figs.  8-9),  should  now 
be  tried.  These 
are  more  difficult 
than  the  swings 
Just  described, 
because  the 
weight  is  thrown 
entirely  on  the 
arms,  except 
when  the  gym- 
nast is  above  the 
bar,  whereas  be- 
fore he  hung  on 
one  leg.  The  sit- 
ting swings  will 
require  much 
practice,  the 


Horizontal  Bar. 
Fig-   7- 


chief  difficulty  being  in  getting  quite 


around  into  the  sitting postureagain. 
If  this  cannot  be  done,  the  gymnast 
should  drop  to  the  ground  and  then 
get  on  the  bar  again.  If,  while  sit- 


Horizontal  Bar. — Fig.  8. 

ting  on  the  bar,  the  learner  throws 
himself  backward  as  if  to  swing,  but 
unclasps  h  i  s 
hands  and 
bends  his 
knees,  he  will 
hang  by  his 
legs,  head 
downward. 
He  may  then 
swing  back- 
ward and  for- 
ward till  he  is 
high  enough 
t  o  straighten 
his  legs  and 
come  to  the 
ground  on  his 
feet. 

Horizontal  Bar.— Fig.  9.  Hanging  or 
Trapese  Bar,  a  bar  similar  to  a 
horizontal  bar,  but  hanging  by  two 
ropes  like  a  swing.  The  same  feats 
may  be  performed  on  it,  but  with 
more  difficulty,  since  it  is  not  fixed. 
Parallel  Bars,  two  bars  supported 
on  posts  side  by  side.  They  should 
be  from  four  and  a  half  to  five  feet 
high,  from  16  to  19  inches  apart,  and 
more  than  two  inches  in  diameter. 
The  bars  are  sometimes  oval  and 
sometimes  round. 


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386 


GYMNASTICS 


The  gymnast  must  first  practise 
supporting  the  weight  of  his  body 


Parallel  Bars. — Fig.  i. 


with  a  hand  on  each  bar,  the  arms 
being  held  straight  down,  and   he 


Parallel  Bars.— Fig.  2. 

should  then  "walk  "  along  the  bars, 
taking  a  step  alternately  with  each 


Parallel  Bars.— Fig.  3. 


hand.     Then  the  body  is  allowed  to 
drop  a  little,  the  bent  elbows  point- 


Parallel  Bars.— Fig.  4. 

ing  backward  on  a   level  with  the 
shoulders  (Fig.   i),  and  he  should 


Parallel  Bars.— Fig.  5. 


advance  by  jumps,  both  hands  strik- 
ing the  bars  at  once.    This  move- 


Parallel  Bars.— Fig.  6. 


GYMNASTICS 


387 


GYMNASTICS 


ment  is  aided  by  drawing  the  feet 
up  and  kicking  down  with  them  at 
the  instant  of  jumping.  Then,  sup- 
porting the  body  near  the  centre  of 
the  bars,  as  at  first,  the  gymnast 
swings  back  and  forth,  and  then 
throws  his  legs  over  one  of  the  bars 
in  front  of  him  (Fig.  2).  Return- 


Parallel  Bars. — Fig.  7. 

ing  to  his  original  position,  he  next 
throws  them  over  the  same  bar  be- 
hind him  (Fig.  3),  and  repeats 
these  exercises  with  the  other  bar. 
One  leg  is  then  thrown  to  each  side 
in  front,  so  that  the  learner  is  astride 


Parallel  Bars.— Fig.  8. 

of  both  bars  at  once  (Fig.  4).  This 
is  also  done  behind  (Fig.  5).  The 
last  few  exercises  may  be  combined 
in  various  ways,  and  performed 
swiftly. 

The  gymnast  next  stands  between 
the  bars,  seizes  them  with  his  hands 
on  the  outside,  and  then  raises  his 


legs  in  front  till  the  bodv  is  inverted 
the  head  hanging  directly  down  and 
the  legs  projecting  straight  upward 
(Fig.  6) ;  then  the  movement  is, 
continued  till  the  legs  hang  down 
on  the  other  side,  the  hand  still 
holding  the  bar  behind  the  gym- 


Parallel  Bars.— Fig.  9. 

nast's  back  (Fig  7).  He  should 
then  return  without  touching  the 
ground  with  his  feet. 


Parallel  Bars. — Fig.  10. 

Another  exercise  on  the  parallel 
bars  is  called  Pumping  or  Dipping. 
The  learner  first  swings  back  and 
forth,  his  arms  being  straight,  till  he 
can  bring  himself  up  into  a  horizon- 
tal position,  facing  downward  (Fig. 
8).  Then  while  in  this  position 


GYMNASTICS 


388 


GYMNASTICS 


Vaulting  Horse. — Fig.  i. 

he  bends  his  elbows  (Fig.  9),  and 
thus  swings  for- 
ward. When  he 
comes  back  again 
h  e  straighte  n  s 
out  his  arms  and 
brings  himself 
into  a  vertical 
position,  his  feet 
being  high  in  the 
iir(Fig.  10).  As 
he  swings  for- 
ward he  bends 
his  elbows  again 
as  he  passes  the 
horizontal  posi- 
tion, and  so  he 
goes  on  as  long 
as  he  wishes. 


Vaulting  Horse. 
Fig.  2. 


The    Vaulting     Horse,    a     large 
block  of  wood,  rounded  at  the  top 


Vaulting  Horse.— Fig.  3. 
to  resemble    somewhat    a    horse's 


back,   and    covered    with    leather. 
Two  pommels,  fixed  in  the  back  to 


Vaulting  Horse. 
Fig.  5. 


Vaulting  Horse. — Fig.  4. 

represent  those  of  a  saddle,  are  so 
made  that  they  can  be  removed  if 
necessary.  The 
first  exercise  on 
the  "  horse"  is  to 
place  one  hand  on 
each  pommel  and 
jump  astride  it, 
but  without  touch- 
ing it,  the  weight 
being  supported 
by  the  arms  (Fig. 
i).  The  forward 
leg  is  now  with- 
drawn over  the 
horse,  and  then  the  rear  one  is  ad- 
vanced, without  touching  the  horse. 
Next  the  legs  are  changed  in  like 
manner,  both  at  once,  the  body 
being  still  held  up  by  the  arms. 

The  learner  next  kneels   on  the 
horse  between  the  pommels  (Fig.  2) 
and    t h  e  i 
springs     o  ff 

(Fig-  3). 
landing  up- 
right with 
his  feet  on 
the  ground. 
Next,  b  e- 
striding  the 

horse  behind 
Vaulting  Horse.— Fig.  6.    Qne     of     the 

pommels,  facing  it,  and  with  a  hand 
on  each  pommel,  the  (Fig.  4)  gym- 
nast throws  his  legs  up  and  brings 


GYMNASTICS 


389 


GYMNASTICS 


his  body  around  so  as  to  bestride  the 
horse  behind  the  other  pommel. 

The  learner  should  next  practise 
jumping  over  the  horse  with  a  hand 
on  each  pommel,  starting  with  a 
run.  First  the  legs  should  be 
brought  between  the  hands  (Fig. 
5),  and  then  outside  of  them  (Fig. 
6),  letting  go  at  the  proper  time. 

Hanging  Rings,  Swing  Rings,  or 
Travelling  Rings,  are  iron  rings 
covered  with  leather  or  rubber,  and 
each  suspended  by  a  rope  (See  illus- 


Hanging  Rings. 

tration).  Sometimes  several  are 
hung  in  a  row,  and  the  gymnast  be- 
ginning at  one  end,  takes  the  first 
ring,  swings  himself  to  the  second, 
grasps  that,  and  lets  go  of  the  first, 
after  drawing  back  with  it,  and  so 
on  down  the  whole  line. 

Many  feats  may  be  performed 
with  a  pair  of  these  rings.  Taking 
one  in  each  hand,  the  gymnast 
draws  himself  up  till  his  chin  is 
above  them  and  then  holds  each 
alternately  at  arm's  length,  the  other 
being  close  to  the  shoulder.  Then 
both  are  held  out  together  in  the 
same  manner  and  the  body  is  al- 
lowed to  sink  slowly  till  it  hangs  at 
full  length. 

Another  exercise  is  to  swing  to 
and  fro,  drawing  up  the  body  while 
ascending  and  letting  it  down  while 
descending.  By  this  means  the 
height  of  each  swing  is  increased. 
There  are  many  other  positions  in 
swinging,  which  are  easily  found  out, 


such  as  with  the  elbows  bent  and 
the  rings  held  close  to  the  back. 
Many  exercises  similar  to  those  on 
the  horizontal  and  parallel  bars  can 
be  performed  on  the  rings  also. 

Rope  and  Pole  Climbing.     A  rope 
for  climbing  should  be  securely  fast- 
ened to  a  beam,  if   indoors,  or  the 
limb  of  a  tree  out  of  doors.     The 
climber  grasps  the  rope  with   both 
hands,   one  above  the   other,   and 
crosses  his  feet,  having  the  rope  be- 
tween them    (Fig.  i).      While    the 
hands  pull  the  body  up,  the 
rope  is  allowed  to  slip   be- 
tween the  feet ;  but  the  feet 
grasp   it  tightly,  while  the 
hands,  one   at  a  time,  are 
raised  to  a  new  hold.     The 
body  is  thus  supported,  first 
by  both  hands,  then  by  the 
left  hand  and  the  feet,  and 
lastly  by  the  right  hand  and 
the   feet.      In   descending, 
the  feet  are  used  as  a  brake 
to    regulate    the    velocity, 
while  the  hands  are  lowered 
one  past  the  other  (Fig.  2). 
A  pole   is  climbed  in   like 
manner,    but    the    feat    is 
more  difficult,  because  the 
pole  is    thicker    and    rigid 
Rope-    and    therefore    harder     to 
Climbing,  grasp,  than  the  rope,  espe- 
F1£-  *•   cially  with  the  feet. 
Ladders.  These  may  be  fixed  hor- 
izontally, seven  or 
eight    feet    above 
the   ground,    ver- 
tically or  inclined 
at        an       angle. 
Often  two  are  in- 
clined     together, 
forming     an      in- 
verted      V      (A.)- 
These  may  be  used 
both     above     and 
below,  by  ascend- 
ing   and  descend- 
ing    with     hands 
and  feet,  or  hang- 
ing from  the  hands 
alone.     After  ad- 


Rope-Climbing. 

Fig.  2. 


vancing  one  round  at  a  time,  the 


GYMNASTICS 


390 


GYMNASTICS 


learner  should  try  to  skip  one  or 
more  rounds. 

Lifting.  This  exercise  should 
only  be  practised  under  the  direc- 
tion of  an  instructor,  and  then  only 
by  persons  of  mature  age,  with  well 
developed  muscles,  especially  the 
abdominal  muscles,  as  rupture  may 
be  caused  by  the  violent  strain. 
Such  violent  exercises  as  lifting, 
TUG  OF  WAR,  etc.,  have  a  tendency 
to  check  the  development  of  the 
bones,  and  hence  leave  the  person 
smaller  than  he  might  be  at  matur- 
ity. 

By  training  the  muscles  carefully, 
and  gradually  increasing  the 
amount  lifted,  athletes  have  been 
able  to  raise  enormous  weights. 
The  greatest  feats  of  lifting  have 
been  performed  with  a  sort  of  har- 
ness passing  over  the  shoulders. 
This  was  used  by  Dr.  Winship,  of 
Boston,  who  succeeded  in  lifting 
from  the  ground  with  it  2600 
pounds.  In  lifting  without  a  har- 
ness, the  gymnast  stands  on  a  plat- 
form beneath  which  is  the  weight, 
furnished  with  two  handles.  The 
lifter  grasps  these,  bends  his  legs 
slightly,  straightens  his  back  and 
arms,  the  shoulders  being  on  a  line 
with  the  feet  and  hips.  The  legs 
are  then  steadily  straightened,  the 
strain  thus  coming  on  every  part. 
The  weight  is  lifted  but  an  inch  or 
two.  Sometimes  the  lifter  is  aided  at 
first  by  a  spring  on  which  the 
weight  rests.  Some  of  the  best  lift- 
ing feats  are  recorded  in  the  appen- 
dix. 

The  chest  weights,  or  "  pulley 
weights,"  are  held  in  place  by  two 
parallel  guide  rods  and  fastened  to 
a  rope  passing  over  a  hinged  pulley 
at  height  of  the  shoulder  to  the  hand. 
They  are  made  double  for  the  pur- 
pose of  exercising  both  sides  at  the 
same  time. 

This  is  the   best  single  piece  of 
apparatus  that    has    yet   been   de 
vised    for    general    exercise.     The 
weight    is    easily  adjusted   to    the 


strength  of  the  person  using  it,  and 
there  is  little  danger  of  straining 
even  a  feeble  person. 

Exercises,  i.  Standing  facing  the 
apparatus  take  a  handle  in  each 
hand  so  that  the  hands  will  be  about 
a  foot  from  the  pulleys  when  the 
arms  are  extended. 

(a)  Raise  the  arms  up  to  a  perpen- 
dicular position  and  return,  repeat- 
ing as  many  times  as  desirable. 

(b)  Spread  the  arms  apart,  and  re- 
turn as  before. 

(c)  Lower  the  arms  to  the  sides 
and  return. 

(d)  Combine  (a)  and  (c). 

(e)  Combine  (a)  and  (c),  bending 
over  so  as  to  bring  the  hands   as 
near  the  toes   as   possible  without 
bending  the  knees. 

2.  Standing  with  the  side  toward 
the  apparatus,  using  one  hand  at  a 
time,     (a)    raise  the  arm  up  to     a 
perpendicular   position    beside   the 
head  and  return. 

(b)  Sweep  the   arm    around     in 
front  horizontally,  keeping  it  stiff. 

(c)  Bring  the   arm   down  to   the 
side. 

(d)  With   the   arm  farthest  from 
the  machine,  describe  the  horizon- 
tal movement  similar  to  (b). 

(e)  With  both  hands  together  ex- 
ecute (b)  and  (d). 

(T)  With  both  hands  execute  (c), 
except  that  one  arm  is  carried  back 
of  the  body  as  far  as  possible,  while 
the  other  sweeps  by  in  front. 

3.  Standing  with  the  back  to  the 
apparatus,  many  simple  movements 
like   those  mentioned   before     can 
be  executed.     If     the   left    arm   be 
the  weaker,  the  movements  should 
be  repeated  more   times  with  that 
side,  or  the  weight  made   slightly 
heavier. 

4.  It  will  be  seen  that  by  putting 
the  foot  in  the  handle,  as  a  stirrup, 
and     balancing  on   the   o;her  leg, 
while    executing  movements   with 
the  first,  a  good  amount  of  exercise 
will  be  given  the  legs  and  hips. 

Tumbling.    The  various  kinds  of 


GYMNASTICS 


391 


GYMNASTICS 


tumbling,  such  as  somersaults, 
hand-springs,  lying  on  the  ground 
and  springing  directly  to  a  standing 
posture,  depend  largely  on  practice 
and  can  scarcely  be  taught  in  a  book. 
They  are  performed  chiefly  by  pro- 
fessional acrobats,  but  many  ama- 
teurs attain  great  skill  in  them. 
Directions  for  only  the  simplest 
kinds  are  given. 

The     Backspring    (Fig.    i).    The 


Tumbling. — Fig.   i. 

gymnast  lies  on  his  back  and  places 
the  palms  of  his  hands  flat  on  the 
ground  above  his  head.  Then, 


Tumbling. — Fig.  2. 

raising  the  legs  over  the  head,  he 
gives  a  spring  from  the  hands  and 
shoulders,  throwing  his  feet  quickly 


forward,  and  drawing  the  heels 
close  to  the  buttock,  the  object 
being  to  come  into  a  standing  post- 
ure with  a  single  effort.  The 
hands  should  be  brought  forward 
when  the  feet  are  nearly  on  the 
ground,  that  the  balance  may  be 
preserved. 

Handspring.  (Figs.  2  and  3.)  The 
gymnast  stands  erect,  the  right 
leg  forward,  and  bending  slightly 
backward  raises  his  hands  high 
above  his  head,  palms  up.  He  then 
springs  forward,  placing  his  hands 


Tumbling. — Fig.  3. 

on  the  ground,  and  throws  his  legs 
over,  the  left  first.  Just  as  the  legs 
go  over,  he  springs  from  his  arms 
and  lands  upright  on  his  feet. 

Back  Handspring   (Fig.  4).     The 


Tumbling. — Fig.  4. 

gymnast  stands  erect,  his  legs 
slightly  apart  and  his  arms  raised 
above  his  head,  elbows  pointing  to 


GYMNASTICS 


392 


GYMNASTICS 


the  front  and  palms  upward.  He 
then  bends  down  slightly,  quickly 
throws  arms  and  head  back,  bends 
the  body  backward,  and  at  the  same 
time  throws  his  legs  up  over  his 
head,  pitches  over  on  his  hands,  and 
springing  from  them  alights  on  his 
feet. 

Forward  Somersault.  The  gym- 
nast stands  erect  with  arms  above 
his  head,  and  after  a  short  run 
jumps  up  from  both  feet, throws  the 
arms  down,  and  the  head  and  shoul- 
ders quickly  forward,  at  the  same 
time  bending  the  knees,  and  turns 
completely  over  in  the  air,  alighting 
on  his  feet.  When  the  jump  is 
made,  he  sometimes  seizes  the  under 
part  of  the  thighs,  just  above  the 
knees,  pulling  them  up  to  the  body. 
This,  which  is  called  the  "  catch," 
assists  the  somersault. 

Backward  Somersault.  The  gym- 
nast raises  his  arms,  then  brings 
them  down  with  a  quick  sweep  and 
raises  them  again,  at  the  same  in- 
stant with  a  spring  throwing  the 
legs  over  the  head  and  catching  the 
thighs,  as  described  above. 

All  tumbling  exercises  require 
constant  practice  and  great  perse- 
verance. To  avoid  dangerous  falls, 
the  gymnast  should  wear  what  are 
called  "  lungers"  (Fig.  5),  consist- 


Tumbling. — Fig.  5.  Lungers. 

ing  of  a  leather  belt  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  wide,  buckled 
around  his  waist.  On  each  side  of 
the  belt  are  secured  rings,  to  each 
of  which  a  rope  four  feet  long  is 
tied.  An  assistant  holds  each  rope 
while  the  gymnast  is  practising, 
and  if  he  is  in  danger  of  a  fall  they 
can  thus  save  him.  The  lungers 
are  especially  useful  in  giving  the 


learner  a  feeling  of  confidence,  for 
since  he  knows  he  is  in  no  danger 
of  falling,  he  will  be  much  bolder  in 
his  attempts.  All  the  feats  de- 
scribed above  are  performed  on  a 
thick  mattress. 

Special  Apparatus.  Modern  gym- 
nasiums are  provided  with  all  kinds 
of  machines  for  developing  special 
muscles.  For  instance,  to  strength- 
en the  muscles  of  the  neck,  a  pulley- 
weight  is  used  like  those  already  de- 
scribed, having  a  small  semicircular 
net  at  the  end  of  the  rope.  By  plac- 
ing this  on  the  back  of  the  head  and 
lifting  the  weight  by  moving  the 
head  backward  and  forward,  the 
muscles  in  the  back  of  the  neck  are 
exercised,  and  by  shifting  its  posi- 
tion the  other  neck  muscles  maybe 
exercised  in  like  manner.  There 
are  also  machines  to  imitate  special 
motions,  such  as  rowing,  canoe 
paddling,  wrestling,  and  rope-climb- 
ing. The  best  gymnasiums  now 
contain  also  dynamometers  (from 
two  Greek  words  meaning  strength- 
measurers)  for  testing  the  muscles, 
spirometers  (breath-measurers)  for 
measuring  the  capacity  of  the  lungs, 
and  other  arrangements  to  test  the 
development  of  the  gymnast. 

Indian  Club  Swinging.  Indian 
clubs  are  made  of  wood.  Formerly 
they  were  sometimes  weighted  with 
lead,  but  this  is  wrong,  as  the  exer- 
cise depends  largely  on  the  speed 
and  combination  of  movements. 
The  exercise  is  more  for  rendering 
the  joints  supple  than  for  increas- 
ing the  size  of  the  muscles,  though 
it  does  both  ;  and  swiftness  and  ac- 
curacy of  movement  should  be  aim- 
ed at  rather  than  the  exhibition  of 
great  strength.  The  number  of 
movements  possible  with  two  clubs 
is  almost  numberless,  and  new  ones 
can  be  invented  by  the  learner,  but 
all  consist  of  combinations  of  three 
distinct  motions  called  circles — the 
straight-arm  circle,  the  bent-arm 
circle,  and  the  wrist  circle.  In  the 
first  the  club  is  swung  around  at 
arm's  length;  in  the  second  the  circle 


GYMNASTICS 


393 


GYMNASTICS 


is  made  with  the  arm  well  bent  at 
the  elbow,  the  shoulder  being  the 
centre,  as  in  the  straight-arm  circle  ; 
and  in  the  third  the  club  is  moved 
through  a  circle  of  which  the  hand 
is  the  centre.  The  third  or  wrist 
circles  are  made  by  the  muscles  of 
the  forearm  and  hand. 

All  circles  should  be  as  near  plane 
circles  as  possible,  and  the  body  held 
erect  and  firm  while  the  clubs  are 
in  mction. 

The  swinger  should  be  able  to 
stand  quite  close  to  a  wall  without 
hitting  it  with  the  clubs  while  he  is 
swinging.  In  beginning  to  swing, 
the  learner  should  stand  with  heels 


Indian  Clubs. — Fig.  i. 


together,  leaning  a  little  forward  to 
throw  the  weight  on  the  balls  of  the 
feet.  He  should  begin  with  one 
club,  holding  it  in  what  is  called  the 
starting  position,  with  which  every 
movement  is  begun  and  ended. 
In  this  position  the  club  is  held 
vertically  in  front  of  the  shoulder, 
as  shown  in  the  dotted  part  of  Fig. 
I.  All  circles  are  called  inside 
circles  if  the  club  moves  first  toward 
the  swinger's  head ;  if  in  the  other 
direction  they  are  outside  circles. 
If  the  club  moves  directly  forward 


or  backward,  it  is  said  to  describe  a 
forward  or  backward  circle. 

For  convenience,  all  the  swings  of 
one  kind  are  described  together,  but 
it  is  not  necessary  for  the  learner  to 
master  all  of  one  kind  before  going 
to  the  next.  A  good  order  for  the 
learner  to  follow  is  given  below. 

To  perform  the  straight-arm 
circles,  lift  the  club  till  it  is  held  at 
arm's  length,  and  then  describe  a 
circle  toward  the  head  for  the  inside 
circle,  or  toward  the  outside  of  the 
body  for  an  outside  circle  (Fig.  2). 


Indian  Clubs.—  Fig.  2. 

It  will  be  seen  that  all  inside  circles 
with  the  right  hand  are  in  the  same 
direction  as  all  outside  circles  with 
the  left,  and  vice  versa.  When  one 
circle  is  finished  the  club  must  al- 
ways be  brought  down  into  the 
starting  position  before  beginning 
the  next.  When  the  learner  has 
mastered  the  inside 
and  outside  straight- 
arm  circles,  with 
either  hand,  he 
should  practise  the 
ben  t-a  r  m  circles, 
which  are  those 
behind  the  back. 
Raising  the  club 
from  the  starting 
position,  it  is  lifted 
over  the  head  and 
allowed  to  drop 
down  behind  the 


Indian  Clubs. 
Fig.  3- 


head  (Fig.  3)  and  shoulder,  being 


GYMNASTICS 


394 


GYMNASTICS 


brought  up  to  position  by  rotating 
the  wrist.  This  is  me  inside  bent- 
arm  circle.  The  outside  circle  is 
just  the  reverse,  the  club  moving 
out  from  the  shoulder  (Fig.  i)  and 
dropping,  being  then  brought  up 
behind  the  head  by  the  wrist  move- 
ment, and  then  coming  to  position. 
Wrist  Circlest  These  are  exe- 
cuted whhthearm  in  any  position, as 
extended  straight  in  front  (Fig.  4), 
or  toward  one  side,  straight  down- 
ward close  to  the  body,  or  bent  at 
the  side.  The  club  is  held  vertically 


\ 


Indian  Clubs.— Fig.  4. 

in  position  at  first,  and  then  allowed 
to  fall  forward  or  backward.  Its 
impetus,  aided  by  an  effort  of  the 
wrist,  brings  it  upright  again,  thus 
completing  the  circle.  The  learner 
should  try  to  perform  each  wrist 
circle  several  times  without  stop- 
ping. He  should  avoid  the  tempta- 
tion to  bend  the  elbow  a  little,  and 
strive  ..o  hold  the  arm  perfectly  stiff. 
The  distinction  between  inside  and 
outside  circles  is  the  same  as  that 
given  above,  and  besides  this,  every 
circle  can  be  made  on  either  side  of 
the  arm,  so  that  for  nearly  every 
position  of  the  arm  there  are  four 


wrist  circles.  All  the  circles  de- 
scribed above  should  be  learned  by 
name,  so  that  their  combinations 
can  be  readily  performed  when 
named. 

Combinations.  The  inside  straight- 
arm  circle  and  the  inside  bent  arm 
circle  behind  the  back  are  perform- 
ed alternately  (Fig.  5),  passing  di- 


\ 


Indian  Clubs. — Fig.  5. 

rectly  from  one  to  the  other,  with- 
out bringing  the  club  back  to  the 
starting  position  till  the  two  swings 
have  been  made  several  times.  The 
arm  circle  is  made  first,  and  when  it 
is  completed,  as  the  club  is  held 
straight  up  at  arm's  length,  it  is 
dropped  over  the  head  into  the  in- 
side bent-arm  circle.  On  the  com- 
pletion of  this,  the  arm  is  straight- 
ened again  vertically,  and  the  club 
moves  on  in  another  straight-arm 
circle.  In  the  same  way  the  out- 
side straight  arm  and  bent-arm 
circles  can  be  combined  (Fig.  6). 
In  combining  the  inside  straight- 
arm  .  with  the  outside  bent-arm, 
or  vice  versa,  the  change  from  one 
to  the  other  is  best  made  at  the  ex- 
treme right  and  left  points  of  the 
swing,  passing  the  arm  instead  of 
the  club  over  the  head.  Thus, 
neither  circle  is  quite  completed, 
and  the  club  is  not  brought  to  a 
vertical  position,  till  it  is  returned  to 
the  starting  point.  In  like  manner, 


GYMNASTICS 


395 


GYMNASTICS 


bent-arm  and  wrist  circles  and 
straight  arm  and  wrist  circles  may 
be  combined,  or  all  three  kinds 
together.  The  wrist  circle  may  be 
introduced  at  any  point  of  the 


Indian  Clubs. — Fig.  6. 

swing,  but  the  best  place  is  when 
the  arm  is  farthest  from  the  body, 
as  this  gives  plenty  of  room. 

Combinations  with  both  Clubs. 
Any  of  the  simple  or  combined 
swings  described  can  be  performed 
with  both  clubs  at  once,  or  each 
club  may  execute  a  different  circle. 
It  is  evident  that  if  the  two  clubs 
describe  the  same  circles  at  the  same 
time,  the  clubs  will  move  in  the  oppo- 
site direction,  and  will  cross  (Fig.  7), 


Indian  Clubs. — Fig.  7. 

so  that  it  requires  skill  to  avoid 
striking  them  together.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  one  club  executes 
an  inside  movement,  and  the  other 


the  corresponding  outside  move- 
ment, the  circles  are  in  the  same 
direction  and  the  clubs  move  parallel 


Indian  Clubs. — Fig.  8. 

to  each  other  (Fig.  8).  Instead  of 
executing  the  same  circle  simul- 
taneously, however,  one  arm  may 
perform  one  kind  of  circle  while  the 
other  is  executing  another  (Fig.  9). 


Indian  Clubs. — Fig.  9. 


Thus,  where  the  movement  consists 
of  a  straight-arm  and  bent-arm  cir- 
cle, the  right  hand  may  execute  the 
former  while  the  left  is  doing  the 
latter,  and  vice  versa.  With  this 
method  there  is  never  danger  of 
the  clubs  striking,  for  when  they 
cross  one  is  in  front  of  the  swinger 
and  one  behind.  In  another  way 
of  swinging,  one  club  follows  the 
other,  but  half  a  circle  behind,  so 
that  the  clubs  are  not  executing 
the  same  part  of  a  circle  at  any 
moment.  These  are  called  "  Fol- 
low "  or  "  Windmill "  movements. 


GYMNASTICS 


396 


GYMNASTICS 


It  would  be  well  for  the  novice 
in  the  art  of  club-swinging  if  he 
could  receive  personal  instruction 
from  some  adept ;  but  practice  and 
work  are  what  counts  for  most  in 
gaining  success  in  this,  as  in  many 
other  accomplishments.  Then  be- 
gin with  the  simple  movements  and 
practise  them  until  they  seem  easy. 

1.  Straight-arm  circles  outside. 

2.  "  "       inside. 

3.  "  "       forward    at 
side. 

4.  Straight-arm  circles   backward  at 

side. 

5.  Bent-arm  circles  outside. 

6.  "  "        inside. 

7.  Wrist  circles  forward  or  inside. 

8.  "  "      backward    or    out- 

side. 

Follow  these  with  the  simplest 
combinations,  and  each  day  try 
something  new.  The  left  hand 
should  by  this  time  be  as  pro- 
ficient as  the  right. 

The  following  list  of  combinations 
may  be  a  good  order  in  which  to 
learn  new  movements : 

1.  Combination  of  inside  straight- 
arm  and  bent  arm  circles  as  already 
described. 

2.  Combination  of  outside  straight- 
arm  and  bent-arm  circles. 

3.  Double  swing  both  clubs.   Both 
clubs  are  held  in  the  starting  posi- 
tion, and  then  the  right  hand  begins 
the  inside  straight-arm,  while   the 
left   at   the   same   time  begins  the 
inside  bent-arm  circles.     These  two 
circles   are    finished    at    the    same 
instant,  when  the  right  takes  up  the 
bent-arm,  and  the  left  the  straight- 
arm  movement.     The   learner  will 
probably    find  the  use  of  the  two 
clubs  difficult  at  first,  and  the  move- 
ments must  be  gone  through  with 
slowly  until  they  become  very  famil- 
iar when  the  speed  is  increased. 

4.  Double  swing.    No.  2  with  both 
hands,  one  arm  doing  the  straight, 
and  the  other  the  bent-arm  outside 
circle,  as  above. 

5.  No.  i  with  the  right,  and  No.  2 


with  the  left,  one  doing  the  straight- 
arm  while  the  other  executes  the 
bent-arm  outside  circle.  The  right 
begins  with  the  inside  suaight,  and 
the  left  with  the  outside  bent. 

6.  No.  5  reversed  ;  that  is,  No.  2 
with  the  right,  and  No.  i  with  the 
left. 

7.  No.  5  in  parallel  motion,  that 
is,   both  hands   doing  the   straight 
and  both  the  bent-arm  circles  at  the 
same  time.     Both  hands  begin  with 
the  straight-arm   motion,  the  right 
with  the  inside  and  the  left  with  the 
outside  circle.     The  clubs  should 
be  kept  at  the  same  distance  during 
the  whole  movement,  so  that  they 
move  in  exactly  parallel  lines. 

8.  No.  6  in  parallel  motion. 

9.  No.   3   in  cross   motion,   both 
hands  starting  on  the  inside  straight- 
arm.   The  clubs  cross,  twice  in  front 
and  twice  behind  and  it  will  doubt- 
less  be  found  difficult  at  first   to 
prevent  them  from  striking.      The 
proper    way   is   to  swing  them    in 
slightly  different  planes,  and  when 
each  hand  becomes  accustomed  to 
its  own  path,  the  movement  can  be 
executed  almost  mechanically  with- 
out danger  of  the  clubs  interfering. 
It  should  be  performed  very  slowly 
at  first,  and  the  clubs  kept  far  apart 
in  crossing. 

10.  No.  4  in   cross  motion,  both 
clubs  startingon  the  outsidestraight- 
arm  circles. 

11.  No.  5  in  "follow"  or  "wind- 
mill"   motion.       The    right    starts 
with   the   inside   straight-arm,   and 
just  as  it   has   half  completed  the 
circle,  the  left  starts  with  the  out- 
side straight-arm.     Thus  the  right 
club  keeps  half  a  circle  ahead  of  the 
left,  and   when    the   movement    is 
correctly  done,  they  should  always 
extend   in  opposite  directions,  one 
pointing  up  while  the  other  is  down, 
and  one  to  the  right  while  the  other 
is  to  the  left.     Some  swingers  bring 
the  clubs  nearer  together  than  this, 
making  the   movement   more   like 
one  in  parallel  motion. 

12.  No.    6  in  windmill    motion. 


GYMNASTICS 


397 


GYMNASTICS 


In  this  the  left  hand  leads  off  with 
the  inside  straight-arm  circle,  the 
right  following  with  the  outside. 
The  left  keeps  half  a  circle  ahead. 

13.  Wrist  Circles.  These  may  be 
introduced  earlier  if  desired.  All 
the  simple  wrist  circles  should  be 
practised  with  the  arms  in  various 
positions,  first  with  one  hand  and 
then  with  both.  Wrist  circles  may 
be  substituted  for  the  bent  arm  cir- 
cles in  all  the  exercises  given  above. 
They  may  be  introduced  while  the 
arm  is  extended  to  right  or  left,  or 
with  the  arm  bent  so  that  the  hand 
is  close  at  the  shoulder. 

When  the  learner  has  proceeded 
thus  far,  he  will  be  able  to  devise 
his  own  combinations. 

All  the  combination  movements 
described  above  have  been  to  the 
right  and  left,  the  plane  of  motion 
being  always  parallel  to  the  line 
toed  by  the  swinger.  Combinations 
of  straight-arm  circles  forward  and 
backward  at  the  side  (Nos.  3  and  4 
of  simple  movements)  may  be 
readily  combined  with  wrist  circles 
at  the  side  (Fig.  10)  and  make  very 


Indian  Clubs. — Fig.  lo. 

effective  movements  for  exercise. 

Descriptions  of  a  few  special 
swings  will  now  be  given. 

Stop  Swings.  In  these  each  club 
is  brought  down  with  a  slap  on  the 
opposite  arm,  from  which  it  re- 
bound?, reversing  the  circle. 

Turning  Swing.  This  begins  with 
one  or  more  forward  wrist  swings 


outside  the  arm  with  both  hands, 
and  then  one  hand  executes  a  for- 
ward bent-arm,  while  the  other  per- 
forms a  forward  straight-arm  circle. 
At  the  same  time  the  swinger  turns 
half  way  around,  always  toward  the 
hand  which  is  doing  the  straight- 
arm  circle,  so  that  he  finishes  fac- 
ing in  the  opposite  direction,  the 
arm  describing  the  bent-arm  circle 
having  passed  over  his  head  as  he 
turns.  Several  more  wrist  circles 
are  then  executed,  and  the  gymnast 
turns  back  again  in  the  same  man- 
ner. 

An  exercise  for  a  heavy  club  (Fig. 
n)   is  to   raise   the  club   from  the 


Indian  Clubs. — Fig.  n. 

starting  position,  drop  it  over  the 
head,  and  let  it  hang  behind  the 
shoulder.  Then  throw  it  over  as  if 
to  strike,  describing  a  forward 
straight-arm  circle,  and  ending  with 
the  club  extended  horizontally  be- 
hind the  back.  The  club  must  then 
be  carried  back  to  the  starting-point 
before  repeating.  A  similar  exer- 
cise with  two  clubs  is  to  throw  them 
over  the  shoulders,  return  to  start- 
ing position,  make  bent-arm  circles 
at  the  sides,  and  then  a  forward 
straight-arm  to  the  horizontal  posi- 
tion behind  the  back,  as  before.  The 
clubs  are  then  returned  to  the  start- 
ing position.  In  these  exercises,  as 
in  the  others,  the  motion  of  the 
two  clubs  may  be  exactly  alike,  or 
the  right  hand  may  execute  one 
part  of  the  circle  while  the  left  is 
doing  the  other. 


GYMNASTICS 


398 


GYMNASTICS 


Feats  of  Club  Swinging.  On  Feb. 
1 8,  1886.  at  Bath,  Me.,  Edward 
Brown  swung  a  pair  of  Indian  clubs, 
weighing  8  pounds,  i£  ounces  each, 
continuously  for  6  hours,  20  min- 
utes. 

On  Jan.  7,  1885,  at  New  Haven, 
Conn.,  W.  W.  Dudley  swung  100 
separate  combinations  each  4  times, 
in  23  minutes,  36  seconds. 

Indian  clubs  are  said  to  have  been 
brought  to  England  from  Persia  by 
an  officer  in  the  British  army,  but 
their  origin  is  not  known  with  cer- 
tainty. 

History.  Systematic  exercise  has 
long  been  practised.  In  ancient 
Greece  it  formed  part  of  the  educa- 
tion of  every  boy,  and  was  contin- 
ued during  manhood.  The  Greek 
games,  which  were  largely  exhibi- 
tions of  skill  in  gymnastics,  are  de- 
scribed in  C.P.P.  Gymnastics  were 
employed  also,  as  with  us,  as  a  cure 
for  disease,  and  finally  they  were 
taken  charge  of  by  government 
officers.  Public  gymnasiums  were 
erected  first  in  Sparta  and  then  in 
Athens,  where  some  of  them  be- 
came celebrated  as  the  places  in 
which  great  philosophers  lectured 
to  their  pupils. 

Among  the  exercises  taught  were 
dancing,  leaping,  pitching  the  dis- 
cus or  QUOIT,  throwing  the  javelin 
and  bar,  riding,  swimming,  rowing, 
swinging,  climbing,  and  archery. 
Gymnasiums  in  imitation  of  the 
Greeks  were  built  also  at  Rome,  but 
gymnastics  never  became  popular 
there.  In  the  middle  ages  gymnas- 
tics was  represented  by  knightly  ex- 
ercise, such  as  the  tournament,  and 
among  the  lower  classes  by  wrest- 
ling, running,  and  archery,  but  sys- 
tematic training  of  the  muscles  was 
but  little  practised.  In  the  I7th 
century  it  began  again  to  be  popu- 
lar. The  illustration  shows  a  form 
of  vaulting-horse  in  use  at  this  pe- 
riod. In  the  i8th  century  there  was 
a  great  gymnastic  revival  in  Ger- 
many, and  in  1810,  when  Prussia 
was  under  the  rule  of  Napoleon,  a 


teacher  named  Jahn,  with  others, 
established  throughout  the  country 
gymnastic  schools,  whose  pupils  did 
good  work  in  the  expulsion  of  the 
French  in  1813.  These  schools 
were  copied  in  nearly  every  country 
in  Europe.  From  them  sprang  the 


Ancient  Vaulting-horse. 

associations  called  Turnvereine 
(gymnastic  societies),  which  were 
soon  afterward  suppressed  by  the 
Prussian  government,  which  feared 
that  they  would  spread  liberal  ideas. 
In  1848  they  were  reorganized, 
and  now  many  of  them  exist  in  this 
country,  where  they  have  been 
formed  by  German  emigrants. 
These  societies  have  done  much 
to  make  gymnastics  popular  in  the 
United  States,  and  they  were  aided 
by  the  interest  the  colleges  have 
taken  in  the  subject. 

The  finest  gymnasiums  in  the 
United  States  are  owned  by  the 
athletic  societies,  and  the  whole 
history  of  gymnastics  is  very  closely 
connected  with  that  of  ATHLETICS. 
The  two  words  are  often  used  to 
mean  almost  the  same  thing. 

The  only  exercises  described  un- 
der Athletics  in  this  book  are  those 
which  commonly  form  part  of  the 
outdoor  or  "field"  meetings  of  ath- 
letic societies,  while  in  this  article 
we  have  described  those  usually 
practised  in  a  gymnasium,  or  at 
home,  for  the  sake  of  health. 


HALEY-OVER 


399 


HALLOWE'EN   PARTY 


H 


HALEY-OVER,  a  game  of  ball 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
divided  into  two  opposing  parties. 
The  parties  stand  on  opposite  sides 
of  a  building,  and  one  of  the  players 
throws  a  base-ball  over  the  roof. 
The  players  on  the  other  side  try  to 
catch  the  ball,  and  if  any  one  suc- 
ceeds he  runs  around  the  building 
and  tries  to  hit  one  of  his  oppo- 
nents with  the  ball,  either  by  throw- 
ing it  or  running  with  it  in  hand. 
If  any  one  is  hit,  he  has  to  join  the 
side  of  the  hitter.  If  the  ball  is  not 
caught,  it  is  thrown  back  over  the 
building  in  the  same  way  as  at  first. 
When  a  ball  has  been  thrown,  those 
on  the  throwing  side  have  no  means 
of  knowing  whether  it  has  been 


caught  or  not  until  it  either  appears 
again  over  the  roof,  or  in  the  hand 
of  an  opponent,  running  around 
the  corner,  hence  every  one  must 
be  on  the  lookout.  The  game  lasts 
until  all  the  players  are  on  one  side. 

The  name  Haley-Over  is  probably 
from  the  old  word  hale,  meaning 
to  draw  or  drag,  from  the  drawing 
over  of  the  defeated  player  to  the 
opposite  side.  The  game  is  much 
played  in  some  parts  of  New  Eng- 
land. 

HALLOWE'EN  PARTY,  an  en- 
tertainment given  on  All  Hallows 
Eve,  or  Hallowe'en,  the  night  before 
All  Saints'  Day  (Nov.  i).  The 
amusements  of  this  evening  were 
supposed  in  ancient  times  to  foretell 


future  events.     Some  of  them  are 
described  below. 

i .  Each  person,  alone  with  a  look- 
ing-glass in  one  hand  and  a  candle 
in  the  other,  walks  down  stairs 
backward  into  a  dark  cellar  or 
basement.  It  was  supposed  that 
each  would-  see  in  the  glass  the  face 
of  his  or  her  future  wife  or  husband. 


Sometimes,  instead  of  this,  each 
runs  around  the  outside  of  the  house 
three  times,  with  his  mouth  full  of 
water. 

2.  Each  person  melts  some  lead 
in  an  iron  spoon,  and  pours  it 
through  a  wedding-ring  or  through 
a  key  (Fig.  i)  into  a  vessel  of  water. 
The  lead  will  cool  in  curious  shapes, 


HALLOWE'EN   PARTY 


400 


HALLOWE'EN   PARTY 


which  were  supposed  to  be  pro- 
phetic. Any  one  who  is  ingenious 
can  cause  much  amusement  by  in- 
terpreting these  shapes.  For  in- 
stance, if  one  of  them  looks  like  a 
shoe,  it  may  be  said  that  the  owner 
will  marry  a  shoemaker,  or  is  going 
to  have  a  pair  of  new  shoes,  or  it 
may  mean  a  wedding,  as  an  old  shoe 
is  often  thrown  after  newly-wedded 
couples  "  for  good  luck."  Lead  can 
easily  be  melted  in  any  coal  fire. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  in  pour- 
ing it  through  the  ring  or  key,  or 
serious  burns  may  result. 

3.  Snap-dragons.      These,  which 
must  be  prepared  before  the  party, 
consist  of  slips  of  paper  with  verses 
written   on   them.      The  slips   are 
folded  very  small,  and  wrapped  in 
lead   or  tin   foil.      They  are  then 
placed  in  a  large  dish,  and  covered 
with  water,  over  which  alcohol,  or 
spirits,  is   poured   and  set  on  fire. 
While  it  is  burning,  each  person  in 
turn  must  snatch  one  of  the  snap- 
dragons from  the  dish.     The  verse 
he  gets  is  supposed  to  tell  his  for- 
tune.    This   furnishes  much  fun  if! 
the  verses  are  written  skilfully.   The  j 
"dragons  "  should  be  placed  in  an  j 
earthen   or  tin-plate  dish.      Silver  j 
should  not  be  used,  as  it  melts  too 
easily.     The  dish  must  be  placed  in 
the  middle  of  a  bare  table,  for  drops 
of  burning  spirits  are  often  splashed 
about,  and  great  care  must  be  taken 
that  they  set  nothing  on  fire.     In 
floating  the  alcohol  on  the  water  it 
should  be  poured  on  the  side  of  the 
dish    and    allowed    to   flow    down 
gently ;  otherwise  the   two  liquid^ 
will  mix. 

4.  Each  person    takes  a  greased 
needle   and   floats  it   in  a  basin  of 
water.       This   requires  some  care, 
but  can  be  done  if  the  needle  is  put 
down  evenly  and  gently.    The  best 
way  is  first  to  lay  on  the  water  a 
bit   of  very   thin  tissue-paper  and 
place  the  needle  on  it.     In  a  short 
time  the  paper  will  become  wet  and 
sink    to    the    bottom,  leaving  the 
needle  floating  on  the  water.  Owing 


to  a  phenomenon  called  capillarity, 
the  needles  behave  very  curiously. 
Some  run  to  the  edge  of  the  dish 
and  stick  there,  while  some  rush 
together  and  cling  together,  avoid- 
ing others.  The  manner  in  which 
one  person's  needle  behaves  toward 
another's  causes  amusement,  and 
may  be  supposed  to  be  prophetic. 

5.  Bobbing  for  Apples.   Apples  are 
placed   in  a  tub  of  water,  and  each 
in  turn  tries  to  pick  one  out  with 
his   teeth.      Sometimes  each  apple 
is  inscribed  with  a  name,  which  is 
supposed  to  be  that  of  the  future 
husband  or  wife  of  the  person  who 
picks  it  out.     Sometimes  also  each 
apple  bears  a  letter,  and  each  guest 
picks  out  two.     The  letters  are  sup- 
posed to  be  the  initials  of  the  guest's 
future  husband  or  wife. 

6.  On  a  table    are  placed   three 
dishes,  one  of  clear  water,  one  of 
soapy  water,  and  one  empty.     Each 
guest  is  blindfolded,  and  after  the 
positions  of  the  dishes  have  been 
changed  so  that  he  does  not  know 
which  is   which,  he  advances  and 
puts  his  finger  into  one.     If  it  be 
the  one  of  clear  water,  he  will  marry 
happily  ;  if  the  soapy  water,  he  will 
marry   a  widow ;  and  if  the  empty 
one,  he  will  not  marry  at  all. 

7.  Nutshell     Boats.     These      are 
made  by  pouring  melted  wax  into 
halves  of  walnut-shells,  in  which  are 
short   strings    for  wicks.      Several 
persons  float  these  boats  in  a  tub  of 
water,  after  lighting  the  wicks,  and 
the  way  in  which  they  ride  is  sup- 
posed to  show  what  the  future  life 
of  the  owner  will  be. 

8.  Kaling.    Two  persons  are  blind- 
folded and  required  to  walk  to  the 
vegetable  garden,  where  each  pulls 
up  the  first  cabbage-stalk  he  finds. 
From   the   shape  of  the  stalk,  the 
fortune  of  him  who  pulls  it  up  is 
inferred.     The  dirt  clinging  to  the 
roots  represents  wealth. 

9.  Apple  and  Candle. — At  one  end 
of  a  stick,  about  eighteen    inches 
long,  is  fastened  an  apple,  and  at  the 
other  end  a  lighted  candle  (,Fig.  2). 


HALMA 


401 


HAND-BALL 


The  stick  is  then  suspended  from 
the  ceiling  by  a  string  fastened  at 
its  centre,  and  swung  backward  and 


Fig.  2. 

forward,  while  the  players,  one  by 
one,  try  to  catch  the  apple  in  their 
teeth. 

10.  The  Raisin.  A  raisin  is  strung 
at  the  middle  of  a  string  or  thread 
about  a  yard  long,  and  two  persons 
take  each  an  end  of  the  string  in 
his  mouth.  Whoever,  by  chewing 
the  string,  reaches  the  raisin  first,  is 
allowed  to  eat  it. 

History.  Superstitions  persons 
believed  in  old  times  that  spirits 
walked  abroad  on  Hallowe'en,  and 
that  they  would  assist  people  to 
know  the  future  by  performing  the 
feats,  some  of  which  are  described 
above.  Nobody  believes  this  now, 
yet  the  feats  are  often  performed 
for  amusement  on  Hallowe'en.  In 
some  parts  of  England  it  is  called 
"  Nut-Crack  Night,"  from  the  cus- 
tom of  eating  nuts  on  that  evening. 

HALMA.     See'CHECKERS. 

HAND-BALL,  a  game  played  by 
two  or  four  persons  with  a  small 
ball,  which  they  strike  with  their 
hands  against  a  wall.  The  game 
may  be  played  in  a  court  or  room 
having  walls  on  all  four  sides,  or  out- 
of-doors  against  the  wall  of  a  build- 
ing. In  the  latter  case  lines  are 
drawn  on  the  wall  and  the  ground 
to  represent  the  side  walls,  and 
when  a  ball  goes  outside  these  lines 
it  is  supposed  to  have  struck  a  side 


wall.  A  board  called  the  Back- 
board, or  a  line  representing  it, 
bounds  the  court  on  the  fourth 
side,  and  a  line,  called  the  Ace 
Line,  is  drawn  parallel  to  the  front 
wall  and  Back-board  half  way  be- 
tween them.  The  two-handed  game 
will  be  described  first.  The  play- 
ers toss  up  for  the  "  first  hand, "and 
the  winner  stands  inside  the  Ace 
Line,  while  his  opponent  stands 
outside  of  it.  The  former  is  called 
the  striker  and  the  latter  the  player. 
The  striker  begins  the  game  by 
bounding  the  ball  on  the  ground 
and  then  striking  it  with  his  hand 
so  that  it  rebounds  from  the  front 
wall.  This  is  called  a  "  service." 
The  ball  must  be  served  so  that  it  re- 
bounds outside  the  Ace  Line.  If  it 
does  not,  it  is  said  to  be  a  short  ser- 
vice. If  the  striker  make  three  suc- 
cessive short  services,  or  if  the  ball 
bound  on  a  side  wall  before  striking 
the  front  wall,  or  if  it  bound  outside 
the  Back-board,  it  is  a  "  hand-out," 
and  the  striker  and  player  change 
places.  If  the  striker  serve  the  ball 
properly,  it  must  be  struck  by  the 
player  with  his  hand,  either  before 
it  strikes  the  ground  or  after  the 
first  bound,  so  that  it  bounds  from 
the  front  wall.  This  is  called  a  "  re- 
turn." If  he  fail  to  return  it  prop- 
erly, the  striker  scores  one  point, 
called  an  ace.  If  he  do  return  it, 
the  striker  must  bound  it  again 
from  the  front  wall,  and  if  he  fail,  it 
is  a  hand-out.  After  the  service, 
the  ball  may  strike  the  ground  any- 
where in  the  court  inside  the  Back- 
board. This  goes  on  till  the  striker 
has  scored  or  made  a  hand-out, 
when  an  inning  is  said  to  have  been 
played.  He  and  his  opponent 
change  places,  and  the  latter  be- 
comes striker  in  his  turn  After 
the  first  inning, an  inning  ends  only 
when  there  is  a  hand-out,  and  the 
striker  continues  to  serve  after  he 
scores.  The  player  first  making  21 
aces  wins  the  game.  As  will  be 
seen  by  the  rules,  it  is  sometimes 
allowable  to  strike  the  ball  with  the 


HAND-BALL 


402 


HAND,  EXPERIMENTS 


foot.  When  four  play,  two  against 
two,  the  partners  serve  and  receive 
alternately.  During  the  service  the 
strikers'  partner  stands  with  his 
back  to  the  side  wall  or  side  line, 
but  after  the  return  all  take  part  in 
the  game. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  If  the  striker  or   his   partner 
stop  the  ball  intentionally  before  it 
bounds  after  leaving  the  front  wall, 
or   while   on    its  way  to  the   front 
wall,  it  is  a  hand-out. 

2.  If  a  ball  struck  by  the  player 
strikes  the  striker  or  his  partner,  it 
shall  be  played  over  again. 

3.  When  a  ball  is  served  short  to 
the  player  he  has  the  privilege  of 
striking  it  with  his  hand  or  foot;  if 
it  is  struck  with  the  foot  and  fails 
to  go  upon  the  front  wall,  it  does 
not  score  for  the  striker.     If  It  is 
struck  with  the  hand  and  fails  to 
strike  the  front  wall,  it  is  an  ace  for 
the  striker. 

4.  If  a  ball  is  served  short  to  the 
player  and   he   strikes  it  with   his 
foot  upon  the  front  wall,  the  striker, 
after  returning  it  on  the  wall,  has 
the  privilege  of  preventing  the  play- 
er from  striking  it  again. 

5.  If   a   ball   is   struck   with   the 
foot  and  assisted  by  the  hand  on  to 
the  front  wall,  it  is  foul,  and  counts 
an  ace  against  the  offender. 

6.  When  the  player  is  about  to 
strike   the   ball,  and   his   opponent 
jostles  him  or  gets  in  his  way  inten- 
tionally, it  is  an  ace  or  a  hand-out. 

7.  The  contestants    are   allowed 
one  minute  at  the  expiration  of  each 
game  before  commencing  another. 

8.  In  a  double  match  the  striker's 
partner   will   stand    with    his   back 
against   either  side  wall,  inside   of 
the  Ace  Line,  until  the  ball  leaves 
the  front  wall. 

9.  If  a  ball  served  to  the  player 
goes  over  the  Back-board  or  strikes 
the  gallery  before  bounding  on  the 
floor,  it  is  a  foul. 

10.  The  striker  shall  call  time  be- 
fore serving  the  ball,  and  shall  not 


serve  the  ball  before  the  player  or 
players  are  outside  of  the  line. 

11.  A   foul   must   count   as  such 
whether  the  players  play  it  or  not. 

12.  In  striking  the  ball  the  player 
shall  not  touch  the   ball  with  any 
part  of  his  person  other  than  the 
hand  or  foot,  under  a  forfeit  of  an 
ace  or  hand-out. 

13.  If  the   striker  in  serving  the 
ball  strikes  himself  or  his  partner 
with  the  ball  and  it  goes  over  the 
Ace  Line,  it  is  at  the  option  of  the 
player  whether   he   plays   to   it  or 
not. 

14.  In  case  there  are  qnly  bound- 
ary lines  drawn,  and  no  side  walls, 
if  the  ball   after  striking  the  front 
wall    rebounds     outside    the     side 
boundary  line,  such  ball  is  foul,  and 
is  a  hand  out. 

15.  All  disputed  balls  may  be  de- 
cided  by  a  referee  chosen   by  the 
players,  whose  decision  in  all  cases 
shall  be  final. 

The  early  history  of  hand  ball  is 
probably  the  same  as  that  of  TEN- 
NIS, which  was  formerly  played  by 
striking  the  ball  with  the  hand. 

Temari,  or  Japanese  Hand -ball, 
The  ball  used  by  the  Japanese  to 
play  this  game  is  about  two  inches 
in  diameter,  and  generally  of  cotton, 
wound  with  thread.  The  players, 
usually  girls,  stand  in  a  circle,  and 
one,  taking  the  ball  throws  it  down- 
ward on  the  ground,  striking  it  back 
as  it  rises.  She  continues  thus  till 
the  ball  bounds  away  from  her, 
when  the  player  toward  whom  it 
bounds,  or  who  is  nearest  its  direc- 
tion, must  strike  it  back.  When 
any  player  misses  a  stroke,  or  fails 
to  make  the  ball  rebound,  she  is  out 
of  the  game,  which  continues  until 
only  one  player  is  left.  That  one  is 
said  by  the  Japanese  to  gain  the 
honor  of  kachi  (victory),  and  leads 
off  in  the  next  game. 

HAND,  Experiments  with  the.  I. 
Press  the  finger-tips  of  one  hand 
forcibly  against  those  of  the  other 
and  open  and  shut  the  hands 
slightly.  After  a  few  seconds  it  is 


HANGING  GAME 


403 


HANGING   GAME 


easy,  on  shutting  the  eyes,  to  be- 
lieve that  there  are  coins  between 
the  finger-tips. 

2.  Hook  the  fingers  of  each  hand, 
holding  them   as   widely  apart   as 
possible,  and  then  move  the  hands 
backward  and  forward  through  the 
air  rapidly  and  forcibly  for  several 
seconds.     The  air  currents  between 
the  fingers  make  them  feel  as  if  the 
hands  were  full  of  cotton  or  some 
other  woolly  substance. 

3.  Holding  one  hand   horizontal, 
palm  downward,  and  fingers  closed, 
blow  through  the  crevice  between 
the  first  and  middle  fingers.     If  a 
piece  of  paper  two  or  three  inches 
square  be   placed   just    under  this 
crevice,  it   will  stick  to   the   hand, 
though   you   are    blowing    directly 
against  it.     The  reason  is,  that  the 
current  carries  away  some   of  the 
air  between  the  paper  and  the  hand, 
reducing  the  pressure,  and  the  pa- 
per is  thus  held  up  against  the  hand 
by  the  greater  pressure  of  the  air 
below  it. 

4.  Look  closely  at  the  inside  of 
the  fingers,  particularly  at  the  ends. 
It  will  be  seen  that  they  are  covered 
with  very  small  furrows,  running  in 
curved  lines.    By  using  a  lens,  these 
furrows  can  be  seen  more  plainly. 
To  make  them  plainer  still,  rub  the 
finger  lightly  over  a  piece  of  chalk. 
The    chalk   will    fill    the    furrows, 
which  will  thus  be  traced  in  white. 
A  print  of  the  furrows  on  paper  can 
be  obtained  by  spreading  ink  thinly 
on  a  piece  of  glass  or  a  sheet  of  pa- 
per.    When   it  is  nearly  dry,  press 
the  finger  lightly  on  it  and  then  on 
a  sheet  of  white  paper.    After  a  few 
trials  very  good  prints  can  be  made. 
The  arrangements  of  these  furrows 
are  said  to  be  different  in  any  two 
persons  and   to   remain    the   same 
throughout  one's  life.     An  interest- 
ing experiment  would  be  to  verify 
this  by  taking  a  print  of  the  same 
finger  every  year  for  a  number  of 
years. 

HANGING  GAME,   THE,  a  game 
played  by  two  persons,  one  of  whom 


puts  on  paper  a  row  of  dots,  one  for 
each  letter  of  a  familiar  proverb, 
while  the  other  tries  to  guess  the 
proverb.  The  dots  are  separated 
into  groups  corresponding  to  the 
different  words ;  for  instance,  for 
the  proverb  "Make  hay  while  the 
sun  shines  "  they  would  be  placed 
thus: 


The  guesser  begins  by  saying 
"  Write  down  an  E  "  (or  any  other 
letter  he  chooses).  If  there  is  an 
E  in  the  proverb,  the  other  writes 
it  down  in  place  of  the  correspond- 
ing dot.  If  there  are  two  or  more, 
he  writes  which  of  them  he  chooses. 
The  guesser  then  suggests  another 
letter,  and  so  on  till  enough  are 
written  down  to  enable  him  to 
guess  the  whole  proverb. 

In  one  corner  of  the  paper  is 
drawn  rudely  a  picture  of  a  gallows, 
with  a  rope  dangling 
from  it,  as  in  Fig.  i. 
When  the  guesser 
makes  his  first  mis- 
take, ordering  the 
other  player  to  write 
down  a  letter  not  con- 
tained in  the  prov- 
erb, a  little  circle, 
representing  a  man's 


Fig.  i. 


head,  is  added  to  the  rope  on  the 
gallows  (Fig.  2).  At  his  second 
mistake  a  neck  is  added,  and,  for 
the  successive  mistakes  after  that,  a 
body,  arms,  legs,  and  feet,  so  that 
the  gallows  appears  as  in  Fig.  3. 


/T\    /     \ 


Fig.  2. 


Fig.  3- 


If  the  whole  man  is  thus  hanged 
before  he  can  guess  the  proverb,  he 
loses  the  game,  otherwise  he  wins. 
When  it  is  found  that  the  guesser 
has  become  very  expert,  it  may  be 


HARDNESS 


404 


HARE  AND  HOUNDS 


agreed  that  he  shall  not  have  so 
many  chances,  by  "hanging"  both 
legs  or  both  arms  for  a  single  mis- 
take. The  guesser  may  show  con- 
siderable skill  in  choosing  his  let- 
ters. At  first  it  is  best  to  suggest 
those  that  occur  oftenest,  such  as 
the  vowels,  the  letter  S,  etc.  After- 
ward, the  letters  already  written 
may  suggest  others ;  for  instance, 
if  a  word  stands  "  t.  e,"  it  must  be 
"the,"  "tie,"  or  "toe,"  and  its  place 
in  the  sentence  will  often  decide 
which  is  right.  A  dot  standing  by 
itself  must  be  I,  O,  or  A  (see 
also  SECRET  WRITING).  The  only 
chance  the  other  player  has  for 
skill,  except  in  the  selection  of  his 
proverb,  is  when  the  guesser  sug- 
gests a  letter  of  which  there  are 
more  than  one  in  the  sentence,  in 
which  case  he  should  of  course  write 
the  one  that  he  thinks  will  be  of  the 
least  help  in  guessing.  The  guesser 
is  usually  allowed  as  many  guesses 
as  he  chooses,  which  may  be  made 
at  any  time,  but  it  is  better  to  make 
a  wrong  guess  count  as  a  mistake. 
If  the  guesser  is  careful,  he  need 
not  make  a  wrong  guess,  for  prob- 
ably no  two  proverbs  have  exactly 
the  same  number  of  letters  in  their 
words,  taken  in  the  same  order. 
Instead  of  a  proverb,  it  may  be 
agreed  that  the  dots  are  to  repre- 
sent any  sentence  which  makes 
guessing  more  difficult.  The  game 
can  be  made  harder  also  by  not 
separating  the  dots  into  groups. 
The  name,  "The  Hanging  Game," 
is  from  the  way  in  which  the  mis- 
takes are  scored. 

HARDNESS,  Experiments  on. 
When  one  substance  will  scratch 
another,  the  first  is  said  to  be  harder 
than  the  second.  It  is  an  interest- 
ing experiment  to  make  a  list  of  all 
the  substances  one  can  obtain,  in 
the  order  of  their  hardness.  Some- 
times one  substance  will  be  the 
hardest  in  the  list  for  a  long 
time,  till  finally  another  is  found 
which  will  scratch  it.  To  try  the 
experiment  fairly,  a  sharp  point  or 


edge  must  be  found  to  scratch  with. 
It  will  be  seen  that  hardness  has 
nothing  to  do  with  brittleness ; 
glass,  for  instance,  being  much 
harder  than  soapstone,  for  it  will 
scratch  it  easily.  Yet  it  is  not  diffi- 
cult to  break  a  pane  of  glass  with  a 
lump  of  soapstone. 

HARE  AND  HOUNDS,  or  PAPER 
CHASE,  a  running  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons.  One  or 
two  of  the  players  are  chosen  as 
hares,  and  each  is  provided  with  a 
bag  filled  with  small  clippings  of 
paper,  called  the  "  scent."  The 
hares  start  off  together,  the  rest  of 
the  players,  called  hounds,  not  be- 
ing allowed  to  see  the  direction 
they  take.  After  from  five  to  fifteen 
minutes,  according  to  agreement, 
the  hounds  set  off  in  pursuit.  The 
hares,  as  they  run,  throw  out,  now 
and  then,  handfuls  of  the  scent,  by 
which  means  the  hounds  are  enabled 
to  follow  them.  They  may  try  to 
puzzle  their  pursuers  by  turning 
back,  or  taking  a  new  direction  sud- 
denly, or  in  other  ways.  The  run  may 
be  for  a  certain  number  of  miles,  or 
for  a  certain  length  of  time,  agreed 
on  at  the  start.  If  a  hound  catches 
one  of  the  hares  in  the  specified  dis- 
tance or  time,  he  wins,  otherwise 
the  hares  win.  If  a  hound  catches 
sight  of  the  hares,  he  and  his  com- 
panions may  not  run  toward  them 
directly,  but  must  follow  the  scent, 
though  it  is  sometimes  allowed  if 
previously  agreed  upon.  Where 
boys  play  the  game,  instead  of  using 
paper  "  scent,"  the  hare  sometimes 
carries  a  piece  of  chalk,  with  which 
he  makes  a  cross,  or  other  mark  on 
a  fence,  a  stone,  or  the  pavement, 
and  the  hounds  follow  by  these 
marks.  When  the  hares  are  strong 
and  skilful,  they  can  often  elude  the 
hounds  with  very  little  start.  Some- 
times there  are  formed  regular  Hare 
and  Hound  clubs,  which  hold 
"  meets "  or  runs  at  stated  times, 
and  have  rules  by  which  these  runs 
are  regulated.  In  summer  the 
"  scent "  should  be  of  white  paper; 


HARE  AND   HOUNDS 


405 


HARE  AND    HOUNDS 


in  winter  of  black,  so  as  to  be  seen 
easily  on  the  snow. 

Sometimes  the  hares  can  deceive 
the  hounds  by  laying  a  false  scent 
faintly,  while  the  real  one  is  strong. 
The  hounds  will  generally  conclude 
that  the  hares  are  trying  to  make 
them  take  the  strong  scent,  and 
will  therefore  follow  the  faint  one. 
If  one  hare  is  a  better  runner  than 
his  companion,  he  is  given  the  task 
of  laying  all  the  false  scents,  other- 
wise the  two  do  so  by  turns.  In 
case  the  hares  are  allowed  to  lay  the 
handfuls  of  scent  so  far  apart  that 
there  is  delay  in  finding  it,  it  is  very 
seldom  that  they  are  caught  by  the 
hounds.  The  sport  then  consists 
in  a  contest  between  the  latter  to 
see  who  shall  reach  the  end  of  the 
run  soonest.  Sometimes  two  rival 
clubs  form  the  pack  of  hounds,  and 
the  victory  is  decided  by  adding  to- 
gether the  numbers  representing 
the  order  in  which  each  member  of 
the  club  reaches  the  finish.  Thus, 
suppose  that  two  clubs  of  five  men 
each,  distinguished  by  the  colors 
red  and  blue,  come  in  in  the  follow- 
ing order :  Red,  blue,  red,  red,  blue, 
blue,  blue,  red,  blue,  red.  The  score 
would  be  as  follows : 


Red. 

I 

3 

4 

8 
10 

26 


Blue. 

2 


29 


Red  is  therefore  the  winner,  the 
smaller  numbers  representing  those 
who  come  in  first. 

The  Germans  call  this  game 
Schnitzeljagd  (Scrap-hunt). 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

The  National  Cross  Country  As- 
sociation, to  which  most  of  the 
Hare  and  Hound  clubs  in  the  United 
States  belong,  has  adopted  the  fol- 
lowing rules  for  the  sport. 


1.  Slow  Chases. — There   shall   be 
two  Hares,  one  Master  of  the  Pack, 
and  two  Whips,  to  be  appointed  by 
the  Club  Captain  or  other  recog- 
nized authority. 

2.  The  Hares  shall  be  allowed  a 
start  of  from  five  to  ten  minutes,  at 
the  discretion  of  the  Captain. 

3.  The    Master,    who    shall     act 
also  as  Pacemaker,  shall  have  sole 
control    of    the    Pack,    and    until 
the  break  is  ordered,   he  shall,  at 
his    pleasure,     appoint     temporary 
Pacemakers  at   any   period  of  the 
chase. 

4.  The    members   of    the    Pack 
must  keep  within  hailing  distance 
of  the  Master,  and  under  ordinary 
circumstances     must   always    keep 
behind  the  Master  until  the  break 
for  home  is  ordered. 

5.  Only     one     break    shall      be 
ordered    by   the  Master,  and  then 
only   for  home ;   such   break  shall 
never  be  more  than  a  mile. 

6.  It   shall   be   the    duty  of  the 
Whips  to  keep  the  Pack  together, 
and  to  collect  and  assist  all  strag- 
glers. 

7.  Fast  Chases. — In    fast   chases 
there    shall    be    two    Hares,    who 
shall   be   allowed   a  start  of   from 
five  to  fifteen  minutes,  to  be  fixed 
by  the    Captain    after  considering 
the  relative   ability   of  both   Pack 
and  Hares. 

8.  The  scent  shall  be  laid  from 
the  start,  and  each  hound  may  run 
at  his  own  pace. 

9.  It  shall  be  in  the  discretion  of 
the   Captain  or  other  officer  acting 
in  his  stead,  to  order  a  break   for 
home  or  to  allow  the  Pack  to  race 
from  start  to  finish. 

10.  General. — Club  runs  shall  be 
runs   for  which   no   scent   is   laid, 
but   in   all   other  conditions   must 
conform  to  those  of  a  slow  chase. 

11.  In  all  chases  the  Hares  shall 
lay    a    fair    and    continuous    trail 
throughout,    and     shall      not      be 
allowed  to  double   on    their  trail; 
they  shall  be  allowed  to  cross  ford- 
able  streams  only,  and    must  sur- 


HEARTS 


406 


HEARTS 


mount  all  obstacles  over  which  they 
lay  the  trail. 

12.  In  all  chases  the  Hares  must 
keep  within  hailing  distance  of  each 
other. 

13.  Under  no  circumstances  must 
the  Pack    follow  the  line  of  sight 
when  the  Hares  are  seen,  but  must 
always  follow  the  trail. 

14.  In   all  chases    the    break  for 
home  shall  be  indicated  by  a  scat- 
tered   bunch  of  paper,  different  in 
color  from  that  used  on  the  trail. 

1 5.  Touching  one  of  the  Hares  by 
any  member  of  the  Pack  shall  con- 
stitute a  catch. 

16.  If  the  Hares  do  not  finish  to- 
gether, the  time  of  the  last  Hare  in 
shall  be  considered  the  time  of  their 
arrival. 

17.  A  Slow  Pack  may  be  started 
at  the  discretion  of  the  Captain  in 
all    runs    and    chases    (except    for 
prizes),  under  the  control  of  a  Mas- 
ter and  two  Whips.     A  start  of  one 
minute  for  each  mile  estimated  to 
be  covered  shall  be  allowed  by  the 
Fast  Pack. 

Hare  and  Hounds  is  a  very  old 
sport  in  England.  In  an  old  com- 
edy of  the  i6th  century  a  schoolboy 
is  represented  as  saying  ; 

"  And  also  when  I   play  and  hunt  the  fox, 
I  outrun  all  the  boys  in  the  school." 

This  refers  to  the  modern  Hare 
and  Hounds,  which  as  late  as  the 
last  century  was  called  Hunt  the 
Fox,  or  Hunt  the  Hare.  In  1868  it 
was  adopted  as  a  sport  by  older 
persons,  and  it  has  ever  since  held 
a  place  among  athletic  sports. 

HEARTS,  a  game  of  cards, 
played  by  two  to  twelve  persons, 
with  a  full  pack,  and  any  desired 
number  of  COUNTERS.  The  count- 
ers are  divided  equally  among  the 
players,  and  the  cards  are  then 
dealt,  one  by  one,  as  in  whist.  For 
instance,  if  six  are  plavinjj,  each  will 
have  eight  cards,  and  four  cards 
will  be  left.  Those  that  are  left  are 
laid  aside  for  a  time.  As  soon  as 
the  cards  are  dealt,  the  one  at  the 


left  of  the  dealer  puts  one  or  more 
counters  in  the  middle  of  the  table, 
a  large  number  if  he  has  a  good 
hand,  but  otherwise  a  few.  This 
is  called  the  "  ante,"  and  the  antes 
of  all  the  players  together  form  the 
"pool."  Each  of  the  others  must 
place  in  the  pool,  for  his  ante,  as 
many  counters  as  the  first  player 
put  in.  Some  players  put  in  three 
counters  each  to  form  the  pool  be- 
fore the  cards  are  dealt.  Beginning 
at  the  dealer's  left,  each  then  plays 
one  card,  following  suit  if  possible, 
he  who  plays  the  highest  taking  the 
trick,  and  then  leading.  The  taker 
of  the  first  trick  takes  also  the 
cards,  if  any,  that  were  left  over  in 
dealing.  The  rank  of  the  cards  is 
the  same  as  in  WHIST,  but  there  are 
no  trumps.  The  object  of  the  game 
is  to  take  no  Hearts,  and  so  long  as 
none  are  played  it  makes  no  differ- 
ence who  takes  the  tricks  except 
to  decide  who  shall  lead.  The  play- 
ers usually  try  to  get  rid  of  their 
high  cards  at  the  beginning  of  the 
game,  and  Hearts  should  never  be 
led  unless  by  watching  the  cards 
played,  the  leader  is  sure  that  the 
trick  must  be  taken  by  some  one 
else.  Large  Hearts  should  be  thrown 
away  in  preference  to  all  other 
cards.  When  all  the  cards  have  been 
played,  each  player  must  place  in  the 
pool  a  counter  for  every  card  of  the 
Heart  suit  that  he  has  taken.  The 
pool  is  then  divided  among  those 
who  have  no  hearts ;  but  if  every  one 
has  some,  the  counters  remain  to 
form  part  of  the  next  pool.  Some- 
times this  is  varied  by  giving  the 
pool  to  him  who  has  least  Hearts. 
The  game  can  be  played  for  any 
length  of  time  agreed  on,  and  at  the 
end  of  that  time  the  one  who  has 
most  counters  is  the  winner.  If 
any  one  has  given  out  all  his  count- 
ers, he  may  be  allowed  to  borrow 
from  some  one;  but  his  debt,  if  un- 
paid, must  be  remembered  in  count- 
ing up  to  see  who  has  won. 

In  Hearts,  a  low  hand  is  general- 
ly a  good  hand.     High  Hearts  are 


HEARTS 


407 


HEARTS 


very  bad  to  have,  and  so  are  high 
cards  of    any  suit    that    has    been 


played  once  or  twice.    It  is  there- 
fore best  to  lead  a  high  card    of 


Heliostat.     (See  page  408.) 

some  suit  that  has  not  been  played,  I  It  is  of  course  always  safe  to  lead 
or  a  low  card  of  some  other  suit.  '  the  lowest  Heart,  and  generally  safe 


HELIOSTAT 


408 


HEN 


to  lead  one  of  the  lowest  three. 
When  a  player  is  obliged  to  take  a 
trick  he  should  do  so  with  the  high- 
est card  possible  and,  in  general,  he 
should  always  try  to  get  rid  of  high 
cards  in  any  way  except  by  taking 
a  trick  on  which  a  Heart  has  been 
played  or  is  likely  to  be  played. 
The  player  must  watch  how  the 
cards  fall  as  carefully  as  in  WHIST, 
and  special  account  must  be  kept  of 
the  Hearts. 

The  Double  or  Eagle  Garnet  Each 
player,  instead  of  paying  the  pool 
one  chip  for  each  Heart  he  takes, 
gives  for  an  Ace,  14;  a  King,  13; 
a  Queen,  12  ;  a  Knave,  u  ;  and  for 
each  of  the  other  cards  as  many  as 
the  spots  it  bears.  Sometimes  an 
Ace  counts,  5  ;  a  King,  4  :  a  Queen, 
3  ;  a  Knave  2  ;  and  each  of  the  other 
cards,  i. 

HELIOSTAT,  an  arrangement  for 
throwing  sunlight  into  a  room, 
much  used  in  experiments  with 
light.  The  light  is  reflected  in  by 
means  of  a  mirror,  but,  as  the  sun 
is  continually  moving,  the  mirror 
also  must  move,  or  else  the  direc- 
tion of  the  sunbeam  would  change. 
In  very  fine  heliostats  this  is  done 
by  clock-work,  but  in  the  one  about 
to  be  described,  which  can  be  made 
by  any  one,  it  is  done  by  hand. 
The  illustration  shows  the  different 
parts  of  the  instrument.  AB  is  a 
board  which  fits  in  a  window,  CC 
two  ordinary  iron  brackets,  and  D  a 
shelf.  The  size  of  all  these  parts  is 
given  by  the  scale  at  the  bottom  of 
the  cut.  H  is  a  round  wooden 
rod  turning  freely  in  a  hole  in  the 
board  AB  and  in  the  block  K.  It 
is  kept  from  slipping  by  the  wooden 
washer  M  fitting  tightly  over  it. 
The  other  end  has  a  slot  in  it  in 
which  turns  a  wooden  semicircle  G, 
screwed  to  the  back  of  a  board  N,  to 
which  is  fastened  a  piece  of  silvered 
glass  (not  ordinary  looking-glass) 
by  means  of  elastic  bands.  The 
sunlight  is  reflected  from  this  to 
another  mirror,  O,  on  the  shelf  D, 
and  thence  through  the  hole  B  into 


the  room.  The  rod  with  its  slot  is 
shown  separately  at  JI,  and  the 
semicircle  at  G. 

The  proper  working  of  the  whole 
arrangement  depends  on  getting 
the  rod  H  at  the  correct  angle. 
The  angle  made  by  this  rod  with  a 
horizontal  line  must  equal  the  lati- 
tude of  the  place  where  it  is  used, 
for  instance  40°  45'  at  New  York  or 
42°  22'  at  Boston.  If  this  is  done, 
when  the  heliostat  is  put  in  a 
window  facing  directly  south  the 
rod  H  will  point  to  the  pole-star. 
Since  the  sky  appears  to  turn 
around  the  pole-star,  the  daily  mo- 
tion of  the  sun  can  be  followed  by 
simply  turning  the  rod  H  from  time 
to  time,  thus  keeping  the  reflected 
sunbeam  in  the  same  direction. 
But  since  the  sun  changes  place  a 
little  every  day  the  mirror  N  will 
have  to  be  tilted  at  a  slightly  dif- 
ferent angle  every  day  by  turning 
it  around  the  middle  point  of  G. 

In  case  the  room  has  no  window 
which  faces  the  south  exactly,  the 
one  which  does  so  most  nearly 
must  be  selected  and  the  board 
twisted  a  little  in  the  sash  so  that 
it  will  look  directly  southward. 
The  upper  part  of  the  window,  and 
all  other  windows  in  the  room, 
must  be  covered  with  shawls  or 
blankets  so  that  no  light  can  enter 
except  the  beam  sent  from  the  helio- 
stat. It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  a 
plain  wooden  table  just  under  the 
opening  through  which  the  beam 
comes,  for  making  experiments. 

HEN,  THE.  A  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons  who  sit  in 
a  row.  The  leader,  who  is  at  the 
end,  says  to  his  neighbor,  "  I  have  a 
hen,"  and  each  in  turn  must  repeat 
the  words  to  his  nearest  neighbor. 
When  they  have  reached  the  farther 
end  of  the  line  the  player  at  that 
end  asks  of  the  one  next  him, 
"  Has  she  feathers?"  And  when 
this  question  has  travelled  back  to 
the  leader  he  returns  the  answer 
"She  has  feathers."  Then  follow 
in  like  manner  the  questions  and 


HERBARIUM 


409 


HEXME: 


answers,  "  Can  she  walk  ?  "  She 
can  walk."  "  How  does  she  walk  ?" 
"  Wiggledy-woggledy,  wiggledy- 
woggledy."  (As  each  player  says 
this  he  imitates  the  walk  of  a 
chicken  with  his  hands).  "Can 
she  crow  ?"  "  She  can  crow." 
"  How  does  she  crow  ?"  (each 
then  imitates  the  crowing  of  a 
rooster). 

The  object  of  the  game  is  to  keep 
from  laughing,  which  is  usually 
difficult.  Any  one  who  laughs  or 
makes  a  mistake  in  repeating  the 
questions  and  answers  must  pay  a 
forfeit. 

This  game  is  played  by  German 
children,  who  call  it  "  Entchen 
Verkaufen1'  (Duckling  Buying). 

HERBARIUM,  a  collection  of 
dried  plants.  The  collector  should 
be  provided  with  a  tin  botanical 
case,  or  with  two  or  three  dozen 
sheets  of  thick  soft  unglazed  wrap- 
ping paper  between  two  boards. 
The  sheets  of  paper  and  boards 
should  be  a  little  larger  than  the 
sheets,  or  scrap-book,  in  which  it 
is  intended  to  preserve  the  plants. 
Each  specimen,  as  it  is  gathered,  is 
placed  in  the  case,  or  between  two 
of  the  sheets  of  paper.  On  reach- 
ing home,  the  collector  must  trans- 
fer his  plants  to  fresh  sheets  of 
paper  of  the  same  kind,  placing 
three  or  four  sheets  between  each 
pair  of  specimens,  and  must  place 
on  the  board  at  the  top  any  conven- 
ient weights,  such  as  books,  or 
bricks.  After  letting  them  remain 
thus  twenty-four  to  forty-eight 
hours,  they  must  be  removed  to 
fresh  paper  and  pressed  again  for 
an  equal  length  of  time.  The  damp 
paper  from  which  they  are  taken 
should  be  dried  before  the  fire,  or 
in  the  sun,  before  using  again.  The 
specimens  must  now  be  mounted, 
or  fastened  to  separate  sheets  of 
paper.  This  may  be  done  either  by 
gumming  down  the  whole  plant,  or 
by  pasting  little  paper  bands  across 
parts  of  it.  The  latter  method  ad- 
mits of  removing  the  specimen  if 


desired,  or  changing  it  to  a  fresh 
sheet.  The  plants  may  be  mounted 
in  a  scrap-book,  but  the  better 
way  is  to  put  each  on  a  separate 
sheet.  The  sheets  may  be  kept 
in  a  box,  under  a  light  weight. 
A  bit  of  camphor  in  the  box  will 
preserve  the  dried  plants,  but  the 
best  plan  is  to  look  them  over  thor- 
oughly every  six  months,  thus  air- 
ing them  well.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  put  them  away  in  the 
box  unless  they  are  quite  dry,  other- 
wise they  will  mould. 

The  name  of  the  plant  should  be 
marked  on  each  sheet,  with  the 
date  and  place  of  its  collection.  If 
the  collector  is  a  student  of  botany, 
he  will  of  course  add  the  botanical 
name,  and  will  arrange  his  leaves 
by  genera  and  species.  The  botani- 
cal collector  will  have  to  be  careful 
about  some  things  which  need  not 
trouble  one  who  collects  merely  for 
amusement.  He  must  take  care  to 
have  his  specimens  show  well  all  the 
characteristic  points  of  the  plant, 
and  each  should  bear  fruit  or  seed- 
vessel,  if  possible,  as  well  as  flower. 

Sea-weed.  To  prepare  sea- weed 
for  mounting,  the  specimen  must  be 
floated  on  the  surface  of  water  in  a 
bowl  or  soup-plate,  and  then  the  card 
or  paper  to  which  it  is  to  be  fast- 
ened is  slipped  under  it.  If  the  pa- 
per is  not  stiff.it  should  be  supported 
on  a  slip  of  glass  or  of  tin  perforated 
with  holes  to  allow  the  water  to  drain 
off.  The  sea-weed  should  now  be 
arranged  on  the  card,  under  water, 
with  a  camel's  hair  brush,  and  any 
unnecessary  parts  removed  with 
scissors.  The  paper  and  sea-weed 
together  are  now  removed,  laid  on 
blotting-paper,  and  covered  first 
with  a  piece  of  linen,  and  then  with 
another  piece  of  blotting-paper. 
After  this  it  is  pressed  like  any  other 
specimen.  Most  sea-weed  will  ad- 
here to  paper  of  itself,  but  some 
specimens  require  a  little  muci- 
lage. 

HEXMEX,  a  game  played  by  two 
persons,  with  slate  and  pencil,  or 


HIDE   AND   SEEK 


410 


HITCHINSON    FAMILY 


paper  and  pencil.     Each  makes  on 
the  slate  marks  like  the  following, 

«  t  t  t  t  t  t  t  t  t  t- 
the  first  sign  representing  a  king  and 
the  others  common  soldiers.  Each 
can  have  only  one  king,  but  as  many 
soldiers  as  he  pleases.  One  of  the 
players  now  takes  his  pencil  and  re- 
peats a  nonsense  rhyme,  keeping 
time  to  it  by  pointing  at  the  signs, 
in  regular  order,  first  to  one  of  his 
own  and  then  to  one  of  the  other 
player's.  The  soldier  or  king  on 
wliom  the  last  word  falls  is  dead, 
and  is  crossed  or  rubbed  out.  The 
other  player  repeats  the  operation, 
and  so  on  alternately  till  one  of 
the  kings  is  dead.  The  owner  of 
the  living  king  is  then  the  victor. 
Any  ordinary  COUNTING-OUT  rhyme 
may  be  repeated.  In  Germany, 
where  it  is  much  played,  the  follow- 
ing is  one  of  the  common  rhymes 
used,  and  gives  the  game  its  name  : 

Hex  mex  Mere  mex. 
Peter  Paul  Potn-pex, 
SchUtgt  alle  bosen  Buben  mil  der  Kugel 
auf  den  Kopf  Mause  todt. 

Which  is  in  English  : 

Hex  mex,  Mary  mex, 
Peter  Paul  Pom-pex, 
Knocks  all  bad  boys  with  a  stick  on  the 
head  dead  as  mice. 

HIDE   AND  SEEK,  or  HIDE  AND 
WHOOP.     See  1  SPY. 

HIDE    THE    HANDKERCHIEF,    a 

game  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons, one  or  more  of  whom  look  for 
a  hidden  object,  generally  a  hand- 
kerchief. The  game  is  played  in 
various  ways.  Sometimes  one 
player  hides  the  object  and  all  the 
rest  look  for  it ;  and  sometimes  only 
one  or  two  look,  while  the  others 
tell  them  whether  they  are  near  or 
far  from  the  object,  generally  by 
saying  "  cold  "  when  they  are  far 
away,  "  cool  "  when  not  quite  so  far, 
"  warm  "  when  near,  and  "  hot " 
or  "  burning  "  when  very  near.  He 
who  finds  the  object  first  hides  it 
again.  The  game  is  often  called 
"  Hide  the  Thimble,"  or  by  other 
names,  according  to  the  object  used. 
Magical  Music,  a  kind  of  Hide 
the  Handkerchief,  in  which  the 


seeker  is  told  by  music,  generally 
that  of  a  piano-forte,  whether  he  is 
near  or  far  from  the  object.  The 
music  may  be  softer  as  heapproaches 
the  object,  ceasing  altogether  when 
he  has  found  it,  or  it  may  be  louder 
as  he  comes  nearer  the  object.  The 
"  music  "  is  often  made  by  striking 
a  poker  against  a  pair  of  tongs. 

Hide  in  Sight,  a  kind  of  Hide 
the  Handkerchief,  in  which  the  ob- 
ject, usually  something  unnotice- 
able,  like  a  small  coin,  is  placed 
where  it  may  be  seen  without  re- 
moving anything,  for  instance,  on 
the  floor,  or  on  a  table  or  chair. 
One  of  the  players  thus  places  it 
while  the  others  are  out  of  the 
room.  The  latter  enter  at  a  signal 
and  begin  to  look  for  the  object. 
As  soon  as  any  one  sees  it  he  sits 
down  quietly,  while  the  others  go 
on  looking.  He  who  is  last  to  sit 
down  places  the  object  for  the  next 

c  f*  p  -rrt  Vi 

HIGH-LOW-JACK.  See  ALL 
FOURS. 

HITCHINSON      FAMILY,       THE. 

Four    or    more  grotesque   life-size 


FIG.  i. 


figures  are  painted  on  a  canvas  cur- 
tain, through  which  holes  are  cut 


HOCKEY,  OR  SHINNEY 


411 


HOCKEY,  OR  SHINNEY 


where  the  faces  of  the  figures  should 
be.  (See  Fig.  i).  Into  these  holes 
the  performers  put  their  faces,  from 
the  rear  of  the  curtain,  making  a 
comical  effect  from  the  front  (Fig. 
2).  They  may  thus  give  any  kind 
of  concert  or  minstrel  performance. 
Some  of  the  figures  may  be  made 
tall  and  others  short,  the  persons 
behind  the  curtain  standing  on 
chairs,  or  kneeling  on  the  floor,  as 


FIG.  2. 


the  case  may  require.  A  showman 
may  introduce  the  "family "  to  the 
audience,  giving  a  comical  history 
and  description  of  each  member. 

The  name  "  Hitchinson  Family  " 
is  in  imitation  of  the  "Hutchinson 
Family,"  a  popular  band  of  singers 
who  went  around  giving  concerts 
from  about  1840  to  1860. 

HOCKEY,  or  SHINNEY,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
each  of  whom  has  a  stick  with  a 
curved  end,  called  a  hockey,  or  shin- 
ney,  with  which  he  tries  to  drive  a 
small  ball  past  a  line  called  the 
goal-line.  The  field  has  two  goal- 
lines  about  300  or  400  feet  apart,  and 
is  bounded  on  the  sides  by  lines 


about  200  feet  apart,  as  shown  be- 
low. An  umpire  having  been  se- 
lected, the  players  choose  sides,  anc4 

side  line 


300  feet 


side  line 

each  side  elects  a  captain.  The  cap- 
tains decide  in  any  way  they  please, 
usually  by  lot,  which  shall  have  the 
knock-off,  and  which  the  choice  of 
goals,  the  winner  taking  whichever 
of  these  privileges  he  likes.  The 
players  then  stand  each  with  his 
back  to  his  own  goal,  and  at  a  dis- 
tance from  it  not  greater  than  one 
third  the  length  of  the  field.  The 
captain  of  the  side  which  has  the 
knock-off,  or  some  one  chosen  by 
him,  then  places  the  ball  on  the 
ground  as  far  forward  as  he  chooses, 
within  the  above-stated  limits,  but 
equally  distant  from  both  side  lines, 
and  strikes  it  with  his  hockey.  As 
soon  as  it  moves,  any  player  is  free 
to  go  to  what  part  of  the  field  he 
chooses,  his  object  being  to  prevent 
the  ball's  passing  over  his  own  goal- 
line,  and  to  drive  it  across  the  ene- 
my's line.  The  side  which  does  this 
first  wins  the  game. 

The  sticks  used  in  playing  hockey 
may  be  of  different  sizes  at  the  pleas- 
ure of  the  player,  but  the  curved  end 
is  generally  not  more  than  four  inches 
long.  They  are  sometimes  bent 
from  straight  sticks,  but  oftener  cut 
from  saplings,  part  of  the  root  form- 
ing the  curve.  When  the  game  is 
played  on  the  ice,  as  it  often  is,  a 
lighter  stick  should  be  used,  as  less 
force  is  required  to  drive  the  ball. 
The  ball  is  commonly  of  rubber, 
about  two  inches  in  diameter,  but  a 
small  block  of  wood  called  a  nun,  of 
about  the  same  size,  is  often  used  in- 
stead. The  ball  is  better,  for  it  is 
not  so  dangerous.  Hockey  is  not 
played  by  regular  clubs,  like  foot- 


HOCKEY,  OR  SHINNEY 


412 


HONEY-POTS 


ball  or  base-ball,  and  the  rules  differ 
somewhat  in  different  places.  Those 
usually  followed  are  given  below. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  Each  captain   shall    place  his 
players  as  he  pleases,  sending  some 
forward  to  try  to  drive  the  ball  across 
the  enemy's  goal-line  (called  "  run- 
ning in  "),  and   some   backward   to 
defend  his  own   line  (called  "  lying 
back"). 

2.  Each  player  must  strike  the  ball 
from  right  to  left.     If  he  do  so  in 
any  other  way,  he   may  be   told   by 
his   opponent   to   "  shinney  on   his 
own  side,"  and  at  the  third  offence 
he  shall  be  disqualified  by  the  um- 
pire and  must  leave  the  field.     (In 
many   places,  when    no    umpire    is 
chosen,  custom  allows  a  player  to 
strike  an  offender  against  this  rule 
on  his  shins,  but  this  should  not  be 
permitted.) 

3.  No  player  shall  strike  another's 
hockey  except  in  so  far  as  he  must 
do   so    in    trying  to  drive  the  ball. 
(In. many  places,  when  two  players 
meet,  each  tries  to  knock  the  other's 
stick  from  his  hands  before  touch- 
ing the  ball,  but  this  should  not  be 
permitted,  as  it  places  skill   below 
mere  strength.) 

4.  With  the  exception  of  the  cases 
staled   in  the  two  following  rules, 
no  one  shall  touch  the  ball  with  his 
hand. 

5.  When  the  ball  is  driven  over 
one  of  the  side  lines,  the  player  who 
reaches  it  first  shall  take  it  in  his 
hand,  and  going  to  the  point  where 
it  crossed  the  line,  throw  it  on  the 
ground  near  any  player  he  pleases, 
either  back  toward  his  own  goal,  or 
directly  across  the  field,  but  not  to- 
ward the  enemy's  goal. 

6.  When  the  ball  falls  into  a  hole, 
or  isin  any  place  out  of  which  it  can- 
not be  driven  with  hockeys  it  shall 
be  withdrawn  with  the  hand,  by  or- 
der of  the  umpire,  and  thrown  by 
him  between  any  players  of  opposite 
sides,  chosen  by  the  captains. 

7.  Questions  not  touched  by  these 


rules  shall  be  decided  by  the  um- 
pire. 

History.  Some  authorities  think 
that  POLO,  or  hockey  on  horseback, 
was  the  original  form  of  the  game. 
The  modern  form  of  hockey  wai 
played  long  ago  in  England,  where 
it  was  also  called  Hookey  and  Haw- 
key. Some  say  that  the  name  is 
from  Hock-day,  a  holiday  thatcele* 
brated  the  expulsion  of  the  Daned 
from  England,  and  others  that  it  is 
from  the  hooked  sticks  with  which 
the  game  is  played.  Games  simi- 
lar to  Hockey  are  LACROSSE  and 
GOLF. 

HONEY-POTS,  a  game  for  very 
small  children,  any  number  of  whom 
may  represent  honey-pots,  while 
older  persons  take  the  part  of  honey 
merchant  and  customers.  The 
honey  pots  sit  on  the  floor  or  grass 


Weighing  a  Honey-pot. 

in  a  row  with  hands  clasped  under 
their  bent  knees.  After  a  dialogue 
between  the  merchant  and  a  cus- 
tomer, in  any  words  they  please,  the 
latter  selects  a  honey  pot,  and  they 
proceed  to  weigh  it.  This  is  done 
by  taking  the  child  by  the  arms  and 
swinging  him  backward  and  forward 
till  he  is  compelled  to  unclasp  his 
hands  and  allow  his  feet  to  touch 
the  ground  or  floor.  The  pot  is 
supposed  to  weigh  as  many  pounds 
as  it  has  had  swings.  Another  cus- 


HONORS 


413 


HOOPS 


tomer  may  now  appear,  or  the  same 
one  may  make  some  objection  and 
desire  to  try  another  pot. 

In  another  similar  game  played  in 
England,  the  child  who  lets  go'  is 
called  "Rotten  Egg,"  which  is  re- 
garded as  a  disgrace.  The  game  in 
Italy  is  called  "  Weighing."  The 
child,  after  being  lifted,  is  made  to 
jump  over  one  of  the  arms  of  his 
bearers.  If  he  escapes,  he  is  sup- 
posed to  be  going  to  Paradise,  other- 
wise to  the  infernal  regions.  There 
are  similar  French  and  German 
games. 

HONORS,  a  SOLITAIRE  game  of 
CARDS,  played  with  two  packs.  The 
Two  of  Spades.  King  of  Hearts,  Ace 
of  Diamonds,  and  Queen  of  Clubs 
are  placed  in  a  row,  and  below  them 
the  King  of  Spades,  Queen  of 
Hearts,  Knave  of  Diamonds,  and 
Ten  of  Clubs.  On  these  cards  the 
others  are  to  be  built  in  families, 
following  suit;  building  upward  on 
the  upper  row  and  downward  on  the 
lower,  ending  in  each  case  with  the 
card  next  in  rank  to  the  one  at  the 
bottom.  In  playing,  the  cards  are 
laid  off  from  the  pack  in  two  rows 
of  ten  each,  except  those  that  are 
available  for  building,  which  are 
laid  at  once  in  their  proper  places. 

A  card  may  now  be  placed  on 
each  of  these  twenty  in  any  order 
the  player  wishes,  and  when  this 
has  been  done  three  more  cards  may 
be  laid  off  from  the  pack.  An 
empty  space  in  the  rows  may  be 
filled  with  the  top  card  of  any  pile, 
and  any  top  card  that  becomes  avail- 
able is  used  at  once  in  building.  If 
the  families  can  be  completed  thus, 
the  player  wins. 

HOODMAN  BLIND.  See  BLIND 
MAN'S  BUFF. 

HOOK  'EM  SNIFFEY,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons 
with  a  ring  at  the  end  of  a  long 
cord  tied  to  the  limb  of  a  tree.  A 
hook  is  driven  into  the  tree,  and  the 
players  in  order  try  to  swing  the 
ring  so  that  it  will  catch  on  the 
hook.  He  who  succeeds  scores  a 


point.  Instead  of  a  tree  an  upright 
post  with  a  crossbar  is  often  used. 
Sometimes,  instead  of  one  hook,  a 
board  is  arranged  with  several 
hooks,  each  of  which  has  a  number 
under  it.  In  this  case  the  successful 
player  scores  the  number  of  the 
hook  on  which  he  hangs  the  ring. 
After  any  number  of  turns  agreed 
on,  he  who  has  scored  the  highest 
number  of  points  wins. 

HOOPS.  To  trundle  a  hoop  well 
requires  considerable  skill.  It  is 
more  difficult  to  do  it  slowly  than 
swiftly,  but  those  skilled  in  the  art 
can  keep  one  in  motion  even  while 
walking.  The  strike  should  be  made 
directly  forward,  and  not  at  all  on 
the  side  of  the  hoop,  otherwise  the 
motion  will  be  unsteady.  It  may  be 
steadied  by  holding  the  stick  flatly 
against  the  sides  alternately,  and  it 
is  steered  in  the  same  way.  The 
best  part  of  the  stick  to  strike  with 
is  a  point  distant  from  the  hand  by 
two  thirds  of  its  length.  This  is 
what  is  called  the  centre  of  percus- 
sion. In  any  other  place  the  full 
!  force  of  the  blow  is  not  utilized. 
The  hoop  can  also  be  trundled  by 
holding  the  stick  firmly  against  the 
middle,  and  pushing,  not  striking. 
Some  sticks,  especially  iron  ones  for 
driving  iron  hoops,  are  made  with  a 
hook  at  the  end  for  holding  the 
hoop  when  trundled  in  this  way. 

The  fact  that  a  hoop  is  easier  to 
keep  up  when  rolling  swiftly  de- 
pends on  the  principle  that  a  rapid- 
ly revolving  body  requires  more 
force  to  move  it  out  of  its  plane 
than  one  which  is  not  revolving  at 
all,  or  but  slowly.  The  same  prin- 
ciple is  shown  in  the  TOP,  or  the 
BICYCLE. 

Hoop  Games.  Several  games  can 
be  played  with  hoops.  In  one,  the 
players  form  in  two  lines,  facing 
each  other,  each  with  his  hoop 
in  hand.  At  a  signal,  the  lines 
advance,  and  each  must  guide  his 
hoop  between  two  of  the  opposite 
line.  The  game  can  be  varied  by 
agreeing  that  if  anyone  let  his  hoop 


HOOPS 


414 


HOP  SCOTCH 


fall,  or  do  not  guide  it  properly 
through  the  opposite  line,  he  shall 
be  out  of  the  game.  Then,  after  the 
players  have  passed  forward  and 
backward  a  number  of  times  agreed 
on  beforehand,  the  side  on  which 
the  greatest  number  of  players  re- 
mains is  declared  the  winner.  In 
another  game  the  players  try  to  run 
through  their  hoops  both  ways, 
keeping  them  rolling  at  the  same 
time.  He  who  can  thus  go  through 
his  hoop  most  times,  while  the 
hoop  is  rolling  any  distance  agreed 
upon,  is  the  winner.  This  game 
requires  large  hoops.  A  difficult 
feat  is  to  keep  more  than  one  hoop 
rolling  at  once,  or  to  trundle  a  large 
and  a  small  hoop,  making  the  small 
one  pass  through  the  large  one  at 
intervals. 

Hoop  Races,  races  in  which  each 
contestant  trundles  a  hoop.  He 
wins  who  first  crosses  the  finish  line, 
or  who  first  drives  his  hoop  across 
it,  as  may  be  agreed  beforehand. 
In  another  kind  of  race,  he  wins 
who  crosses  the  finish  line  last, 
without  letting  his  hoop  fall,  the 
object  of  the  contestants  being  to 
trundle  their  hoops  as  slowly  as  pos- 
sible. 

Turn-pike,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  players,  about  half  of 
whom  have  hoops.  Lots  are  drawn 
for  the  hoops,  and  those  who  fail 
to  draw  them  are  called  toll- 
keepers.  A  large  circle,  from  100 
to  150  feet  in  diameter,  is  marked 
out,  and  at  equal  distances  on  this 
each  toll-keeper  puts  up  his  toll- 
gate,  consisting  of  two  stones  three 
or  four  inches  apart.  The  other 
players  drive  their  hoops  around 
the  circle,  and  if  any  fail  to  send  his 
hoop  through  one  of  the  toll-gates, 
or  strike  the  stone  on  either  side,  he 
becomes  toll-keeper,  and  the  toll- 
keeper  at  that  gate  takes  his  hoop. 

Posting,  a  modification  of  the 
game  of  Turn-pike.  Each  one  of 
the  toll-keepers  has  a  stick  suitable 
for  driving  a  hoop.  Whenever  a 
hoop  reaches  a  gate,  the  j 


changes  places  with  the  toll-keeper, 
who  drives  it  as  far  as  the  next  gate, 
changing  in  turn  with  the  toll- 
keeper  there.  Whoever  allows  a 
hoop  to  fall,  is  compelled  to  leave 
the  game  for  one  round,  or  to  pay  a 
forfeit,  or  is  punished  in  whatever 
other  way  may  be  agreed  upon  be- 
forehand. 

HOPPITY.    See  CHECKERS. 

HOP  SCOTCH,  or  POTS,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
each  of  whom  drives  a  pebble  from 
one  part  to  another  of  a  figure  on 
the  ground  by  hopping  or  stepping 
in  various  ways.  The  figures  may 
be  drawn  on  the  ground  with  a 
pointed  stick,  or  marked  with  chalk 
on  a  pavement  or  floor.  Several 
forms  of  the  figure  are  given  be- 
low, B  being  the  one  commonly 
in  use  in  New  York,  where  the  game 
is  usually  called  Pots.  The  num- 
bers are  not  put  down  when  the 
game  is  played,  but  are  given  here 
for  convenience.  The  player  be- 


gins by  standing  outside  the  figure 
at  the  lower  end,  and  throwing  a 
pebble,  shell,  or  bit  of  wood  into 
the  place  marked  i,  and  then,  step- 
ping into  it  with  his  right  foot, 
jerks  or  kicks  the  pebble  out  to- 
ward the  place  where  he  began,  with 
that  foot.  He  then  steps  back  to 
the  starting-place,  throws  the  peb- 
ble into  No.  2,  steps  with  his  left 
foot  into  No.  i  and  with  his  left 
into  No.  2,  and  jerks  the  pebble  out 
as  before.  He  thus  goes  on,  throw- 


HOP  SCOTCH 


415 


HOP   SCOTCH 


ing  the  pebble  into  each  place  in  the 
order  of  the  numbers,  stepping  up 
to  it  through  the  spaces,  putting 
only  one  foot  in  each,  and  after 
kicking  the  pebble  back  to  the 
starting- place,  stepping  out  in  re- 
verse order.  This  is  then  repeated, 
except  that  the  player  hops  into 
each  space  instead  of  stepping.  Or 
hopping  on  one  foot,  he  kicks  the 
pebble  with  that  foot  successively 
into  each  space,  and  then  back 
again  in  like  manner.  If  he  throw 
the  pebble  wrongly,  or  upon  a  line, 
or  put  two  feet  into  any  space,  or 
step  on  a  line,  or  do  not  jerk  the 
pebble  back  as  far  as  the-starting- 
place,  or  if  he  put  both  feet  on  the 
ground  while  hopping,  his  turn 
ends  and  the  next  player  begins. 
When  a  player's  turn  comes  again, 
he  goes  on  with  the  game  where  he 
left  it,  and  he  is  the  winner  who 
first  goes  through  the  required 
tasks.  The  game  may  be  varied 
at  pleasure.  It  is  played  differently 
in  different  countries,  and  even  in 
different  towns.  Sometimes  the 
player,  when  he  reaches  the  pebble, 
is  required  to  place  it  on  his  toe, 
and  then,  kicking  it  into  the  air,  to 
catch  it  in  his  hand. 

The  figure  marked  D  is  used  in 
Scotland,  E  in  Germany,  and  F  and 
G  in  France.  The  spaces  are  often 
given  different  names.  Sometimes 
they  are  all  called  "  beds  ;''  and  the 
last  bed  is  called  in  England  the 
"plum  pudding"  or  "cat's  head." 
The  game  is  called  "Pottle"  in 
some  parts  of  England,  and  "  Pee- 
vers,"  "  Peeverals,"  or  "  Pabals  "  in 
Scotland.  The  German  name  is 
"  Paradies  hiipfen  "  (Paradise- Hop- 
ping), the  end  space  being  named 
"  Paradise,"  and  in  Austria  it  is 
called  "  Tempel-hupfen"  (Temple- 
Hopping),  one  of  the  spaces  being 
called  Tempel  (the  Temple).  In 
France,  where  it  is  called  Marelles, 
the  end  space  is  "  Paradise,"  as  in 
Germany,  and  the  5th  in  the  one 
marked  G  is  "Enfer"  (Hell)  over 
which  the  player  must  leap.  The 


6th  is  called  " Reposoir"  (the  Rest- 
ing Place),  and  there  the  player 
can  stand  on  both  feet.  The  French 
also  have  La  Marelle  Ronde  (Round 


10 


G 

Hop-Scotch  Figures. 

Hop  Scotch),  where  the  figure  is 
spiral  as  shown  in  the  diagram,  and 
La  Marelledes  Jours  (Hop  Scotch 
of  the  Days)  where  the  spaces  are 
named  for  the  days  of  the  week. 


HOT   COCKLES 


416 


HOW   DO  YOU   LIKE   IT 


History.  Hop  Scotch  is  proba- 
bly a  very  old  game.  The  earliest 
mention  of  it  in  England  is  in  Poor 
Robin's  Almanac  for  1667,  where  it 
is  called  Scotch  Hoppers.  A  French 
authority  speaks  of  it  as  having  been 


La  Marelle  Ronde. 

"much  in  vogue  before  the  intro- 
duction of  cards  in  his  country." 
The  name  Marelles,  by  which  it  is 
called  there,  is  also  that  for  what  we 
call  NINE  MEN'S  MORRIS.  It  is  a 
common  boys'  game  even  in  India, 
where  it  is  called  Ekaria  Dukaria, 
and  where  the  figure  is  shaped  thus  : 

It  has  been  suggested 

that  it  was  carried  to 
India  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  The  word 
"scotch"  in  the  com- 
mon name  of  the  game 
means  to  strike,  and  is 
probably  from  the  strike 
given  to  the  pebble  by 
the  foot. 

HOT  COCKLES,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  one  of 
whom  kneels  with  his  head  in  an- 
other's lap,  while  the  rest  of  the 
players  strike  him  in  turn.  As  each 
one  does  so,  the  kneeling  player 
guesses  who  struck  him,  and  when 
he  is  successful,  the  striker  must 
take  his  place. 
History.  Hot  Cockles  is  a  very 


old  game,  having  been  played  at 
least  five  hundred  years  ago.  The 
poet  Gay  refers  to  it  in  the  lines  : 

"  As  at  Hot  Cockles  once  I  laid  me  down 
And  felt  the  weighty  hand  of  many  a  clown, 
Buxoma  gave  a  gentle  tap,  and  I 
Quick  rose  and  read  soft  mischief  in  her  eye." 

A  variation  of  this  game,  called 
Frog  in  the  Middle,  was  once  popu- 
lar in  England.  One  player,  called 
the  Frog,  sat  on  the  ground  and  was 
buffeted  by  the  others,  standing 
around,  till  he  could  catch  one  of 
them,  who  then  took  his  place. 
The  Greeks  had  a  game  similar  to 
Frog  in  the  Middle,  which  they 
called  Chutrinda  (the  Pot  Game), 
the  Frog  being  named  Chutra  (Pot). 
The  name  Hot  Cockles  is  said  to 
be  a  corruption  of  the  French 
Hautes  Coquilles  (warm  hand).  The 
French  call  it  Main-chai{de,  and  in 
the  middle  ages  its  name  was  Qui 
fery  (who  struck)  ?  A  picture  on 
an  ancient  tomb  in  Egypt  shows 
that  a  similar  game  was  played  in 
that  country. 

HOW  DO  YOU  LIKE  IT?  A  game 
in  which  one  of  the  players  guesses 
a  noun,  agreed  upon  by  the  others, 
by  their  answers  to  three  questions. 
The  questions  are  usually  "  How  do 
you  like  it?"  "When  do  you  like 
it?"  and  "Wheie  do  you  like  it?" 
The  guesser,  who  goes  out  of  the 
room  while  the  company  chooses  a 
noun,  conies  in  and  asks  each  in 
turn  the  first  of  these  questions.  If 
he  cannot  guess,  he  asks  the  sec- 
ond, and  then  the  third,  and  if  he 
is  still  unable  to  tell  what  the  word 
is,  he  must  pay  a  forfeit,  or  he  may 
be  sent  out  again  while  another 
word  is  chosen.  The  game  is  usu- 
ally made  more  puzzling  by  select- 
ing a  word  with  two  different  mean- 
ings, like  pen  (an  enclosure)  and 
pen  (a  writing  implement),  or  two 
words  of  similar  sound,  such  as  bell 
and  belle,  rain  and  reign,  or  quay 
and  key.  For  instance,  with  the 
words  hair  (of  the  head)  and  hare 
(an  animal)  different  answers  to  the 
question  where  do  you  like  it  might 


HUNTING 


417 


HUNTING 


be  "  on  my  head,"  "  in  a  stew,"  "  in 
a  pillow,"  or  "  running  about  in  the 
woods."  Instead  of  the  last  ques- 
tion given  above,  "  Where  will  you 
put  it?"  is  sometimes  used. 

HOW  MANY  MILES  TO  BABY- 
LON ?  See  THREAD  THE  NEEDLE. 

HUNTING.  In  this  article,  hunt- 
ing will  be  treated  as  a  sport,  though 
even  sportsmen  generally  consider 
that  it  is  not  right  to  kill  an  animal 
for  pleasure  alone.  Game  must  be 
killed  for  eating,  unless  it  is  a  dan- 
gerous creature  or  a  nuisance. 
Thus,  it  is  not  considered  sports- 
manlike to  shoot  song-birds  not 
good  for  food,  but  it  is  thought 
proper  to  hunt  an  animal  like  the 
fox,  though  his  flesh  cannot  be 
eaten,  because  he  is  destructive. 
There  are  many  different  methods 
of  hunting,  and  some  animals  have 
to  be  pursued  in  special  ways,  but 
the  most  common  method  of  kill- 
ing game  in  this  countrv  is  by 
shooting,  to  which  this  article  will 
chiefly  be  devoted.  The  use  and 
care  of  guns  is  described  in  the 
article  on  SHOOTING.  Shooting 
may  be  enjoyed  in  the  open  field,  in 
the  woods,  called  "  cover,"  or  "  cov- 
ert" by  sportsmen,  from  the  French 
covert  (covered),  or  on  the  water. 
The  sportsman  often  has  the  assist- 
ance of  dogs,  which  are  trained  to 
point  out  the  game  when  they  scent 
it,  and  to  "  retrieve"  it,  or  bring 
it  to  their  master  when  it  is  killed. 

When  boys  begin  to  hunt,  they 
generally  shoot  at  a  bird  on  the 
ground  or  in  a  tree,  or  wherever 
they  see  one  ;  but  older  sportsmen 
think  the  true  way  is  always  to 
"flush"  the  bird  first  and  shoot  it 
"on  the  wing,"  that  is,  while  flying. 
Of  course  this  requires  more  skill, 
but  a  successful  shot  made  in  this 
way  gives  the  sportsman  more  pleas- 
ure. It  is  estimated  that  not  more 
than  two  or  three  birds  are  killed 
out  of  every  five  fired  at,  so  that  a 
young  sportsman  need  not  be  dis- 
couraged because  he  does  not  hit 
every  bird. 


Two  persons  often  go  on  a  shoot- 
ing expedition  together,  in  which 
case  the  rule  must  be  observed  that 
one  sportsman  must  never  shoot  at 
a  bird  which  is  flying  toward  his 
companion.  More  than  two  persons 
cannot  usually  shoot  together  with 
advantage,  except  on  opposite  sides 
of  a  river  or  in  some  similiar  posi- 
tion, where  the  parties  drive  the 
game  backward  and  forward  from 
one  to  the  other.  A  sportsman 
should  never  fire  across  his  compan- 
ion's face,  or  at  any  bird  which 
flies  so  that  it  must  cross  him,  until 
he  to  whom  the  bird  belongs  has 
missed  it  with  both  barrels  of  his 
gun.  Birds  flying  directly  away 
from  both  sportsmen  are  taken  al- 
ternately, unless  several  rise  at 
once,  when  each  man  should  fire  at 
those  on  his  own  side.  When  a 
bird  is  shot  the  shooter  should  ob- 
serve carefully  where  it  falls,  noting 
some  object  near  by.  Birds  which 
alight  should  also  be  carefully  ob- 
served, which  is  called  "  marking," 
and  is  often  difficult  for  any  but 
practised  sportsmen.  One  should 
be  certain,  in  doing  this,  that  the 
bird  has  actually  alighted,  and  has 
not  merely  flown  behind  some  ob- 
ject which  hides  it  from  sight. 

Dogs.  The  different  kinds  of 
dogs  are  described  in  the  article 
DOG,  in  C.  C.  T.  The  following 
rules  for  their  management  in  shoot- 
ing birds  are  substantially  those 
given  by  "  Frank  Forrester"  (W. 
H.  Herbert)  in  his  "  Manual  for 
Young  Sportsmen." 

1.  Never  do   that  for  which  you 
would  punish  a  dog,  as  running  af- 
ter a  "  winged"  bird    (one   shot  in 
the  wing  so  that  it  cannot  fly). 

2.  Never    hunt  your   dogs  with 
other  dogs  not  well  trained,  as  their 
example  will  do  them  harm. 

3.  Never  hurry  them  when  they 
are  pointing. 

4.  When  the  birds  rise,  make  the 
dogs  "  down"  for  one  or  two  sec- 
onds.    This   tends  to   make    them 
steady,  and  even  if  the  sportsman 


HUNTING 


418 


HUNTING 


does  not  fire,  it  gives  him  time  to 
"  mark." 

5.  If  a  dog  devour  a  fallen  bird, 
do  not  chase  him,  as  that  will  only 
excite  him,  but  call  to  him  till  he  re- 
turns, and  then,  making  him  drop, 
put  the  check  cord  on   his   collar, 
drag  him  back  to  the  place  where 
he  started,  whipping   him  and    re- 
buking him, and  make  him  lie  there 
several  minutes. 

6.  In   buying  a  dog,  try  to  learn 
the    exact  mode    of    hunting    and 
words   of  command    used    by    his 
former  owner,  and,  if  possible,  con- 
form to  them. 

7.  Never  punish  a  dog  unless  you 
are   certain  that   he  cannot  fail  to 
understand  the  reason. 

8.  Never  allow  a  dog  to  commit 
a   fault  because  you  are   afraid  of 
losing  time  or  losing  birds  by  cor- 
recting   him.      Correction     should 
be  by  the  voice,  the  whip,  and    by 
making  the  dog  pause  and  recog- 
nize his  fault.     Never  kick  a  dog, 
and  use  the  whip  as  little  as  possi- 
ble ;  but  when  it  is  used,  use  it  so 
that  it  will  be  remembered. 

9.  Make  as  little  noise  as  possible 
in  calling  a  dog.     Dogs  which  are 
always  shouted  at  get  so  that  noth- 
ing but  a  shout  will  turn  them.   If 
possible,  they  should  be   trained  to 
follow  the  motion  of  the  hand. 

10.  Make  friends  with  your  dog, 
without  absolutely   caressing    him, 
as  soon  as  you  have  done  punishing 
him,  and  before  allowing  him  to  rise. 

11.  When  he  is  at  point,  never  al- 
low him  to  flush  his  game  without 
giving  the  order  "  on,"  and  then  in- 
stantly saying  "  Drop." 

12.  When  he  is  down,  never  allow 
him  to  rise  until  you  have  ordered 
him  "  up." 

13.  When  a  bird  is  killed,  whistle 
and  say  "  Dead,"  at  which  he  should 
come  to  you.     Then  say  "  Seek"  or 
"  Find,"  when  he  must  draw  up  and 
point  the  dead  bird. 

14.  When   he   is    pointing    thus, 
never  allow  him  to  recover  the  bird 
till  you  order  him  to  "  fetch." 


15.  When    he    has   retrieved,  he 
should   deliver    the  bird    into    his 
master's  hand  ;  otherwise  he  may  at 
some  time  lay  one  down   where  it 
cannot  be  easily  reached. 

16.  Never  break  a  sporting  rule 
in  order  to  recover  a  wounded  bird 
or  get  a  shot  at  a  live  one. 

17.  Never  lose  your  temper. 
The    behavior   of    dogs    in   the 

hunting-field  depends  much  on 
their  treatment  at  home. 

Every  dog  should  have  a  separate 
kennel,  which  should  be  movable, 
and  without  a  bottom.  It  should 
stand  on  a  board  floor  or  platform, 
and  inside  should  be  placed  plenty 
of  fine  pine  shavings  for  the  dog  to 
lie  on.  Straw  and  other  similar 
substances  are  apt  to  cause  vermin. 

Dogs  may  be  fed  on  table  scraps 
and  given  meat  sparingly.  They 
should  be  supplied  with  plenty  of 
pure  water,  care  being  taken  to 
change  it  frequently.  Exercise 
every  day  and  frequent  bathing  in 
hot  weather  is  necessary.  In  the 
country  they  should  be  taken  out 
for  a  run  of  an  hour  or  so  every 
day.  Before  the  shooting  season 
they  are  improved  by  a  fast  run  un- 
der a  wagon,  which  hardens  their 
feet  and  makes  them  capable  of 
greater  endurance.  Where  space 
can  be  had,  the  dogs  should  be  al- 
lowed to  run  about  in  a  yard,  in- 
stead of  chaining  them  to  the  ken- 
nels. Dogs  thus  treated  will  need 
less  outside  exercise.  Where  there 
is  not  much  room  for  dogs  to  run 
about,  a  good  plan  is  to  fasten  the 
chain  to  a  ring  which  is  free  to  run 
backward  and  forward  on  a  strong 
wire  stretched  between  two  posts, 
or  along  the  side  of  the  house  or 
barn. 

The  following  table  shows  the 
charges  suitable  for  small  game. 
Different  sportsmen  vary  them  con- 
siderably. The  larger  wild  animals 
are  generally  shot  with  a  rifle. 
Special  hunting  methods  are  de- 
scribed below  under  the  name  of 
each  kind  of  game. 


HUNTING 


4TO 


HUNTING 


GAME. 

Gauge 

Pow- 
der. 
Drains 

Shot. 
Oz. 

Size  and 
Kind  of 
Shot. 

Sora,  Rail,  etc..-< 
Woodcock  

2 

6 

0 

o 

2j 

3* 

t 

*t 

i 

10  Trap 
10  Shot 

i| 

9  Shot 

,i 

ii 

Quail  

«t 

8  Trap 

3T 

8  Trap 

Pra  rie  Chicken.. 
Ruffed  Grouse.  .. 
Squ  rrel  

o 

2 
O 
2 

S 
3* 
rf 

3t 
4i 

i* 
«i 

i* 
'i 
*k 

8  Shot 
8  Stiot 
7  Trap 

7  TraP 
6  Shot 

ol 

'i 

6  Shot 

Teal  

i! 

i| 

7  Shot 

,1. 

ij. 

7  Shot 

Pintail  

ji 

TJ. 

,1 

l£ 

6  Shot 

Mallard  :. 

i 

ij 

5  Shot 

of 

it 

5  Shot 

Redhead  

2 

ij. 

4  Shot 

o}. 

l| 

4  Shot 

Canvasback  
Turkey  ..... 

O 

2 

Hi 
3t 

I* 

I* 
l£ 

3  Shot 
3  Shot 
2  Shot 

,5. 

l£ 

2  Shot 

Goose  

TJ. 

BB 

,1 

jl 

BB 

Snipe,  wading  birds  which  fre- 
quent marshes  and  flat  lands  (C. 
C.  T.).  They  appear  in  meadows 
and  salt  marshes  in  the  spring  about 
the  same  time  with  bluebirds.  In 
windy  weather  they  often  rise  high 
in  the  air  in  "whisps"  or  knots  of 
10  or  20,  and  it  is  then  hard  to 
shoot  them.  Good  snipe-shooting 
depends  much  on  chance,  but  the 
best  time  for  it  is  when  after  a  cold 
storm  the  weather  has  cleared  off 
warm.  Windy  weather  is  always 
favorable,  if  the  wind  is  not  too 
high.  In  England  dark  days  are 
considered  good  ones  for  snipe,  but 
that  is  not  the  rule  in  this  country. 
The  snipe  rises  toward  the  wind, 
therefore  the  shooter  should  move 
in  the  direction  in  which  the  wind 
is  blowing.  The  birds  will  then 
rise  directly  in  front  of  him  and  fly 
off  to  his  right  or  left,  so  that  he 
can  get  a  cross-shot,  which  is  con- 
sidered the  best.  The  time  to 
shoot  is  just  after  the  snipe  rises, 
when  the  bird  "  hangs  in  the  wind  " 
for  an  instant.  After  that  he  flies 
off  rapidly.  When  the  birds  are 


abundant  they  may  be  hunted  with 
any  kind  of  a  dog,  or  with  none  at 
all ;  but  when  they  are  scarce  and 
the  sportsman  is  obliged  to  go  over 
much  ground  to  get  them,  the  dog 
should  be  a  quick  one.  At  the 
same  time  he  must  stand  stiffly  and 
not  try  to  crawl  in  on  the  bird,  and 
should  be  taught  to  stop  or  drop  at 
the  motion  of  his  master's  hand  or 
the  report  of  the  gun.  The  dog 
should  be  encouraged  to  pass  over 
unlikely  ground  as  fast  as  possible, 
but  where  there  are  probably  snipe 
he  should  be  given  his  own  time 
and  not  hurried. 

Bay  Shooting.  In  this  method 
the  sportsmen  lie  hidden  in  boats 
covered  with  reeds  moored  in  the 
small  pools  left  by  the  tide,  where 
the  birds  come  for  food.  On  the 
margin  are  placed  "  decoys "  or 
"stools,"  which  are  imitation  birds 
made  of  wood,  rubber,  or  tin. 
From  twenty  to  forty  of  these  are 
generally  used.  The  sportsman 
imitates  the  note  or  whistle  of  the 
birds,  till,  seeing  the  decoys,  they 
begin  to  settle  among  them,  when 
he  fires  into  a  group.  In  this  way 
the  birds  can  be  shot  in  large  num- 
bers. Sometimes  the  sportsman  is 
concealed  among  bushes  on  shore 
instead  of  in  a  boat,  but  in  any  case 
he  must  keep  perfectly  still,  and  it 
is  often  necessary  to  wait  thus  for 
hours  before  the  birds  can  be  in- 
duced to  come  within  shot. 

Woodcock.  (SeeC.  C.T.).  These 
birds  hide  during  the  day  in  marshy 
thickets,  seeking  for  their  food. 
They  fly  in  a  rising  straight  line 
ti'l  they  reach  the  top  of  the 
bushes,  and  then  horizontally  till 
they  light  again,  which  they  do  by 
making  a  quick  zigzag  movement 
and  then  settling  down  at  once.  A 
knowledge  of  this  method  of  flying 
and  lighting  is  necessary  to  the 
sportsman  in  order  that  he  may 
know  where  to  find  the  birds. 
Some  sportsmen  walk  along  the 
outside  of  the  covert,  allowing  their 
dogs  to  run  in  and  flush  the  birds. 


HUNTING 


420 


HUNTING 


but  others  make  it  a  rule  always  to 
follow  their  dog  and  never  allow 
him  to  flush  the  birds.  Summer 
woodcock  rise  more  sluggishly  than 
autumn  birds,  and  are  more  easily 
shot. 

Grouse.  (See  C.  C.  T.)  Of  the 
several  grouse  found  in  the  United 
States  the  two  principal  ones  are  the 
ruffed  grouse  and  the  pinnated 
grouse  or  prairie  chicken.  Other 
species  are  the  spruce  partridge  or 
Canada  grouse,  and  the  blue  and  the 
sharp-tailed,  which  are  found  in  the 
West  and  the  northwest.  All  the 
varieties  have  stout  bills,  short, 
feathered  legs,  and  dark  plumage. 
The  ruffed  grouse  is  wrongly  called 
the  partridge  in  New  England  and 
the  pheasant  in  some  of  the  Middle 
and  Southern  States.  It  frequents 
thick  woods,  and  its  color  is  so  much 
like  that  of  the  ground  that  it  is  hard 
to  see.  The  bird  is  wild  and  shy  and 
has  a  way  of  running  far  ahead  of 
the  dogs  and  then  rising,  out  of 
range  of  shot.  When  suddenly 
disturbed  it  rises  with  a  loud  whir 
and  flies  swiftly,  often  taking  refuge 
in  the  branches  of  a  tree.  Grouse 
are  often  hunted  with  dogs  of  any 
kind,  which  flush  the  game,  after 
which  it  is  shot  in  a  tree;  but  a 
more  sportsmanlike  method  is  to 
use  only  pointers  or  setters  and  to 
shoot  the  birds  on  the  wing.  The 
ruffed  grouse  is  the  most  wary  and 
cunning  of  all  land  game  birds 
found  in  the  northern  States,  and 
its  successful  pursuit  requires  much 
practice  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the 
shooter.  The  birds  are  sometimes 
snared,  but  in  most  States  this  is 
forbidden  by  law,  and  it  is  consid- 
ered unsportsmanlike.  The  pinna- 
ted grouse,  generally  called  prairie 
chicken,  or  prairie  hen,  is  numer- 
ous on  the  Western  prairies  and 
rarely  found  in  timber.  In  dry 
weather  on  the  prairie,  where  no 
water  is  to  be  found,  it  is  often 
necessary  to  carry  water  with  the 
hunting  party  for  the  dogs  to  drink. 

Quail.     (See  C.  C.  T.).     This  bird 


is  called  the  partridge  in  th< 
Southern  States,  but  there  are  m 
true  partridges  in  this  country,  h 
is  also  commonly  called  Bob  White 
from  the  fancied  resemblance  o\ 
the  call  of  the  cock  bird  to  thesa 
words.  There  are  nearly  fifty  kinds 
of  quail,  all  having  a  stout  depressed 
bill,  short  tail,  and  brown  plumage 
spotted  with  black  and  streaked 
with  yellow.  They  are  generally 
found  in  groups  called  coveys,  in 
wheat  stubbles  and  thickets  at  the 
edge  of  woods,  near  cultivated  land. 
The  birds  are  found  in  the  Eastern 
and  Middle  States,  but  they  are 
most  numerous  in  the  Southern 
States  and  the  southwest.  Quails 
are  shy,  and  fly  very  swiftly.  When 
they  light  they  do  not  dart  down 
nor  wheel  about,  but  fly  gradually 
lower  till  they  near  the  ground, 
when  they  bring  feet  and  tail  down 
together  and  then  flap  the  wings. 
Unless  they  are  seen  to  do  this,  it 
is  unsafe  for  the  hunter  to  assume 
that  they  have  lighted.  They  often 
give  out  no  scent  for  some  time 
after  they  have  dropped,  and  in  this 
case  it  is  best  to  note  where  they 
are,  and  return  to  them  after  trying 
other  places.  The  quail  is  the 
most  abundant  and  most  widely 
distributed  of  the  Eastern  game 
birds.  It  is  more  easily  brought  to 
bag  than  the  grouse  or  woodcock, 
and  is  game  which  the  young 
sportsman  may  pursue  with  success. 
They  are  hunted  with  pointers  or 
setters,  which  discover  the  birds  by 
their  scent  and  stand  on  point  until 
the  sportsman  comes  up,  flushes  the 
quail,  and  shoots  them  flying. 

Wild  Fowl.  The  wild  water-fowl 
hunted  as  game-birds  are  the  swans, 
geese,  and  ducks.  They  are  migra- 
tory, going  to  the  far  North  in 
spring,  to  breed,  and  returning  to 
the  far  South  in  autumn.  The  great 
routes  of  migration  are  along  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts,  and 
through  the  Mississippi  Valley.  On 
their  passage  to  and  from  theif 
summer  homes,  they  stop  to  rest 


HUNTING 


421 


HUNTING 


and  feed  in  the  bays,  lakes,  ponds, 
and  streams,  wherever  there  is  food 
for  them.  Wild  rice  and  wild  celery 
are  favorite  articles  of  food  with 
wild  fowl ;  it  is  the  wild  celery  that 
gives  their  fine  flavor  to  canvas- 
back  and  redhead  ducks,  two  vari- 
eties that  are  considered  great  lux- 
uries for  the  table.  Sportsmen 
sometimes  plant  wild  rice  in  waters 
where  there  is  no  natural  food  to 
lure  the  ducks.  In  winter  wild  fowl 
abound  in  southern  waters.  One 
kind  of  wild  goose  is  called  Brant. 
The  kinds  of  ducks  most  valued  by 
sportsmen  are  Canvasbacks,  Red- 
heads, Mallards,  Teal,  Pintail,  and 
Woodduck.  Ducks  abound  es- 
pecially on  the  shores  of  lakes  in 
the  Northern  States,  the  New  Jer- 
sey coast,  Delaware  and  Chesa- 
peake Bays,  Currituck  Sound,  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  and  the  lakes 


and  bays  of  the  Northwest,  such  as 
Puget  Sound,  and  the  Willamette 
and  Columbia  Rivers.  Wild  fowl  are 
hunted  in  a  variety  of  ways,  some- 
times by  stealing  upon  them  while 
they  are  feeding  or  resting,  but 
usually  by  shooting  them  as  they 
fly  from  one  place  to  another. 
In  the  latter  case  the  hunter  must 
carefully  conceal  himself  by  some 
form  of  screen  or  blind,  as  it  is 
called.  One  favorite  method, 
adopted  when  the  fowl  fly  to  and 
from  their  feeding  grounds,  is  for 
the  hunter  to  station  himself,  well 
concealed,  in  a  point  of  land  over 
or  near  to  which  they  fly,  and  to 
shoot  them  as  they  pass.  A  com- 
mon device  is  to  put  out  decoys, 
which  are  images  of  ducks,  made 
of  wood  or  other  material.  These 
are  anchored  in  the  water,  and 
are  so  arranged  as  to  appear  to  be 


Turkey   Call. 


alive;  the  ducks,  seeing  them,  fly 
to  join  their  company,  and  are  shot 
before  alighting  on  the  water,  or  at 
rest.  Sometimes  tamed  wild  ducks 
are  used  as  decoys,  and  call  to  their 
wild  fellows.  The  gunner  often 
uses  a  peculiar  whistle  or  duck-call, 
with  which  he  imitates  the  notes  of 
the  wild  fowl,  and  attracts  their  at- 
tention to  his  decoys.  In  the  Chesa- 
peake Bay  and  elsewhere  duck 
hunters  lie  in  sink-boats,  which  are 
sunk  in  the  water  until  their  edges 
are  level  with  the  surface,  and  shoot 
as  the  birds  fly  over.  Another 
form  of  blind,  called  a  battery,  is 
a  box  sunk  in  the  sand  or  in  shal- 
low water,  where  the  gunner  lies 
concealed.  Sometimes  trained  dogs, 
of  the  breed  known  as  the  Chesa- 
peake Bay  dog,  are  made  to  run  up 
and  down  the  shore,  and  by  their 


antics  excite  the  curiosity  of  the 
birds,  which  approach  to  see  what 
the  dogs  are  doing.  This  is  called 
"toling."  Ducks  fly  very  swiftly 
and  they  are  wary  birds.  Duck- 
shooting  requires  much  skill,  and 
is  often  attended  with  hardship 
and  exposure. 

Wild  Turkey.  This  fowl  abounds 
in  most  of  the  Southern  and  some 
of  the  Western  States,  and  is  usually 
decoyed  by  using  a  "  call  "  or  whistle, 
imitating  the  noise  made  by  the 
bird.  Turkey  calls  of  several  kinds 
can  be  bought  of  dealers  in  sport- 
ing goods,  but  some  sportsmen  can 
make  the  call  without  their  aid. 
The  sportsman  usually  hides  him- 
self in  a  thicket  and  makes  the  call 
till  a  turkey,  attracted  by  it,  comes 
within  range.  Turkeys  may  be 
hunted  also  without  the  call.  They 


HUNTING 


422 


HUNTING 


leave  a  trail  when  walking,  so  that 
they  are  easily  tracked  by  a  dog, 
but  they  are  so  timid  that  it  is  hard 
to  get  within  range  in  this  way. 
They  are  often  shot  at  their  roosts, 
the  hunter  surprising  them  at  dawn 
before  they  have  flown. 

The  Upland  Plover,  or  Bartram's 
Sandpiper.  This  bird  frequents  in- 
land pastures,  and  is  much  esteemed 
as  food.  It  is  very  shy  and  difficult 
to  appoach  except  by  some  trick. 
In  Rhode  Island  it  is  hunted  from 
two-wheeled  chaises,  in  the  bottom 
of  which  the  huntsman  sits,  while 
the  chaise  drives  around  the  bird  in 
gradually  narrowing  circles.  The 
huntsman  has  his  leg  on  the  step 
ready  to  spring  out  and  fire  the 
moment  the  bird  rises.  Success 
depends  largely  on  the  skill  of  the 
driver.  Another  trick  is  to  use 
trained  ponies,  which  move  closer 
and  closer  to  the  bird  while  feeding, 
the  huntsman  standing  concealed  by 
the  animal's  forelegs  and  shoulder. 
Some  sportsmen  build  houses  of 
boughs,  in  which  they  wait  for  the 
birds  to  alight  near  by. 

The  Rail.  This  small  bird  fre- 
quents the  rice  flats  on  the  sea- 
shore of  the  Southern  States,  and 
the  borders  of  tidal  rivers  like  the 
Delaware,  or  the  New  Jersey  flats. 
The  rail  runs  swiftly,  and  though  it 
has  a  strong  scent,  can  with  dif- 
ficulty be  forced  by  dogs  to  take 
flight.  The  birds  fly  slowly,  and 
for  short  distances.  The  best 
method  of  hunting  them  is  from 
boats,  at  flood  tide,  the  birds  being 
forced  to  take  wing  by  running 
them  down.  They  must  DC  killed  at 
the  first  shot,  as  otherwise  they  dive, 
hide  in  the  thickest  reeds,  and 
are  very  hard  to  find.  The  skill  lies 
more  with  the  man  who  "  poles  "  or 
pushes  the  boat  than  with  the  hunts- 
man, for  the  birds  fly  so  slowly  that 
they  can  hardly  be  missed  by  any 
one  who  is  a  fair  shot.  One  sports- 
man has  sometimes  killed  more 
than  one  hundred  of  these  birds 
during  a  .single  tide.  Rail-bird 


shooters  also  find  on  the  same 
grounds  the  reed-bird  or  rice-bird, 
which  is  the  bobolink  of  northern 
meadows  in  spring  and  summer. 
In  September  the  reed-birds  are 
found  in  immense  numbers  in  the 
wild-oat  fields ;  and  many  thou- 
sands of  them  are  killed  for  market. 
In  the  South,  where  they  are  known 
as  rice  birds,  they  do  great  damage 
to  the  rice  crops. 

Pigeons.  (See  C.  C.  T.)  These 
birds,  once  so  numerous,  have  now 
almost  disappeared  from  the  eastern 
United  States,  owing  to  the  way 
in  which  they  have  been  killed 
in  pigeon-shooting  contests  (see 
SHOOTING). 

Cranes.  (See  C.  C.  T.)  Cranes 
are  found  in  the  South  and  West. 
Whooping  cranes  are  hunted  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley  for  their 
plumage.  In  Oregon  the  sandhill 
crane  is  called  "Chinese  Snipe," 
because  it  is  eaten  by  the  Chinese. 

Deer.  The  different  kinds  of  deer 
are  described  in  C.  C.  T.  They  are 
found  chiefly  in  wild  regions.  In 
the  Eastern  States,  the  best  regions 
for  deer-hunting  are  the  Adirondack 
Mountains,  the  Maine  woods,  and 
the  western  part  of  Pennsylvania. 
They  abound  in  the  Blue  and 
Alleghany  Mountains,  in  Arkansas, 
Michigan,  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  on  the  Pacific  slope,  but  they 
are  being  killed  so  rapidly  that 
there  is  danger  that  they  may  be 
exterminated.  Many  States  have 
passed  laws  regulating  deer-hunt- 
ing. Deer  are  hunted  in  various 
ways.  In  the  South  the  sportsmen 
usually  ride  on  horseback,  and  dogs 
are  put  on  the  trail,  who  chase  the 
deer  past  the  huntsmen.  In  some 
parts  of  the  South  there  are  hunting 
clubs,  organized  expressly  to  hunt 
deer  in  this  way.  In  Georgia  and 
Florida,  deer  are  often  shot  by 
torch-light  in  the  swamps,  and  in 
Kentucky  and  Tennessee  hunting 
parties  often  camp  in  the  woods  for 
several  weeks.  In  Arkansas  the 
game  is  hunted  chiefly  on  foot,  the 


HUNTING 


423 


HUNTING 


sportsman  being  careful  not  to  get 
to  windward  of  the  deer.  Some- 
times the  hunter,  by  pinning  a  red 
handkerchief  across  his  breast,  so 
excites  the  curiosity  of  the  deer 
that  the  animal  keeps  still  until  he 
is  very  near  him.  The  deer  in  the 
Adirondacks  are  fast  decreasing  in 
number,  though  the  time  for  killing 
them  is  limited  by  law.  The 
methods  used  there  are  still-hunting 
over  freshly  fallen  snow,  the  hunter 
tracking  the  deer  until  within 
range;  "Jack  hunting,"  where  a 
lantern  called  a  "Jack  "is  carried 
on  a  pole  in  the  bow  of  a  boat,  or 
on  the  sportsman's  head,  to  dazzle 
the  deer  and  make  him  stand  still 
for  a  moment;  and  hunting  with 
dogs.  In  the  last-named  method, 
the  dogs  drive  the  deer  past  the 
hunter,  who  is  stationed  on  a  "  run- 
way," or  drive  it  into  the  water 
where  it  is  shot  swimming  by  hunts- 
men from  the  shore  or  in  boats. 
Rifles  and  shotguns  loaded  with 
buckshot  are  used  for  deer-hunting. 

Bears.  The  bear  is  described  in 
C.  C.  T.  Bears  are  found  through- 
out the  United  States  in  wild 
places,  such  as  the  Catskill  and 
Adirondack  Mountains  in  the  East, 
the  mountains  of  North  Carolina 
and  West  Virginia,  the  swamps 
of  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
Florida,  the  "bottom  lands"  of 
Arkansas,  and  the  mountains  and 
'  forests  of  the  far  West.  They  are 
usually  hunted  with  rifles  and  by  the 
aid  of  dogs.  The  black  or  brown 
bear,  unless  it  be  a  mother  with  cubs, 
is  apt  to  be  inoffensive  till  wounded. 
The  grizzly,  though  formidable,  is 
hunted  for  sport  quite  extensively. 

Fox.  The  fox  is  described  in  C.  C. 
T.  He  is  found  wild  chiefly  in  the 
Southern  States,  especially  around 
the  Blue  and  Alleghany  Moun- 
tains. In  some  parts  of  the  country, 
•especially  in  New  England,  he  is 
hunted  with  a  gun  like  other  wild 
animals,  hounds  being  employed  to 
drive  the  game  to  the  hunter,  who 
stations  himself  where  the  x  is 


likely  to  pass ;  but  in  some  other 
parts  of  the  country  sportsmen 
think  that  the  proper  way  to  hunt 
him  is  with  a  pack  of  hounds.  The 
hounds  follow  the  trail  of  the  fox 
till  they  overtake  and  kill  him,  and 
the  huntsmen  follow  on  horseback, 
each  striving  to  be  "  in  at  the  death." 
The  fox  adopts  many  kinds  of 
tricks  to  deceive  the  dogs  and  throw 
them  off  the  scent,  and  the  trail  often 
leads  over  very  rough  country,  so 
that  to  follow  it  requires  great  skill 
in  riding.  In  some  of  the  Southern 
States  large  packs  of  hounds  are 
kept  for  fox-hunting,  and  women  as 
well  as  men  are  fond  of  the  sport. 
There  are  fewer  foxes  in  the  North- 
ern States,  but  near  some  of  the 
large  cities  are  associations  called 
"  hunts  "  for  the  purpose  of  hunting 
the  animals.  Where  foxes  cannot 
be  found,  one  is  brought  from  a 
part  of  the  country  where  they 
abound,  and  sometimes  instead  of 
following  a  fox,  the  hounds  are 
made  to  trace  the  scent  of  a  bag 
filled  with  anise  seed,  which  has 
been  dragged  over  the  ground.  The 
first  one  of  these  hunting  clubs  was 
formed  in  Hackensack,  N.  J.,  in 
1875.  Some  of  the  chief  ones  are 
the  Rockaway  Hunting  Club  and 
the  Meadow  Brook  Hunt  on  Long 
Island,  the  Essex  County  Hunt  in 
New  Jersey,  the  Radnor  and  Rose- 
tree  Hunts  near  Philadelphia,  the 
Myopia  near  Boston,  the  Elkridge 
Hunt  of  Baltimore,  and  the  Prince 
George  County  Hunt,  most  of 
whose  members  live  in  Washington, 
D.  C.  These  hunts,  in  addition  to 
the  usual  society  officers,  have  a 
Master  of  the  Hounds,  who  has 
charge  of  the  horses  and  dogs,  and 
appoints  places  for  the  meets. 

Hares  or  Rabbits.  Hares  are  usu- 
ally hunted  with  dogs,  which  drive 
out  the  game  to  the  hunter.  The 
beagle  is  the  best  dog  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  the  West  the  large  hare, 
known  as  the  jack  rabbit,  is  coursed 
with  grayhounds,  which  chase  the 
game  on  the  prairies,  the  huntsmen 


HUNTING 


HUNTING 


following  on  horses.  The  Jacks,  as 
they  are  called,  are  exceedingly 
swift  runners,  but  are  often  over- 
taken by  the  hounds. 

Squirrels.  Of  all  game  animals 
no  one  furnishes  more  sport  to  the 
young  hunter  than  does  the  black  or 
gray  squirrel.  For  squirrel-hunting 
a  dog  is  useful  to  point  out  the  tree 
where  the  game  is  in  hiding;  and 
for  this  purpose  almost  any  dog 
with  a  good  nose  will  do.  The 
proper  weapon  is  a  small  bore-rifle, 
though  the  shotgun  is  often  used ; 
but  the  rifle  calls  for  the  most  skill 
and  gives  better  satisfaction  in  every 
way.  Other  animals  hunted  in  the 
United  States  are  the  Raccoon,  the 
Wolf,  the  Lynx,  the  Couguar,  and 
the  Opossum,  and  sometimes  the 
Alligator  and  the  Eagle.  These, 
all  of  which  are  described  in  C.C.T., 
are  usually  shot  with  the  rifle. 

Game  Laws,  Most  States  have 
passed  statutes  for  the  preservation 
of  game. 

Methods.  In  New  York  deer 
cannot  be  taken  by  traps,  spring- 
guns,  or  similar  devices.  They 
must  not  be  hunted  with  dogs  in 
St.  Lawrence  and  Delaware  counties, 
and  in  other  counties  only  in  cer- 
tain prescribed  seasons.  It  is  for- 
bidden to  kill  fawns.  In  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  wild 
fowl  must  not  be  killed  with  swivel 
or  punt-guns,  or  by  any  other  device 
except  such  a  gun  as  is  ordinarily 
raised  to  the  shoulder  and  fired. 
In  New  York  it  is  unlawful  to  hunt 
wild  fowl  at  night  or  with  a  "  float- 
ing battery  "  or  to  use  a  decoy  more 
than  twenty  rods  from  shore,  except 
in  certain  bays  in  Long  Island,  in 
Lake  Ontario,  and  in  Hudson  River 
below  Albany.  In  New  York  it  is 
unlawful  also  to  shoot  wild  fowl 
from  any  steam  or  sailing  vessel. 
Game  birds  in  general  may  not  be 
trapped  in  any  of  these  States.  In 
New  York  hares  and  rabbits  may 
not  be  hunted  with  ferrets,  except 
in  orchards  or  nurseries  by  their 
owners.  In  New  Jersey  non-resi- 


dents of  the  State  are  not  allowed 
to  hunt  in  certain  counties  without 
becoming  members  of  one  of  the 
Game  Protective  Societies.  Rub- 
bing the  nests  of  wild  birds  or 
killing  song-birds  is  unlawful  in  all 
the  States  mentioned. 

Trespassing.  In  most  cases  it  is 
necessary  for  the  sportsman  to  hunt 
o  i  land  belonging  to  other  people. 
The  best  plan  is  to  obtain  permis- 
sion, which  in  this  country  is  usually 
given  readily,  but  often  huntsmen 
have  become  so  accustomed  to  kill 
game  in  a  certain  spot  without  hin- 
drance, that  they  think  they  have  a 
right  to  do  so.  Courts,  however, 
have  decided  that,  no  matter  what 
the  custom  is,  sportsmen  cannot 
claim  a  legal  right  to  hunt  on  other 
people's  land,  nor  even  to  stand  on 
the  public  road  and  shoot  over  the 
fence,  or  send  in  a  dog.  In  any 
such  case  the  sportsman  is  really 
trespassing,  and  although  the  owner 
of  the  land  usually  does  not  care, 
the  sportsman  should  always  re- 
member that  the  owner  has  a  right 
to  order  him  to  leave.  If  he  refuse, 
and  do  not  leave  after  a  reasonable 
time,  the  owner  may  then  use  neces- 
sary force,  but  not  till  then.  The 
owner  has  no  right,  for  instance,  to 
set  a  savage  dog  on  the  trespasser 
whom  he  finds  on  his  land.  In  some 
States  special  laws  have  been  made 
against  sportsmen  who  enter  land 
when  they  are  forbidden  by  a 
printed  and  posted  notice. 

The  owner  of  a  piece  of  land  does 
not  own  the  live  game  on  it,  in  the 
same  way  that  he  owns  his  horses, 
dogs,  or  chickens,  but  he  has  the 
exclusive  right  to  kill  it  so  long  as  it 
is  on  his  land.  This  right  is  called 
his  property  in  game.  But  game  is 
the  property  of  no  particular  person 
till  he  has  killed  it.  The  question  as 
to  who  owns  game  killed  by  a  tres- 
passer has  never  been  settled  in  the 
United  States. 

Some  States  allow  hunting  priv- 
ileges to  its  own  citizens  which 
they  deny  to  those  of  other  States. 


HUNTING 


425 


HUNTING 


Their  right  to  do  this  has  been 
denied  by  some  people,  but  the 
Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  has  decided  that  it  is  allowa- 
ble to  make  such  laws  with  regard 
to  oyster-fishing,  and  probably  all 
similar  laws  would  be  supported  in 
like  manner. 

Seasons.  Most  of  the  States  have 
laws  regulating  the  times  when  the 
several  species  of  game  may  be 
killed.  See  Tables  following,  The 
black  lines  show  months  the  game 
is  "  in  season."  A  short  black  line 
in  the  columns  means  first  half  of 
month,  when  printed  toward  the 
left;  and  last  half,  wh«r:  toward 
right.  Figures  to  the  left  of  short 
lines  mean  in  season  from  that  date, 
and  to  right,  to  that  date.  These 
times  are  only  approximately  cor- 
rect, as  legislatures  are  constantly 
changing  them.  The  sportsman  to 
be  absolutely  safe  should  therefore 
make  special  inquiry  in  each  case. 
The  intent  of  these  laws  is  to  protect 
the  game  during  its  breeding  season, 
so  that  birds  may  not  be  killed  while 
nesting  and  rearing  their  young  nor 
before  the  young  birds  shall  have 
grown  large  and  strong  enough  to 
care  for  themselves.  The  time  when 
game  may  lawfully  be  killed  is  called 
the  "open  season,"  and  during  that 
period  the  game  is  said  to  be  "  in 
season."  The  period  when  it  cannot 
be  killed  is  called  the  "  close  sea- 
son," and  the  game  is  then  said  to  be 
"out  of  season."  In  most  States  it  is 
forbidden  also  to  have  in  possession 
or  to  sell  game  in  the  close  season. 

History.  The  pursuit  of  wild  birds 
and  animals  was  probably  under- 
taken at  first  to  obtain  food,  or  for 
protection;  but  it  must  have  begun 
very  early  to  be  thought  of  as  a 
sport,  for  the  oldest  nations  whose 
history  we  knew  so  considered  it. 
In  the  great  eastern  kingdoms  the 
Kings  and  their  courtiers  were  very 
fond  of  the  sport,  and  the  sculptures 
on  the  ruins  of  Nineveh  and  other 
great  cities  of  Assyria  and  Persia 
often  represent  hunting  scenes.  The 


kings  of  Persia  owned  many  vast 
hunting  parks,  in  which  were  kept 
wild  animals.  These  parks  were 
called  by  the  Greeks  paradeisos, 
from  which  we  get  our  word  Para- 
dise. The  Greek  and  Roman  le- 
gends are  full  of  hunting  stories. 
The  Greeks  were  fond  of  the  sport, 
and  Xenophon  and  other  Greek 
authors  wrote  books  about  it,  from 
which  it  appears  that  hares,  boars, 
stags,  lions,  panthers,  and  bears 
were  among  the  game  hunted. 

In  Egypt  the  huntsmen  formed  A 
class  by  themselves,  either  hunting 
on  their  own  account,  or  acting  as 
the  attendants  of  the  nobility. 
Sometimes  trained  lions  were  em- 
ployed by  tnem  instead  of  dogs, 
just  as  the  cheetah,  or  hunting 
leopard,  is  used  in  India  at  the 
present  day,  and  the  huntsman 
sometimes  rode  in  a  chariot,  dis- 
charging arrows  at  the  game  when 
he  came  within  range.  Allusions 
in  the  Bible  to  huntsmen  and  their 
nets  and  snares  show  that  in  Pales- 
tine trapping  was  a  favorite  mode  of 
securing  game  ;  but  spears  and  ar- 
rows were  also  sportsmen's  weapons. 
The  horse  and  dog  were  not  used 
in  hunting  by  the  Jews.  King  Herod 
was  a  successful  huntsman,  and  is 
said  to  have  killed  forty  boars,  wild 
asses,  and  deer  in  a  single  day.  The 
Romans  viewed  hunting,  like  other 
sports,  less  as  an  occupation  for 
gentlemen  than  as  a  spectacle,  and 
exhibitions  of  hunting  were  often 
given  in  the  great  amphitheatres. 
Sometimes  the  beasts  were  killed  by 
attendants,  and  sometimes  the  peo- 
ple were  allowed  to  rush  in  and 
carry  away  what  they  could  get,  in 
which  case  no  dangerous  animals 
were  brought  in.  Sometimes  large 
trees  were  taken  up  and  planted  in 
the  arena,  to  make  it  look  like  a 
forest.  In  one  of  these  hunting 
spectacles,  which  were  called  Vena- 
tiones,  there  were  1000  ostriches, 
looo  stags,  looo  boars,  1000  deer, 
and  numbers  of  wild  goats,  wild 
sheep,  and  other  smaller  animals 


HUNTING 


426 


HUNTING 


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Arkansas  (doe  and  fawn)  

"    Siskiyou  and  Nevada  Counties 
Colorado     

Dakota            

Florida       

Idaho                       

Massachusetts    (Tuesdays,    Wednes- 
days, Thursdays  and  Fridays)  

**            lower  peninsula  

New  Hampshire  

North  Carolina  

Ohio     



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Texas                                         .     . 

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Wild  Turkey. 
Alabama,  all  counties  

"          some  counties  

Arkansas  

New  Mexico  ..   

North  Carolina  

Ohio    

South  Carolina  

Tennessee,  all  counties  

"         some  counties  

Texas  

Virginia  West  of  Blue  Ridge  

"        elsewhere  

Quail. 
Alabama,  all  counties  

"          some  counties  

Colorado  

HUNTING 


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Connecticut  

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District  of  Columbia.  .    

^^^ 

Florida  

^^^ 

Illinois  

Iowa  

^^^ 

Louisiana  

Maryland     

Massachusetts  

New  Hampshire  

New  Jersey  

New  York  

North  Carolina  

^^_ 

.^^ 

Ohio     

Oregon  

Pennsylvania  ( 

Rhode  Island  f  
Tennessee,  all  counties     

'  '         some  counties  

_^ 

^^ 

^^_ 

„  . 

Texas  



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Utah  

_  ^_ 

mm 

Vermont  

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Virginia             ) 

West  Virginia  f  
Wisconsin  

Wyoming     

Grouse.     (Including   Pinnated  Grouse 
or  "Prairie  Chicken,"  and  Ruffed 
Grouse  or  "  Pheasant.") 
Arkansas  (Pinnated)     

California  

^^_ 

"        Siskiyou  County  

^__ 

«^_ 

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Dakota    

Idaho  ...         

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(Ada  County)  

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Illinois  (Pinnated)  

"        (Ruffed)  

Indiana  

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"     (Ruffed)  

"        (Ruffed)  

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(Ruffed)  

Minnesota  (Pinnated,  white-breasted, 
and  sharptailed)  

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— 



— 

Minnesota  (Ruffed)  

Mississippi  (Ruffed)  

__ 

__ 

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Missouri  (Pinnated  and  Ruffed)  
Montana  

^~ 



— 



— 

Nebraska  



Nevada  

___ 

___ 

__ 

New  Hampshire  (Ruffed)  

___ 

New  Jersey  (Ruffed)  

New  York  (Ruffed  and  Pinnated)  
"        '•    Queens  and  Suffolk  Coun- 
ties (Ruffed)  

^~ 

— 

^~ 

-— 

Ohio  (Pinnated)  

"      (Ruffed)  

Oregon  

"        (Pinnated)  

Pennsylvania  (Ruffed  and  Pinnated). 
Pike  County  (Ruffed).  .  . 
Rhode  Island  

•" 

—  "- 

— 

"3 

"    (Ruffed)    

^^^ 

Tennessee,  all  counties  

^__ 

"           some  counties.  ..             ... 

^_ 

___ 

—r-* 

HUNTING 


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Texas  (Pinnated) 

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West  Virginia  (Ruffed  and  Pinnated). 
Wisconsin    (Ruffed,    Pinnated,  and 
Sharptailed)    



— 

— 

,^_ 

Wyoming  (Pinnated,  Sharptail,  and 

Wild  Water  Fowl. 
Alabama  (Wild  Duck)  

Arkansas,       *'        "      

California,     "        "     all  counties..  . 
"        "     some  counties. 
Connecticut     (Wild     Duck,    Geese, 
Brant)  

District  of    Columbia    (Wild  Duck, 
Geese,  Brant)     

Georgia  (Wild  Duck)  generally  

Indiana  (Wild  Duck)  

— 

— 

—  10 

10— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Iowa  (Wild  Duck.  Geese,  Brant)  
Kentucky  (Wild   Geese,  Woodduck, 
Teal,  or  other  Duck)  

Maine  (Wood  Duck,  Black  Duck,  or 
other  Sea  Ducks).  

Maryland  (Wild  Fowl),  all  counties.. 
"     some  counties. 
Massachusetts     (Wood    or    Summer 
Duck,  Black  Duck,  Teal)  

Michigan  (Water  Fowl)  

Minnesota  (Aquatic  Fowls)  

Montana  (Wild  Geese  and  Ducks)  .. 
Nevada                                         " 

New  Jersey,  Barnegat  Bay,  and  trib- 
utaries (Ducks,  Geese,  Brant)  
New  York  (Wild  Duck,  Brant)  
"        "      in  Long  Island  waters.  .. 
North    Carolina    Cunibuck    County, 
(Wild   Fowl)  

— 

- 

— 

— 

10— 

— 







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— 

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"               Pike    County   (Wood 
or  Summer  Duck)     

Rhode  Island  (Wood,  Black,  or  Gray 
Duck)  

Rhode  Island  (Dusky  Duck,  Summer 
Duck,  Blue  or  Green  Winged  Teal) 
Tennessee,  Montgomery  and  Cheat- 
ham  Cos    (Duck)  

Vermont  (Wood  Duck)  

"        (Wild  Geese  and  Ducks).... 
Virginia  (Wild   Water  Fowl,  except 
Wood  Duck  and  Sora)  

Washington  ("Wild  Ducks)  

West  Virginia  (Wild   Ducks,  Geese, 

and  B'.'uit)   

Wisconsin  (Wood,  Mallard,  and  Teal 
Ducks)  

Wyoming  (Wild  Fowl)  

Rail. 

New  Hampshire  

New  Jersey  

New  York  (Queens  and  Suffolk  Coun- 
ties)   

Pennsylvania  

HUNTING 


429 


HUNTING 


Woodcock. 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District  of  Columbia 

Georgia,  Morgan  County 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa  

Kentucky 

Maine    

Maryland,  all  counties  

"  some  counties 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Nevada 

New  Jersey 

New  York  

North  Carolina,  New  Hanover  Co.. 

Ohio  and  Pennsylvania 

Rhode  Island   

Tennessee  (generally) 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Wisconsin  

Doves  and  Pigeons. 

Alabama,  some  counties 

"         all  counties 

California 

Georgia,  some  counties 

"        Bibo  County 

Kentucky 

Massachusetts 

Mississippi 

Missouri , 

North  Carolina 

Rhode     Island     (when     netted    o 

trapped) 

South  Carolina 

Wisconsin 

Hares  and  Rabbits. 

Alabama,  Lawrence  County 

Delaware,  some  co unties 

"          all  counties 

Kentucky,  some  counties 

Maryland,  all  counties  , 

"         some  counties , 

Massachusetts 

New  Hampshire 

New  Jersey 

Pennsylvania  and  New  York. 

Rhode  Island 

Snipe. 

Dakota 

District  of  Columbia 

Michigan 

Nevada 

New  Jersey 

New  York,  Queens  and  Suffolk  Coun- 
ties   

North  Carolina,  New  Hanover  Co. . . 

Tennessee  (generally) 

Wyoming 

Squirrels. 

Connecticut  (gray) 

Kentucky,    some    counties     (black, 

gray,  or  fox  squirrels) 

Massachusetts  (gray) 

New  Hampshire  (gray) 


New  Jersey  (gray  and  red). 
New  York  (gray  and  black). . 


Absolutely  protected  within  3  miles  of  nesting-place. 


HUNTING 


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HUNTING 


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Elsewhere  

—  — 

—  — 

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Rhode  Island  (gray)  

— 

^— 

—  — 

— 

Water  Animals. 
Iowa  (.Beaver,  Mink,  Otter,  Muskrat) 
Maine  (same,  with  Sable  and  Kisher). 
Montana  (Beaver,  Otter,  Fisher)  
Nebraska  (Mink  and  Muskrat)  
New     Hampshire     (Mink,     Beaver, 
Sable,  Otter,  Fisher)  

— 

— 

— 



— 

— 

~ 

Ohio  (Muskrat,  Mink,  Otter)  

Utah  (Beaver,  Otter)  

Vermont      (Mink,    Beaver,     Otter, 
Fisher)  

m^— 

.^^ 

Wisconsin     (Otter,    Mink,    Martin, 
Muskrat,  Fisher)  

_  ^_ 

.^__ 

Plover. 
Dakota  

mm 

^_ 

•••- 

_^_ 

_^ 

Maine  

__ 

—  • 



__ 

"^^™ 

—  — 

= 

Missouri  
Nevada  

— 

__ 

— 







^^ 

__ 

— 

_ 

_ 

New  York,  Queens  and  Suffolk  Coun- 

is— 

__ 

_ 

— 

__ 

— 

_— 

—  - 

^^~ 

^^~ 

^~— 

Tennessee,  Montgomery  and  Cheat- 

^^_ 

^^_ 

_^_ 

_^_ 

Rice  Bird. 

^^_ 

__ 

___ 

___ 

Reed  Bird.     See  RAIL. 
Elk,    Moose,    Antelope,    Buffalo.    See 
DEER. 
Robin,  Lark,  Bobolink. 

Gull,  Tern,  Sea  Swallow. 

Starling. 

_ 





Mountain  Sheep.  _ 

(Elsewhere  prohibited.) 
Colorado.      Hunting   prohibited    till 
1895. 

Washington  



— 

—  — 

— 

^~— 

— 

Elsewhere,  where  found,  included 
with  DEER. 

Hunting  has  always  been  a  more 
favorite  sport  with  the  northern 
than  with  the  southern  nations  of 
Europe.  The  early  inhabitants  of 
Britain  are  said  to  have  kept  good 
hunting-dogs,  and  under  the  Saxon 
kings  the  sport  was  reduced  to  a 
system.  Alfred  the  Great  was  an 
expert  huntsman  when  a  boy  of 
twelve.  The  love  for  the  sport  was 
carried  to  such  an  extent  that  laws 
had  to  be  made  prohibiting  hunting 
on  Sunday,  and  forbidding  monks 


to  hunt  in  the  woods  with  dogs. 
People  were  also  forbidden  to  inter- 
fere with  the  king's  hunting,  but 
any  man  could  hunt  where  he 
chose. 

When  the  Normans  conquered 
England,  they  brought  with  them 
much  finer  horses  and  hounds  than 
those  the  Saxons  had  used,  but 
they  made  hunting  a  privilege  of 
the  nobles  alone,  and  passed  cruel 
laws  forbidding  the  common  people 
to  indulge  in  it.  These  laws,  called 


HUNT   THE    RING 


431 


HYDROCHLORIC   ACID 


Forest  Laws,  drove  many  of  the 
Saxons  into  rebellion,  and  some,  like 
the  famous  Robin  Hood  (see  C.  P. 
P.),  became  outlaws.  These  laws, 
little  by  little,  were  removed;  yet 
even  at  the  present  day,  the  law  in 
England  is  very  severe  against 
hunting  on  land  belonging  to 
another  person.  Such  hunting  is 
called  poaching,  and  the  game- 
keepers who  have  charge  of  the 
game  on  large  estates  are  obliged  to 
keep  constantly  on  the  watch  for 
poachers,  who  are  generally  pun- 
ished severely.  In  this  country 
the  owners  of  enclosed  ground 
usually  allow  people  to  hunt  there, 
but  they  have  always  the  right  to 
forbid  it,  as  explained  above. 

HUNT  THE  RING.  See  HUNT 
THE  SLIPPER. 

HUNT  THE  SLIPPER,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
with  an  ordinary  slipper.  The  play- 
ers sit  on  the  floor  in  a  circle,  except- 
ing one,  who  stands  in  the  middle. 
Those  in  the  circle  pass  the  slipper 
quickly  around  the  ring  either  be- 
hind their  backs  or  beneath  their 
bent  knees,  and  the  one  in  the 
middle  tries  to  find  out  who  has  it 
at  every  moment.  If  he  can  call 
the  name  of  the  person  in  whose 
hands  it  is,  that  person  must  take 
his  place.  It  is  usual  for  the  players 
to  pretend  to  pass  the  slipper  when 
it  is  not  in  their  hands,  and  to  try  in 
many  ways  to  mislead  the  one  look- 
ing for  it.  Instead  of  a  slipper  a 
ring  is  often  used,  strung  on  a  long 
cord,  on  which  it  is  slid  along  from 
one  player  to  another.  If  the 
players  keep  their  hands  moving 
along  the  cord,  it  is  very  difficult  to 
tell  where  the  ring  is.  In  this  form 
the  game  is  called  Hunt  the  Ring. 

In  France  Hunt  the  Ring  is 
called  Le  Furet  (The  Ferret),  and  the 
player  within  the  circle  is  named 
the  Hunter.  During  the  game  the 
players  sing  a  song,  beginning  : 

"  II  court,  il  court,  le  Furet, 
Le  Furet  du  bois.  mesdames; 
II  court,  il  court,  le  Furet, 
Le  Furet  du  bois  joli." 


In  English  this  is 

"  He  runs,  he  runs,  the  Ferret, 
The  Ferret  of  the  woods,  ladies; 
He  runs,  he  runs,  the  Ferret, 
The  pretty  Ferret  of  the  woods. 

HUTCHINSON  FAMILY,  a  game, 
or  trick,  played  by  any  number  of 
persons.  Those  who  know  the 
game  retire  to  an  adjoining  room 
and  are  supposed  to  personate  the 
Hutchinson  family,  to  whom  the 
others  are  brought  in  one  by  one  to 
be  introduced.  The  "family,"  who 
all  stand  in  a  row,  imitate,  as  ex- 
actly as  possible,  whatever  the 
guest  says  or  does,  until  he  sits 
down,  when  he  joins  the  family,  and 
another  person  is  brought  in. 
Sometimes,  when  the  guest  under- 
stands the  joke,  he  can  turn  it  on 
the  members  of  the  "  family,"  by 
doing  something  difficult  to  imi- 
tate. 

HYDROCHLORIC  ACID,  Experi- 
ments with.  Hydrochloric  acid  is 
a  gas  made  up  of  hydrogen  and 
chlorine  (see  C.  C.  T.).  It  is  called 
also  muriatic  acid.  It  is  sold  in 
drug-stores  in  liquid  form,  the  gas 
being  dissolved  in  water.  If  this 
liquid  be  heated  it  will  give  off  the 
gas  again.  The  liquid  may  be  held 
over  an  alcohol  lamp,  in  a  bottle  or 
flask  from  which  a  delivery-tube 
leads  to  the  bottom  of  a  jar.  The 
gas,  being  heavier  than  air,  will  stay 
in  the  jar  till  it  is  full.  The  gas 
may  be  made  also  by  gently  heat- 
ing common  salt  and  sulphuric 
acid  in  a  flask.  Pieces  of  rock  salt 
the  size  of  a  pea  should  be  used,  for 
with  ordinary  pulverized  salt  the 
action  is  too  quick,  causing  the 
mixture  to  froth.  The  gas  is  col- 
lected as  before.  It  is  transparent, 
so  the  only  way  to  tell  when  the 
jar  is  full  is  to  hold  a  strip  of  blue 
litmus  paper  near  the  topi  (See 
TEST  PAPERS.) 

EXPERIMENTS. 

I.  The  Fountain.  This  is  made 
in  the  same  way  as  the  AMMONIA 
fountain,  except  that  the  water  must 
be  colored  with  blue  litmus,  and 


HYDROGEN 


432 


HYDROGEN 


will  turn  red  as  it  enters  the  upper 
bottle.  The  result  is  explained  in 
the  same  way,  hydrochloric  acid 
gas  having  a  great  liking  for  water. 

2.  Fill  a  long  test-tube  with  the 
dry  gas,  and  invert  it  over  a  saucer 
of  mercury,  letting  the  mouth  of  the 
tube  dip  below  the  mercury.  Put 
a  bit  of  ice  into  the  tube  by  pushing 
it  under  the  mercury.  The  ice  and 
gas  will  both  disappear,  and  the 
mercury  will  rise  in  the  tube.  This 
is  because  the  gas  likes  water  so 
well  that  it  forces  the  ice  to  melt, 
and  is  then  dissolved  by  the  water 
which  is  made.  The  pressure  of  the 
outside  air  then  forces  the  mercury 
up  into  the  tube  to  take  the  place 
of  the  dissolved  gas. 

See  also  Experiment  3  under  AM- 
MONIA. 

HYDROGEN,  Experiments  with. 
Processes  and  things  merely  al- 
luded to  in  this  article  are  freely 
explained  in  that  on  CHEMISTRY, 
EXPERIMENTS  IN.  Hydrogen  gas 
is  described  in  C.  C.  T.  To  make 
it,  bore  two  holes  in  the  cork  of  a 
wide-mouthed  bottle,  like  those  in 
which  pickles  and  jam  are  sold, 
making  sure  that  the  cork  is  sound 
and  tight.  Through  one  of  the  holes 
put  a  "  thistle-tube,"  and  through 
the  other  a  delivery-tube,  the  end 
of  which  is  bent  to  collect  the  gas 
over  water.  The  thistle-tube  must 
reach  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the 
bottle,  but  the  deli  very- tube  must 
end  near  the  top.  Into  the  bottle 
put  about  a  dozen  small  pieces  of 
zinc.  Scraps  of  zinc  can  be  bought 
at  a  plumber's,  and  cut  up  with  a 
pair  of  shears.  Each  piece  should 
be  bent  or  twisted  a  little,  so  that  it 
will  not  lie  flat  on  the  bottom  of  the 
bottle.  Instead  of  zinc,  nails  or 
scrap-iron  may  be  used.  The  cork 
with  its  two  tubes  must  now  be  put 
in  place.  Be  sure  that  it  is  tight 
(hydrogen  being  quite  explosive); 
blow  into  the  delivery  tube  till  the 
water  rises  into  the  funnel  of  the 
thistle  tube,  and  then  stop  up  the 
end  of  the  delivery-tube  with  the 


tongue.  If  the  water  stays  at  the 
same  height  in  the  other  tube 
the  bottle  is  tight,  if  not,  the  cork 
must  be  covered  with  sealing-wax. 
When  all  is  tight,  half  fill  the 
bottle  with  water,  by  pouring  it 
through  the  thistle-tube.  Then 
pour  in  sulphuric  or  hydrochloric 
acid  slowly,  half  a  tea-spoonful 
or  so  at  a  time,  until  bubbles  be- 
gin to  rise  pretty  briskly  from 
the  zinc.  Gas  will  soon  bubble  up 
into  the  receiver.  If  it  does  not, 
pour  in  more  sulphuric  acid,  and  if 
it  Still  refuses  to  appear  it  is  proba- 
ble that  the  cork  is  not  tight,  and 
that  the  gas  is  escaping  into  the 
air.  The  first  jarful  of  hydrogen 
made  must  be  thrown  away,  for  it 
is  mixed  with  the  air  which  was  in 
the  bottle  to  begin  with,  and  a  mix- 
ture of  hydrogen  and  common  air 
is  very  explosive.  When  one  or 
more  jars  of  pure  hydrogen  have 
been  collected,  the  experiments  de- 


Making  Hydrogen. 


scribed  below  may  be  tried  with  it, 
or  a  large  quantity  may  be  made 
and  stored  in  a  gas  holder  for  future 
use.  The  hydrogen  made  in  this 
way  comes  from  the  acid  used  (see 
ACID  in  C.  C.  T.)  The  other  sub- 
stances in  the  acid  prefer  the  zinc 
or  iron  to  the  hydrogen,  and  so  let 
it  go  and  unite  with  the  metal  in- 
stead. The  substance  so  formed  is 
sulphate  of  zinc  or  iron,  if  sulphuric 
acid  be  used,  and  chloride  of  zinc  or 
iron,  if  the  acid  is  hydrochloric 
Any  of  these  dissolves  in  water  un- 


HYDROGEN 


433 


HYGROSCOPE 


less  there  is  too  much  acid  in  it, 
when  it  sticks  to  the  metal  and 
stops  the  action.  For  this  reason  it 
is  not  well  to  put  in  too  much  acid. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1.  Holding   a  jar,   in    which    hy- 
drogen  has  been  collected,  mouth 
downward,  touch  a  lighted   match 
to   it.     If  the   gas   is   pure,  it   will 
burn   quietly.     Repeat   the   experi- 
ment,  holding  the    mouth   of    the 
jar  upward,  the  gas  will  burn  quick- 
ly with  a  high  flame.     This  is  be- 
cause hydrogen  is  lighter  than  air 
and  so  escapes  and  mixes  with   it 
when  the  opening  of  the  jar  is  up- 
permost. 

2.  A  jarful  of  hydrogen  may  be 
poured  up  into  an  empty  jar.     That 
the  gas  has  really  been  poured  into 
the   empty  jar  may  be   proved   by 
touching  a  match  to  it. 

3.  Remove  the  end  of  the  delivery- 
tube  and  substitute  a  glass  jet.     If 
the    hydrogen    is   pure    it    may  be 
lighted  at  this  jet,  and  will  burn  with 
a  very  pale  blue  flame.     This  experi- 
ment must  not  be  tried  till  several 
jars  of  gas  have  been  collected,  for 
if  the  gas  in  the  bottle  is  impure  it 
will  explode.     It  is  a  good  plan  to 
wrap  a  cloth  around  the  bottle,  so 
that  if  there  be  an  accident  broken 
glass  will  not  be  thrown  about.     A 
jet   of   hydrogen    burning    thus  is 
called  the  "  Philosopher's  Candle." 

4.  Hold  a  glass  tube  twelve  or  fif- 
teen inches  long  and  about  one  and 
a  half  inches  wide  over  the  flame  of 
the  Philosopher's  Candle,  and  move 
it  up  and  down.     A  position  will  be 
found  where  the  tube  will  give  out 
a  musical  sound.    If  it  does  not,  the 
size  of  the  jet  and  tube  are  not  fitted 
to  each  other,  and  one  or  the  other 
should   be  made  larger  or  smaller. 
The  sound    is  caused   by  a    great 
number  of  little  explosions,  so  close 
together  that  they  form  a  musical 
sound.    (See  SOUND,  C.  C.  T.) 

5.  Blow   soap-bubbles    with    the 
gas,  as  described  in  the  article  SOAP- 
BUBBLES.     The  gas  must  be  drawn 


from  a  gas-holder  for  this  purpose. 
If  the  bubbles  be  blown  with  a  mix- 
ture of  hydrogen  and  air,  or  hydro- 
gen and  OXYGEN,  each  will  explode 
with  a  loud  report,  instead  of  burn- 
ing, when  touched  with  a  lighted 
match. 

HYDROSTATIC  BELLOWS.  A 
scientific  toy,  made  as  follows :  Cut 
out  two  pieces  of  board  of  the  same 
size  and  shape,  either  square  or 
round,  and  about  two  feet  in  diam- 
eter. Connect  them  by  nailing 
leather  to  their  edges,  so  that  when 
it  is  stretched  they  will  be  about  six 
inches  apart.  The  apparatus  must 
be  water-tight.  Bore  an  auger-hole 
in  one  piece  of  board,  and  fit  in  it 
tightly  the  end  of  a  piece  of  lead- 
pipe  five  or  six  feet  long.  Place  the 
bellows  on  the  ground  with  a  heavy 
weight  on  it,  so  that  the  boards  will 
be  pressed  together.  Support  the 
pipe  upright  and  pour  water  into  it 
through  a  tin  funnel.  The  upper 
board  of  the  bellows  will  rise,  raising 
the  weight.  If  the  experimenter 
stand  on  the  bellows,  he  can  raise 
his  own  weight  by  pouring  water 
into  the  tube.  The  reason  is,  that 
in  fluids  pressure  is  carried  equally 
in  all  directions.  If  the  pipe  is  one 
square  inch  in  section,  then  every 
square  inch  of  the  bellows-boards  is 
pressed  on  by  a  weight  equal  to  the 
water  in  the  pipe  ;  and  if  the  bellows 
be  large,  the  entire  pressure  may 
thus  amount  to  several  hundred 
pounds. 

HYGROSCOPE,  an  instrument 
to  show  whether  the  air  is  moist  or 
dry.  One  of  the  simplest  is  made 
by  taking  a  hair  or  piece  of  cat-gut 
a  foot  or  two  in  length,  and  hang- 
ing it  by  one  end  to  a  nail  in  the 
wall,  tying  to  the  other  end  a  small 
weight,  just  sufficient  to  stretch 
the  hair  tight.  Hair  or  cat-gut 
will  lengthen  by  absorbing  moisture 
from  the  air,  so  the  hair  becomes 
longer  in  moist  than  in  dry  weather. 
To  show  a  slight  change  in  the 
length  of  the  hair,  a  splinter  of 
wood  is  fastened  at  one  end  to  the 


HYGROSCOPE 


434 


HYGROSCOPE 


hair  near  the  weight,  and  is  pivoted 
on  a  pin  very  near  that  end.  A  slight 
movement  of  the  end  fastened  to  the 
hair,  will  thus  cause 
a  greater  one  in  the 
other  end.  The 
illustration  shows 
one  a  little  more 
carefully  made.  Fas- 
tened to  the  upper 
part,  d,  of  the  frame 
is  a  screw  a  b  to 
tighten  the  hair,  c 
is  the  hair,  and  p 
the  weight.  To  re- 
lieve it  of  the  ten- 
sion caused  by  the 
weight,  the  hair  is 
passed  over  a  pul- 
ley, to  w-hich  the 
pointer  is  attached. 
A  little  thermom- 
eter is  fastened  to 
the  side  of  the 
frame. 

Hair  Hygroscope.  This  kind  of  hy- 
groscope  can  be 
made  also  of  twisted  cat-gut,  which 
untwists  by  absorbing  moisture.  The 
little  houses  with  figures  of  a  man 
and  woman,  one  of  whom  appears 
in  moist  and  the  other  in  dry 
weather,  are  made  in  this  way. 

Wet  and  Dry  Bulb  Thermometer. 
This  form  of  hygroscope  consists  of 
two  thermometers  hung  side  by  side. 
Around  the  bulb  of  one  is  tied  a 
piece  of  soft  cloth,  the  end  of  which 
dips  into  a  cup  of  water.  The  cloth 
soaks  up  the  water,  and  keeps  the 
bulb  continually  wet.  The  evapora- 
tion of  the  water  on  the  bulb  keeps 
it  cooler  than  the  other,  so  it  always 
stands  lower.  On  very  dry  days 


the  water  evaporates  fast,  and  the 
wet  bulb  thermometer  stands  much 
lower  than  the  other,  while  on 


Wet  and  Dry  Bulb  Thermometers. 

damp  days  the  water  does  not  evap- 
orate so  quickly,  and  so  it  stands 
only  a  little  lower.  Hence  the  in- 
strument is  used  to  tell  whether  the 
air  is  dry  or  damp. 

Phial  Barometer.  This  is  really 
a  kind  of  hygroscope,  because  it  does 
not  measure  the  pressure  of  the  air, 
but  shows  only  whether  it  is  dry  or 
moist.  Cut  off  about  half  of  the 
neck  of  a  common  glass  phial  (see 
CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS,  direc- 
tions for  glass-working)  and  nearly 
fill  it  with  water,  which  may  be  col- 
ored if  desired.  Place  the  finger 
over  the  mouth  of  the  phial  and  in- 
vert it;  the  water  will  not  run  out 
even  when  the  finger  is  removed. 
Suspend  the  phial,  neck  downward, 
by  a  string.  In  dry  weaiher  the  un- 
der surface  of  the  water  is  either 
level  or  concave,  but  in  damp 
weather  a  drop  appears  at  the  mouth 
of  the  phial,  and  keeps  enlarging 
till  it  falls.  This  is  caused  by  the 
deposition  of  moisture  from  the  air. 


ICE 


435 


ICE-BOATS 


ICE,  Expe  rime  nts  with.  In  a 
room  below  the  freezing  point  place 
a  lump  of  ice,  whose  ends  rest  on 
two  chairs,  tables,  or  boxes,  and 
hang  a  weight  of  several  pounds  over 
the  ice  by  an  iron  wire.  The  wire 
will  cut  gradually  through  the  ice, 
but  the  block  will  freeze  together 
again  above  it,  so  that  in  time  the 


weight  will  fall  to  the  floor,  the  wire 
having  cut  completely  through  the 
block,  which  nevertheless  remains 
sound  and  whole. 

ICE-BOATS,  The  present  ice- 
boats, or  yachts,  as  they  are  some- 
times called,  are  made  on  the  plan 
shown  in  Figs,  i  and  2,  of  two  beams 
crossed,  and  braced  with  iron  stays. 


The  runners,  three  in  number,  are 
at  the  ends  of  the  cross-beam  (called 
the  "  runner  plank ")  and  at  the 
rear  of  that  running  lengthwise 
(called  " centre  timber").  On  the 
forward  end  of  the  centre  timber 
is  bolted  the  bowsprit.  The  rear 
runner  serves  as  a  rudder.  The  for- 
ward runners  are  fastened  by  a  bolt 
on  which  they  can  rock  forward  and 
backward.  There  is  one  mast,  which 
is  placed  slightly  in  advance  of  the 
cross-plank.  An  oval  box,  holding 
two  persons,  is  fastened  just  above 
the  rudder;  except  for  this  the 
boat  is  merely  a  frame.  The  larg- 
est ice-boats  are  50  to  60  feet  long, 
and  25  or  26  feet  wide.  They  are 
rigged  as  sloops,  cat-boats  (see  Fig. 
3),  or  with  a  lateen  sail  (see  SAIL- 
ING). Ice-boats  may  sail  faster  than 
the  wind,  as  shown  by  Fig.  4: 

Suppose  the  wind  to  be  blowing 
in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  at  the 
rate  of  twenty  miles  an  hour ;  then,  if 
A  B  is  a  mile,  the  boat  cannot  sail 
that  distance  directly  before  the 
wind  in  less  than  three  minutes;  but 


the  friction  of  the  runners  on  the  ice 
is  so  slight,  that  it  will  sail  along  A  C 
in  almost  the  same  time.  As  A  C  is 
about  two  miles,  the  boat  would  be 
going  twice  as  fast  as  the  wind.  Ice- 
boats thus  attain  wonderful  speed. 
On  February  12,  1879,  the  "  Lucille  " 
sailed  from  Poughkeepsie  to  New 
Hamburg,  on  the  Hudson  River, 
nine  miles,  in  seven  minutes  and  ten 
seconds.  At  another  time  the 
"  Snow  Flake  "  is  said  to  have  made 
the  same  distance  in  seven  minutes, 
and  in  1882  the  "  Haze  "  did  the 
same,  making  at  one  time  two  miles 
in  one  minute.  Many  similar  in- 
stances of  great  speed  are  related, 
but  it  is  hard  to  get  an  official  rec- 
ord, for  ice-boats  go  fastest  when 
least  expected,  and  the  time  made 
in  regular  races,  as  shown  below,  is 
far  slower  than  that  just  given, 
though  still  very  great. 

The  sails  of  the  boat  are  set  near- 
ly fore  and  aft,  and  the  boat  is  man- 
aged almost  entirely  by  the  rudder, 
the  speed  being  so  great  that  the 
helmsman  has  no  opportunity  to 


ICE-BOATS 


436 


ICE-BOATS 


change  the  position  of  the  sail.     If 
the  sail  must  be  reefed,  the  boat   is 


Fig.  a. 

brought  into  the  wind  and  the  crew 
disembark  to  reef  it.  The  boat  is 
stopped  usually  by  bringing  her  with 


thrust  down  to  act  as  a  drag.  The 
boat  is  anchored  by  bringing  her 
into  the  wind,  loosening  the  jib- 
sheets,  and  turning  tlie  rudder 
crosswise.  The  ice  boat  obeys  her 
rudder  very  easily,  and  the  steers- 
man must  be  always  on  his  guard, 
for  if  he  turn  it  too  suddenly  the 
boat  will  spin  around,  throwing 
the  crew  out.  To  cross  a  crack, 
some  sailors  first  head  the  boat  so 


her  head  to  the  wind,  and  then 
slackening  the  sheet.  Many  ice- 
boats have  a  brake  which  can  be 


Fig.  4. 

as  to  "  spill"  (or  lose)  the  wind  and 
then  run  over  the  crack  so  that  both 
forward  runners  cross  it  at  the  same 
time ;  and  some  disembark  and  help 
the  boat  over.  Others  would  sim- 
ply slack  both  sheets  and  let  the 
boat's  momentum  carry  her  over. 
The  wind  often  forces  the  boat  over 
so  that  the  weather-runner  is  lifted 
clear  of  the  ice,  leaving  only  the  lee- 
runner  and  the  rudder. 

The  boat  is  then  said  to  "  rear," 
and  must  be  eased  by  bringing  her 
into  the  wind,  if  the  boat  is  beating 
to  windward.  One  or  two  men 
often  stand  on  the  windward  runner, 
to  keep  it  down.  The  greatest 
speed,  running  free,  is  made  by  steer- 
ing across  the  wind  till  a  maximum 
velocity  is  reached,  and  then  steer- 
ing down  the  wind  without  slacking 
the  sheet.  The  momentum  will 
carry  the  boat  faster  than  the  wind 
for  some  distance,  when  she  must 
again  be  brought  up  and  headway 
regained.  The  yachtsman  often 
.wears  coverings  of  wire  gauze  over 
his  eyes  and  mouth  to  keep  out  fly- 
ing snow. 

The  strain  on  the  timbers  of  an 
ice-yacht  makes  it  necessary  that 
they  shall  be  perfect  in  grain  and 
well  seasoned.  The  runners  are 


ICE-BOATS 


437 


ICE-BOATS 


Ice-boats  on  the  Hudson. 


made  of  iron  or  steel.     Iron  runners 
wear  at   first,   but  by   use   acquire 


Crossing  a  Crack. 

what  is  called  a  "  water  polish,"  the 
surface  becoming  very  hard.     Many 


boats  have  two  sets  of  runners, 
sharp  ones  for  smooth  ice  and  strong 
winds,  and  duller  ones  for  rough  or 
soft  ice. 

A  Tom  Thumb  ice-boat  holds 
only  one  person,  and  can  be  made 
by  nailing  boards  together  as  in  the 
diagram.  The  runners  are  made  of 
skates.  The  rear  one,  or  rudder,  is 
screwed  to  the  end  of  a  stout  wood- 
en upright  which  passes  through  a 
hole  at  the  rear  of  the  main  plank. 
To  this  upright  a  horizontal  handle 
is  fastened,  forming  the  tiller.  The 
steersman  sits  just  forward  of  the 
tiller  with  his  feet  on  the  cross- 
plank.  The  rudder  may  be  omitted, 
the  rear  skate  being  fixed,  like  the 
others;  but  in  this  case  the  steers- 
man must  have  on  skates  and  steer 
with  his  feet.  Any  simple  sail  may 
be  used. 

The  chief  ice  boat  clubs  in  the 
United  States  are  on  the  Hudson 
River  and  the  Shrewsbury  River  in 
New  Jersey.  A  silk  challenge  pen- 


ICE-BOATS 


438 


ICE-BOATS 


nant,  thirty  feet  long,  is  raced  for 
every  year.  The  winner  can  be 
challenged  in  the  following  year  by 


Tom  Thumb  Ice-boat. 

any  organized  club  in  this  country 
or  Europe.  A  list  of  winners  of  the 
pennant,  with  their  times,  is  given 
in  the  appendix. 

The  following  are  the  chief  sail- 
ing rules  of  the  Hudson  River  Ice 
Yacht  Club: 

RULE  I. — The  following  sailing 
rules  and  regulations  shall  govern 
and  control  all  the  regattas  and  all 
the  races  of  this  Club,  and  all  con- 
tests sailed  under  its  auspices,  un- 
less otherwise  specified  between 
parties  making  a  match. 

RULE  II. — Classification.  Yachts 
shall  be  divided  by  sail  area  into 
four  classes  as  follows:  First  class. 
measuring  600  square  feet  of  sail 
area  and  over ;  Second  class,  meas- 
uring 450  and  under  600  square 
feet;  Third  class,  measuring  300 
square  feet  and  under  450 ;  Fourth 
class,  measuring  less  than  300. 

RULE  III. — Objections.  If  any 
objection  be  made  with  regard  to 
the  starting  of  any  ice-yacht  in  a 
race,  such  objection  must  be  made 
in  writing  to  the  Regatta  Commit- 
tee at  least  one  hour  before  a  regatta. 

RULE  IV. — Entry  of  the  Yachts. 
Unmeasured  or  unrecorded  yachts, 


or  yachts   in  arrears  to  this  Club, 
cannot  be  entered  for  any  race. 

RULE  V. —  Touching  Buoys,  etc. 
An  ice-yacht  touching  any  mark, 
boat,  or  buoy,  used  to  mark  out 
the  course,  shall  forfeit  all  claim 
to  the  prize,  except  as  in  cases 
specified  in  Rules  VII,  IX,  X. 

RULE  VI.— Rule  of  the  Road. 
When  two  yachts  have  to  cross 
each  other  on  the  opposite  tacks, 
the  one  on  the  starboard  must 
invariably  keep  her  course,  and  the 
one  on  the  port  tack  must  keep 
away  and  pass  to  leeward,  or  tack 
short,  when  the  smallest  doubt 
exists  as  to  her  being  able  to 
weather  the  other.  All  expenses  of 
damages  incurred  by  yachts  on  op- 
posite tacks  running  on  board  each 
other,  fall  upon  the  one  on  the  port 
tack,  unless  the  one  on  the  star- 
board tack  has  kept  away  with  the 
intention  of  passing  to  leeward,  in 
which  case  the  expense  of  damage 
falls  upon  the  yacht  on  the  star- 
board tack,  because,  by  her  keeping 
away,  she  may  have  prevented  the 
other  passing  to  leeward.  Should  a 
vessel  on  the  port  tack  attempt  to 
weather  one  on  the  starboard  tack 
when  it  does  not  seem  possible  to 
do  so,  the  latter,  rather  than  keep 
away,  should  put  her  helm  down. 
Nothing  should  induce  a  vessel  on 
the  starboard  tack  to  keep  away. 

RULE    VII. — Courses.      Any   ice- 
yacht   purposely   bearing    away  or 
altering  her  course  to  leeward,  and 
thereby     compelling     another  ice- 
yacht  to  bear  away  to  avoid  a  col- 
lision, shall  forfeit  all  claim  to  the 
prize,  and  pay  all  damages  that  may 
ensue — unless,  when  two  ice-yachts 
are  approaching  the  wind  ward  shore, 
a  buoy  or  stake  boat,  together  with 
a  free  wind,  and  so  close  together 
that   the  weathermost  cannot  bear 
away  clear  of  the  leewardmost,  and 
by  standing  further  on  would  be  in 
j  danger  of    running    on    shore,   or 
I  touching  a  buoy  or  stake  boat ;  then 
!  such  leewardmost  ice-yacht,  on  being 
,  requested  to  bear  away,  is   imme- 


ICE-BOATS 


439 


IDENTIFICATION 


•diately  to  comply,  and  will  forfeit  all 
claim  to  the  prize  by  not  doing  so. 
The  weathermost  ice-yacht  must, 
however,  bear  away  as  soon  as  the 
one  she  hails,  if  she  can  do  so  with- 
out coming  into  contact. 

RULE  VIII. — Rounding  Buoys, 
etc.  When  rounding  a  mark,  boat, 
or  buoy,  the  ice-yacht  nearest 
thereto  is  to  be  considered  the 
headmost  ice-yacht ;  and  should 
any  other  ice-yacht  in  the  race  com- 
pel the  ice-yacht  which  is  nearest 
to  any  mark,  boat  or  buoy;  to  touch 
said  mark,  boat,  or  buoy,  the  ice- 
yacht  so  compelling  her  shall  forfeit 
all  claim  to  the  prize  ;  her  owner 
shall  pay  for  all  damages  that  may 
occur;  and  the  ice-yacht  so  com- 
pelled to  touch  a  mark,  boat,  or 
buoy,  shall  not  suffer  any  penalty  for 
such  contact. 

RULE  IX. — Courses.  Ice-yachts 
going  free  must  invariably  give  way 
for  those  by  the  wind  on  either  tack. 

RULE  X. — Courses.  When  two 
ice-yachts  (by  the  wind)  are  ap- 
proaching the  shore,  a  mark,  boat, 
or  buoy,  together,  and  so  close  to 
each  other  that  the  leewardmost 
cannot  tack  clear  of  the  weather-- 
most,  and  by  standing  further  on 
would  be  in  danger  of  running  on 
shore,  or  touching  a  mark,  boat,  or 
buoy;  such  weathermost  ice-yacht, 
on  being  requested  to  put  about,  is 
immediately  to  comply,  and  will 
forfeit  all  claim  to  a  prize  by  not 
doing  so.  The  leewardmost  ice- 
yacht  must,  however,  tack  at  the 
same  time  as  the  one  she  hails,  if 
she  can  do  so  without  coming  into 
contact. 

RULE  X  I. — Pushing.  Unfair 
pushing  is  strictly  forbidden  in  any 
race  for  a  prize ;  any  ice-yacht  in- 
fringing upon  this  Rule,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  Regatta  Committee, 
shall  forfeit  all  claim  to  the  prize. 

RULE  XII.— Ballast.  No  ice- 
yacht  shall  increase  or  diminish 
ballast  during  a  race. 

RULE  XIII. —  Time  of  Perform- 
ance. SECTION  i.  In  case  the 


distance  assigned  for  the  race  shall 
not  have  been  performed  in  the 
time  specified  by  the  Regatta  Com- 
mittee, the  race  shall  be  repeated 
at  such  time  as  the  Regatta  Com- 
mittee may  appoint. 

SEC.  2.  If  any  ice-yacht,  however, 
shall  perform  the  distance  in  time 
specified  for  her  class,  it  shall  be 
deemed  a  race  for  that  class. 

History.  Ice-boats  have  been 
used  in  the  north  of  Europe  for 
several  centuries,  but  they  have 
never  been  brought  to  such  perfec- 
tion there  as  in  the  United  States. 
In  Holland  and  Russia  they  are 
hardly  more  than  sleds  with  sails, 
and  sometimes  they  are  sail-boats 
mounted  on  runners.  The  princi- 
pal improvements  in  ice-boat  build- 
ing have  been  made  by  the  clubs  on 
the  Hudson  River,  the  first  of  which 
was  formed  in  Poughkeepsie,  N.  Y., 
in  1861,  but  the  sport  is  practised  on 
harbors,  lakes,  and  streams  through- 
out the  northern  United  States  and 
in  Canada. 

IDENTIFICATION,  GAMES  OF, 
games  in  which  part  of  the  players 
try  to  guess  the  names  of  the  others 
from  the  appearance  of  their  eyes, 
ears,  noses,  or  fingers.  The  players 
are  divided  into  two  parties,  and 
stand  in  adjoining  rooms,  in  the 
doorway;  between  the  posts  of  which 
is  stretched  a  sheet  of  cloth  or  paper 
with  a  hole  in  the  middle.  Each  of 
one  party  now  puts  a  finger  through 
the  hole,  and  each  of  the  other 
party  guesses  who  its  owner  is.  As 
the  guesses  are  made,  they  are  re- 
corded, and  when  all  have  guessed, 
he  who  has  made  the  most  correct 
guesses  is  declared  the  winner. 
The  parties  then  change  places. 
Instead  of  fingers,  noses,  ears,  or 
hands  may  be  put  through  the  hole, 
or  each  may  apply  one  eye  to  it. 
There  may  be  only  one  guesser,  and 
as  soon  as  he  makes  a  correct  guess 
the  person  guessed  may  take  his 
place. 

In  another  game  those  whose 
names  are  to  be  guessed  kneel  down 


ILLUSTRATED  BALLADS 


440 


I   LOVE   MY   LOVE 


in  a  row,  and  their  heads  and  faces 
are  covered  with  long  paper  funnels, 
each  having  two  holes  for  the  eyes. 
To  the  bottoms  of  the  funnels  is 


pinned  a  sheet,  which  hangs  to  the' 
ground,  concealing  their  bodies. 
Each  one  of  the  guessers  now  takes 
a  lighted  candle,  and  looking  at  the 


I 


Identification. 


eyes  through  the  holes  in  the  paper 
funnels,  guesses  who  each  one  is. 
When  all  have  guessed,  the  paper 
funnels  are  removed.  Another 
method  of  identification  is  by  the 
voice.  French  BLIND  MAN'S  BUFF 
is  a  game  of  this  kind. 

ILLUSTRATED  BALLADS,  ballads 
illustrated  by  PANTOMIME  or  TAB- 
LEAUX. The  ballad  is  read  or 
sung  by  a  concealed  person.  If  it 
be  illustrated  by  pantomime,  the  ac- 
tion should  accompany  the  ballad 
from  beginning  to  end;  but  if  by  tab- 
leaux, they  may  be  shown  at  inter- 
vals, when  required.  Any  ballad 
telling  a  simple  story  may  be  thus 
illustrated.  Instead  of  a  ballad,  a 
narrative  poem  may  be  taken,  such 
as  Longfellow's  "  Evangeline,"  or 
"  Miles  Standish." 

I  LOVE  MY  LOVE,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
who  usually  sit  in  a  circle.  The  one 
who  begins  says,  for  instance,  "  I 
love  my  love  with  an  A,  because 
she  is  amiable;  I  hate  her  with 
an  A,  because  she  is  avaricious.  I 
took  her  to  the  sign  of  the  Antelope, 


and  treated  her  to  apples  and  ale' 
Her  name  is  Anna,  and  she  lives  in 
Andover."  The  words  in  italics 
may  be  varied  as  the  speaker 
chooses,  but  must  always  begin 
with  A,  and  if  the  player  is  a  girl, 
she  must  of  course  speak  of  her 
love  as  a  boy.  When  the  first  play- 
er has  finished,  the  one  on  his  left 
repeats  the  sentence,  and  so  on  till 
all  have  done  so,  but  the  words  in 
italics  must  be  entirely  new  in  each 
case.  When  a  player  mentions  any 
one  of  them  a  second  time,  or  can- 
not think  of  a  suitable  word,  he 
must  pay  a  forfeit.  When  all  the 
players  have  used  the  letter  A,  the 
sentence  is  repeated  again  by  all  in 
turn,  using  words  that  begin  with 
B,  and  so  on  through  the  alphabet, 
except  that  X,  Y,  and  Z,  and  some- 
times U,  V,  and  W,  are  omitted. 
When  a  large  number  play  the 
game,  it  is  often  difficult  for  those 
whose  turns  come  last  to  think  of 
words  that  have  not  been  used,  and 
the  turns  should  therefore  be  taken 
alternately  in  different  directions; 
that  is,  to  the  right  for  A,  to  the 


INDIAN   CLUBS 


441 


IODINE 


left  for  B,  and  so  on.  The  sentence 
given  above  is  very  commonly  used 
in  the  game,  but  it  may  be  varied 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  company. 

History,  The  game  of  I  Love  my 
Love  was  formerly  very  simple,  and 
consisted  in  saying  "  I  love  my  love 
with  an  A,  because  he  is  agreeable, 
amiable,  attentive,"  and  so  on,  using 
all  possible  adjectives  beginning 
with  an  A,  while  the  next  player  took 
up  B  in  the  same  way.  The  game 
is  called  in  France  "  Lejeu  de  1'al- 
phabet"  (The  Alphabet  Game).  It 
is  sometimes  called  "Alphabetical 
Compliments."  The  game  can  be 
varied  in  many  ways.  For  instance, 
each  player  may  represent  a  mer- 
chant, the  first  saying  "  My  name  is 
Atreus,  I  come  from  Attica,  I  deal  in 
Antiquities,  and  am  going  to 
jEtna ; "  the  second,  "  My  name  is 
Byron,  I  come  from  Barbary,  I  deal 
in  Bananas,  and  am  going  to  Bos- 
ton ;  "  and  so  on  through  the  alpha- 
bet. Games  of  this  kind  are  called 
in  Germany  Spzelen  mit  gegebenen 
Anfangsbuchstaben  (Games  with 
Given  Initials). 

INDIAN  CLUBS.  See  GYMNAS- 
TICS. 

INITIALS,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons.  The  leader  be- 
gins by  addressing  to  any  player  a 
remark  whose  words  begin  with  the 
initials  of  that  player's  name  in 
their  proper  order,  or  some  epithet 
beginning  with  those  initials.  The 
others,  one  by  one,  address  the 
same  player  in  like  manner.  When- 
ever the  player  so  addressed  can 
answer  one  of  the  others  with  a 
sentence  or  epithet  beginning  with 
the  latter's  initials,  before  the  next 
player  can  speak,  the  players  must 
all  address  the  one  so  answered,  and 
so  the  game  goes  on.  For  instance, 
if  the  player's  initials  are  A.  E.  B., 
he  may  be  addressed  with  "  An  ex- 
quisite beau  !"  "  Are  eggs  break- 
able ?"  "Apples  excite  boils."  "An 
early  bird,"  etc. 

A  similar  game  is  known  in  Ger- 
many as  Namenspiel  (The  Name 


Game).  In  it  the  names  or  epithets 
are  given  one  by  one  by  each  player 
to  his  neighbor,  who  must  guess  to 
whom  they  refer.  They  may  apply 
to  some  one  in  the  company  or  to 
some  well-known  person  or  histori- 
cal character. 

INK,  Experiment  with.  Dissolve 
one  half  teaspoonful  of  salt  in  a 
tumblerful  of  water.  Dip  a  pen 
in  ink,  filling  it  not  too  full,  and 
touch  with  it  the  surface  of  the 
water.  The  ink  will  descend  into  the 
tumbler  in  curiously  shaped  drops. 

INTELLECTUAL  SALAD,  a  guess- 
ing game  played  by  any  number  of 
persons.  Any  number  of  cards  are 
first  prepared,  on  each  of  which  is 
written  a  quotation,  with  its  au- 
thor's name.  The  cards  are  decor- 
ated with  green  leaves  of  tissue 
paper,  and  placed  in  a  salad  bowl. 
One  of  the  company  takes  them  out 
one  by  one  and  reads  the  quotations, 
while  the  others  guess  the  authors' 
names.  The  first  one  who  guesses 
correctly,  in  each  case,  is  given  the 
card  to  keep  as  a  memento. 

IODIDE  OF  MERCURY,  Experi- 
ment with.  Mix  together  solutions 
of  iodide  of  potassium  and  corrosive 
sublimate  (the  latter  should  be  used 
with  care,  as  it  is  very  poisonous). 
A  bright  scarlet  powder  will  be 
formed,  which  may  be  separated  by 
filtering  (see  CHEMICAL  EXPERI- 
MENTS). This  powder  is  iodide  of 
mercury.  When  rubbed  on  paper 
it  leaves  a  beautiful  scarlet  stain, 
but  on  heating  the  paper  over  an 
alcohol  lamp,  the  stain  turns  yellow. 
If  the  stain  be  rubbed  over  with  the 
fingers  it  will  turn  scarlet  again. 
j  The  change  takes  place  gradually  if 
'  the  yellow  stain  be  scratched  with 
a  pin.  The  reason  is  that  iodide  of 
mercury  crystallizes  in  two  forms, 
one  of  which  is  red  and  the  other 
yellow.  The  red  form  is  changed  to 
the  yellow  by  heat,  and  the  yellow 
crystals  are  broken  up  into  red  ones 
again  by  rubbing, 

IODINE,  Experiments  with.  The 
iodine  used  in  these  experiments 


IRON  BURNED  IN  A  CANDLE      442 


I  SUSPECT 


is  a  bluish  black  solid.  The  liquid 
iodine  used  in  medicine  is  really 
iodine  dissolved  in  alcohol. 

1.  Take  a  piece  of  iodine  and  heat 
it  in  a  bottle.     It  will  not  melt,  but 
give  off  a  beautiful  purple  vapor. 

2.  Powder  some  iodine  fine,  and 
put   a  very   little   of    it   (about   as 
much  as  will   lie  on  quarter  of  an 
inch  of  the  small  blade  of  a  knife) 
into     a    small     saucer.      Pour     in 
enough   strong  ammonia  water  to 
cover  it,  and  let  it  stand   for  about 
20    minutes.     Then  either  stir  the 
powder  up,  and  filter  it  (see  CHEM- 
ICAL EXPERIMENTS)  or  pour  off  most 
of  the  ammonia,  and  then  pour  the 
powder  on  a  piece  of  blotting-paper,  j 
Place  the   filter-paper  or  blotting- 
paper  where  it  will  dry  in  the  sun. 
When  it  is  perfectly  dry,  rub  a  stick 
on    the   powder,  or    even  brush   a 
feather  over  it,  and   it  will  explode 
with  a  crackling  noise.     Though  it 
has  not  changed  in  looks,  the  iodine 
has  been  made  by  the  ammonia  into 
a    very   explosive  substance  called 
Nitrogen  Iodide.     The  reason  why 
so    little   iodine   was   used,  is   that 
otherwise   the    explosion  might  be 
dangerous. 

IRON  BURNED  IN  A  CANDLE, 
Take  any  piece  of  iron,  as  a  bit  of 
wire,  or  a  nail,  and  scrape  it  with  a 
knife  above  the  flame  of  a  candle. 
Very  small  bits  of  the  iron  are 
scraped  off  which,  although  they 
cannot  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye, 
take  fire  as  they  fall  into  the  flame, 
and  burn  with  beautiful  sparks. 

I  SPY,  an  out-door  hiding  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons. 
One  of  the  players,  who  is  usually 
chosen  by  COUNTING  OUT,  remains 
near  the  goal  (which  may  be  a  tree, 
stone,  or  other  object)  and,  shutting 
his  eyes,  counts  a  number  previously 
agreed  upon,  generally  one  hun- 
dred. Meanwhile,  the  others  hide, 
each  where  he  pleases,  and  when 
the  player  at  the  goal  has  finished 
counting,  he  goes  out  in  search  of 
them.  When  he  sees  one  he  names 
him.  saying,  "  I  spy  James  Smith," 


or  whoever  it  may  be.  Both  now 
run  for  the  goal.  If  the  hider 
touch  it  first,  without  being  touched 
himself,  he  is  safe.  If  the  seeker 
can  not  catch  any  of  the  players  he 
spies,  nor  touch  the  goal  before 
them  after  he  spies  them,  he  must 
close  his  eyes  again  while  they  all 
hide  as  before  ;  but  if  he  has  caught 
or  touched  the  goal  before  one  or 
more  players,  the  first  one  of  them 
must  take  the  seeker's  place  in  the 
second  game.  The  hiding  players 
need  not  wait  to  be  spied,  but  may 
run  in  and  touch  the  goal  whenever 
they  think  they  can  do  so  safely. 

This  game  is  sometimes  played  in 
England  by  dividing  into  two  par- 
ties, one  of  which  hides  and  the 
other  seeks.  If  the  seeking  party 
spy  two  of  the  hiders  before  two 
others  reach  goal,  they  hide  in  the 
next  game,  otherwise  the  same 
party  hide  again. 

Hide  and  Whoop  or  Hide  and  Seek, 
a  kind  of  I  Spy  played  by  little  chil- 
dren. Those  who  hide  call  out 
"  Whoop  !"  when  they  are  ready, 
and  the  seeker  then  looks  for  them. 
In  the  simplest  form  of  the  game 
there  is  no  goal,  and  the  one  that 
is  found  first  becomes  seeker  in  the 
next  game.  Another  game  some- 
times called  Hide  and  Seek,  is  called 

in  this  book  HIDE  THE  HANDKER- 
CHIEF. 

The  Greeks  played  a  game  of 
Hide  and  Seek  called  Apodidras- 
kinda  (The  Shunning  Game),  where 
one  sat  down  and  closed  his  eyes, 
while  the  others  hid.  He  who  was 
found  first  took  the  seeker's  place. 

IMPERIAL,     See  PlQUET. 

I  SUSPECT,  a  game  of  cards 
played  by  any  number  of  persons 
with  one  or  more  full  packs.  The 
cards  are  dealt  one  by  one,  so  as  to 
be  as  evenly  distributed  as  possible. 
The  eldest  hand  leads  a  card,  face 
downward,  calling  out  at "  the 
same  time  the  name  of  a  card, 
which  maybe  the  one  he  laid  down 
or  some  other.  The  next  player  to 
the  left  now  plays  in  like  manner 


I   SUSPECT 


443 


JACK-STONES 


and  must  call  the  name  of  the  card 
next  higher  than  the  one  named  by 
the  eldest  hand.  The  others  in 
turn  do  the  same.  Thus  if  A  leads, 
calling  "  Six,"  the  others  in  turn,  as 
they  play,  say  "Seven,"  "Eight," 
"  Nine,"  "  Ten,1'  "  Knave,"  etc. 

When  King  is  reached  the  next 
player  begins  at  "  One  "  again.  This 
goes  on  till  some  one  suspects  that 
the  card  played  is  not  the  same  as 
the  card  called,  when  he  must  say 
"  I  suspect  "  The  suspected  person 
then  shows  the  card  he  played.  If 
the  suspicion  is  correct,  the  offender 
must  take  into  his  hand  all  the  cards 
on  the  table;  if  it  was  unfounded, 
the  accuser  receives  the  cards.  He 
who  first  gets  rid  of  all  his  cards  is 
the  winnei. 

A  just  accusation  may  always  be 
avoided  by  playing  the  proper  cards 
in  order,  but  this  is  impossible  with 
a  small  hand,  hence  it  is  always  safe 
to  suspect  the  holder  of  a  few  cards. 
The  last  card  should  always  be  sus- 
pected, since  there  is  only  one 
chance  in  thirteen  of  its  being  right. 
If  a  player  can  get  all  four  cards  of 
the  same  name  into  his  hand,  he  is 


of  course,  certain  to  suspect  rightly 
any  one  whose  turn  it  is  to  play 
one  of  those  cards.  A  skilful  player 
rarely  plays  the  right  card  unless  he 
thinks  some  one  is  watching  him, 
and  saves  as  many  kinds  of  cards  as 
he  can,  getting  rid  of  duplicates. 
When  his  hand  is  small,  he  tries  to 
hide  the  fact  by  diverting  the  atten- 
tion of  the  company  to  some  one 
else. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  No   player  can   be    suspected 
after  the  next  in  order  has  played 
his  card. 

2.  A  player  may  conceal  his  hand 
as  he  pleases,  to  hide  the  fact  that 
it  is  small,  but  he  must  always  show 
it   on   demand   of  any  one  of  the 
company. 

3.  The   game   may  be  continued 
after  one  player's   cards  are  gone, 
till  all  the  cards  are  in  one  hand.    In 
this  case  any  one  out  of  the  game 
may   suspect,   and    if    he     suspect 
wrongly  he   must  enter  the  game 
again. 

This    game    is    called    also    "I 
Doubt  it,"  and  "  You  Lie." 


JACK'S    ALIVE.      See    ROBIN'S 
ALIVE. 

JACK-STONES,  a  game  played 
by  one  or  more  per- 
sons with  five  small 
pebbles,  or  little 
pieces  of  iron 
'shaped  as  in  the 
illustration.  These 
are  thrown  up  and 
caught  in  various 
Jack-stone.  ways,  and  if  more 
than  one  plays,  he  wins  who  first 
succeeds  in  going  through  in  order 
with  a  certain  number  of  exer- 
cises. These  exercises  differ  in 
kind  and  number  in  different 
places;  but  some  of  them  are 
given  below. 


1.  The  five  Jack-stones  are  thrown 
into  the  air  and  caught  all  together 
on  the  back  of  the  hand. 

2.  One  of  the  Stones  is  tossed  up 
and  caught  in  the  hand  and  on  its 
back  alternately.     At  the  successive 
catches  the  player  calls  out "  Five  !" 
"  Ten  ! "  "  Fifteen  !  "  "  Twenty! "  and 
so  on  by  fives  up  to  One  Hundred. 

3.  Ones.  The  Jack-stones  are  held 
in    the    hand,    and    one,    called  the 
"Jack,"  is  thrown  into  the  air,  while 
the  four  others  are  laid  on  the  floor 
or  table  in  time  to  catch  the  Jack  as 
he  comes   down.      These  are  then 
picked   up,  one  by  one,   each  one 
while  the  Jack  is  thrown  into  the 
air.     When  all  have  been  taken  into 
the  hand  they  must  be  laid   down 


JACK-STONES 


444 


JACK-STONES 


as  before,  ready   for   Two's.      Only 
one  hand  must  be  used. 

4.  Twos,  Threes,  and  Fours.     The 
same  as  ones,  except  that  the  Stones 
are  picked  up  first  two  at  a  time; 
then  three  and  one  at  a  time  ;    and 
then  all  four  at  a  time. 

5.  The  Stones  are  all  taken  in  the 
hand  and  laid  down,  first  one  at  a 
time,  then  two  at  a  time,  and  so  on, 
always  while  the  Jack  is  in  the  air. 
Each  time  after  all  are  laid  down, 
they  are  picked  up  all  at  once. 

6.  Riding  the  Elephant.  The  four 
Stones  are  placed  in  a  line,  and  with 
the  Jack  on  the  back  of  his  hand  the 
player   traces  a  curved  line  in  and 
out  among  them  with  his  forefinger. 
At  the  end  he  tosses  up  the  Jack, 
and  picks  up  all  the  Stones  before 
catching  it,  all  with  one  hand. 

7.  Set  the  Table.  Four  Stones  are 
placed  in  a  heap,  and  one  by  one  are 
set  at  the  corners  of  a  square,  while 
the  Jack  is  in  the  air. 


"  Peas  in  the  Pod." 

8.  Peas  in  the  Pod.     The  left  hand 
fs  laid  on  the  table  with  the  ends  of 
the   thumb   and    forefinger  joined. 
Into    the    circle   thus   formed   the 
Stones  are  pushed,  one  by  one,  while 
the  Jack  is  in  the  air.     The  hand  is 
then  removed  and  all  are  picked  up 
together. 

9.  Horses  in  the  Stable.     Similar 
to  the  above,  save  that  the  fingers  of 
the  hand  are  outstretched  and  one 
Stone  pushed  into  each  opening. 

All    these   exercises,    of     which 


there  are  very  many,  require  the 
player  to  do  something  with  the 
Jack-stones  while  the  Jack  is  thrown 
into  the  air,  and  they  all  require 


"  Horses  in  the  Stable." 
practice.  Some  of  them  can  be 
mastered  only  after  hours  or  even 
days  of  hard  work.  A  game  of 
Jack-stones  between  two  or  more 
persons  is  thus  only  a  trial  to  see 
which  is  most  perfect  in  the  exer- 
cises. 

History.  Jack-stones  is  mentioned 
by  the  Greek  poet,  Aristophanes,  as 
a  girl's  game  more  than  two  thou- 
sand years  ago,  and  it  has  been  a 
common  amusement  from  that  time 
to,  this.  The  illustration  shows  a 
Greek  girl  playing.  The  ancients 


Greek  Girl  Playing  Jack-stones, 
played  it  with  the  knuckle-bones  of 
sheep,  and   it  is  still   so  played   in 
Europe,  but  in  this  country  pebbles 


JACK-STRAWS 


445 


JUSTICE   IS   BLIND 


or  iron  Jack-stones  are  commonly 
used.  In  England  it  is  called 
"Dibs."  "Cockall"  was  an  old  name 
for  it,  and  the  French  call  it  Osselets 
(little  bones).'  Sometimes,  also,  it 
is  played  with  m;irbles,  and  the 
jack  is  often  of  a  different  size  or 
color  from  the  rest.  The  name 
"  Jack-stones  "  is  probably  a  cor- 
ruption for  "  Chuck  Stones."  In 
Scotland  small  pebbles  are  called 
" chuckie-stanes."  In  Germany  it  is 
called  Handtopsen  or  Knochelchen, 
and  the  Jack  receives  in  various  parts 
of  that  country  different  names.such 
as  Hecker,  Dopser,  and  Hopper. 

Oti-dama,or  Japanese  Jack-stones, 
the  game  of  Jack-stones  played 
with  little  bags  about  an  inch  and 
a  half  square,  partially  filled  with 
rice.  Some  of  the  figures  of  Oti- 
dama  differ  from  those  of  ordinary 
Jack-stones.  Seven  bags  are  often 
used,  and  the  Jack  is  sometimes 
made  of  a  different  shape.  The 
name  is  in  Japanese  O-tedaina, 
from  O  te  tama  (The  Hand-balls). 
The  game  is  common  in  Japan,  and 
pebbles  also  are  used  in  playing  it 
there,  as  with  us. 

JACK-STRAWS,  a  'game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons  with  little 
sticks  of  ivory  or  wood  of  equal 
length,  generally  between  four  and 
six  inches.  Some  of  these  sticks, 
called  Jack-straws,  and  usually 
twenty  to  one  hundred  in  number, 
are  plain,  and  some  carved  to  look 
like  various  objects,  as  weapons, 
tools,  garden  implements,  and  the 
like.  The  players  sit  around  a 
table,  and  the  one  who  begins  takes 
up  the  Jack-straws  in  one  hand,  in  a 
bundle,  and  then  holding  them  up- 
right and  touching  the  table,  sud- 
denly lets  go,  so  that  they  fall  out- 
ward in  all  directions.  Each  in  turn 
then  tries  to  pull  from  the  pile  with  a 
little  hook,  made  for  the  purpose, 
as  many  of  the  straws  as  he  can, 
one  at  a  time,  without  shaking  any 
of  the  others.  If  he  shakes  any 
Jack-straw  ever  so  little,  he  must 
stop,  and  the  turn  passes  to  the 


next.  When  the  pile  is  gone,  he 
who  has  the  most  Straws  wins. 
Sometimes  the  Straws  are  marked 
with  different  numbers,  and  then  at 
the  close  of  the  game  each  adds  his 
numbers,  and  he  who  has  the  high- 
est wins.  The  game  is  sometimes 
called  Jerk-straws,  and  perhaps  the 
common  title  is  a  corruption  of  this. 
The  English  often  call  it  Spillikins, 
and  the  Germans  Feder  Spiel  (the 
Pen  Game).  The  French  call  Jack- 
straws  lonchets,  or  Honchets  (from 
Joncher,  to  strew),  and  name  partic- 
ular pieces  the  King,  the  Queen,  and 
the  Knight.  These  are  of  different 
shapes  from  the  others,  and  being 
more  difficult  to  extract  from  the 
pile,  count  more  than  the  common 
straws,  the  King  being  valued  at  20 
points,  the  Queen  at  10,  and  the 
Knight  at  5. 

JACOBY,  a  game  of  cards  played 
by  three  persons  with  a  full  pack. 
Four  hands  are  dealt,  as  in  WHIST, 
with  a  Dummy.  The  cards  in 
Dummy's  hand  are  sorted  in  se- 
quences, the  highest  first,  begin- 
ning with  Clubs,  followed  in  order 
by  Hearts,  Spades,  and  Diamonds. 
The  cards  are  played  as  in  WHIST, 
except  that  each  player  is  for  him- 
self. Dummy  follows  suit  when  he 
can,  always  playing  his  highest 
card,  and  when  he  cannot  follow 
suit  he  plays  the  first  card  in  his 
hand,  arranged  in  the  order  de- 
scribed. He  is  never  allowed  to 
take  a  trick,  and  therefore  never 
leads.  If  he  play  a  card  that  would 
ordinarily  take  the  trick,  it  goes  to 
the  next  highest  card  played.  The 
object  is  to  get  rid  of  the  Jacks. 
Each  trick  counts  one,  but  for  each 
Jack  taken  a  number  must  be  de- 
ducted from  the  score.  Thus,  for 
the  Jack  of  Clubs,  4  is  deducted  ;  for 
the  Jack  of  Hearts,  3 ;  for  the  Jack 
of  Spades,  2 ;  and  for  the  Jack  of 
Diamonds,  i.  He  who  first  makes 
ten  points  wins  the  game. 

JUSTICE  IS  BLIND,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  one  of 
whom,  representing  Justice,  is  blind- 


KALEIDOSCOPE 


440 


KALEIDOSCOPE 


folded.  Justice  is  given  a  seat  in 
the  middle  of  the  room,  and  then  a 
second  player  leads  up  the  players, 
one  by  one,  and  asks  Justice's  opin- 


ion of  each.  Whenever  the  opinion 
is  correct,  as  decided  by  a  majority 
of  the  company,  Justice  changes 
places  with  the  person  judged. 


KALEIDOSCOPE.  The  ordinary 
toy  kaleidoscope  is  described  in  C. 
C.  T.  A  large  one,  to  furnish 
amusement  at  an  evening  party, 
may  be  made  thus  :  The  lid  of  a 
piano  is  opened  and  rested  on  piles 
of  books,  so  that  it  forms  an  angle 
of  60  degrees  with  the  top,  and  the 
whole  is  then  covered  with  the 
piano-cloth,  or  with  a  large  table 
cover.  The  polished  top  and  lid  of 
the  piano  take  the  place  of  the 
glass  mirrors  in  the  small  kaleido- 
scope, and  when  objects  are  held  or 
moved  at  one  end  they  will  appear 
in  beautiful  and  complicated  designs 
to  any  one  looking  in  at  the  other. 
The  cover  should  hang  down  over 
the  end  at  which  the  observer 
stands,  so  that  he  may  put  his  head 
under  it.  The  objects  at  the  other 
end,  which  may  be  anything  bright 
or  colored,  must  be  shaken  about 
and  changed  rapidly.  Thus  the 
exhibitor  may  first  twirl  a  bouquet 
of  artificial  flowers  in  front  of  the 
kaleidoscope,  then  shake  his  fingers 
there,  then  dangle  two  or  three 
silver  spoons  at  the  end  of  a  string, 
then  look  in  and  make  a  face,  and 
so  on:  The  objects  should  be 
brightly  lighted,  but  the  lamp  or 
gas  fixture  should  be  placed  so  that 
it  does  not  show  in  the  kaleido- 
scope. The  reason  why  the  reflec- 
tions appear  in  a  regular  design  in 
a  kaleidoscope  will  be  understood 
by  looking  at  the  figure,  which,  if 
looked  at  from  the  left,  may  repre- 
sent a  section  of  the  piano-lid  and 
top,  M  and  M'.  The  top  M  will  be 
reflected  in  the  lid  M',  appearing  as 
the  dotted  line  just  beyond,  and 
this  reflection  behaves  like  a  real 
mirror,  so  the  lid  is  reflected  in  it. 


appearing  as  the  next  dotted  line. 
In  the  same  way  the  reflections 
shown  by  the  other  dotted  lines 
appear.  Therefore  the  observer 
sees  eight  polished  surfaces  radi- 
ating from  the  middle  point,  and  if 
any  object  A  is  held  between  the 
lid  and  top,  it  will  appear  also 
between  every  pair  of  these  reflected 


Principle  of  Kaleidoscope. 

surfaces.  Thus  eight  objects,  a,  b, 
a',  V ,  etc.,  are  seen  arranged  in  a 
regular  design,  of  which  only  one  i& 
real,  the  others  being  reflections 
The  centre  of  the  design  is  always 
the  angle  between  the  piano  top 
and  lid.  By  varying  this  angle,  the 
number  of  reflections,  and  therefore 
the  shape  of  the  design,  will  be' 
changed,  there  being  more  images 
as  the  top  and  lid  are  brought  near- 
er together.  A  kaleidoscope  for 
use  with  the  MAGIC  LANTERN  can 
be  made  by  placing  two  mirrors 
against  the  screen,  at  an  angle,  and 
throwing  between  them  the  image 
of  a  slide  made  of  two  pieces  of 
glass  having  heads  or  fragments  of 
glass  between  them.  The  image 
can  be  varied,  as  in  the  ordinary 
kaleidoscope,  by  shaking  the  slide. 


KENO 


447 


KING'S   CASTLE 


The  audience  must  sit  on  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  screen  from  the 
lantern. 

Diffraction  Kaleidoscope,  a  toy 
depending  on  the  principles  ex- 
plained under  DIFFRACTION  GRAT- 
INGS. It  has  one  of  these  gratings, 
ruled  with  a  diamond-point  on 
glass,  for  an  eye-piece,  and  for  ob- 
jects disks  of  pasteboard  with  nee- 
dle holes  in  various  patterns.  These 
can  be  arranged  to  suit  the  fancy 
of  the  observer.  The  light  passing 
through  these  holes,  when  viewed 
through  the  grating,  produces  va- 
rious beautiful  colored  patterns. 

Tube  Kaleidoscope.  Paint  a  glass 
tube  (for  instance  the  straight  part 
of  an  Argand  lamp  chimney)  black 
on  the  outside.  Look  through 
this  at  a  pin-hole  in  a  piece  of 
paper,  and  several  circles  of  light 
will  be  seen,  one  within  another. 
Any  design  or  figure  looked  at  will 
in  like  manner  be  reflected  in  cir- 
cles, making  a  curious  effect.  The 
tube  may  be  closed  at  one  end  by 
two  pieces  of  glass,  between  which 
are  placed  beads  or  other  small 
colored  objects,  as  in  an  ordinary 
kaleidoscope. 

KENO.     See  LOTO. 

KEY  OF  THE  KING'S  GARDEN. 
See  REPEATING  GAMES. 

KING  AND  QUEEN,  a  game  or 
trick  in  which  any  number  of  per- 
sons may  take  part.  All  who  have 
never  played  the  game  before  are 
sent  out  of  ths  room.  A  boy  and 
girl  are  then  selected  as  King  and 
Queen  and  seated  on  a  throne  made 
of  two  chairs,  placed  about  two  feet 
apart  and  covered  with  a  shawl  or 
rug.  The  covering  is  stretched 
while  the  King  and  Queen  take 
their  seats,  and  their  weight  keeps 
it  smooth,  so  that  the  throne  looks 
like  a  solid  bench,  covered  with  a 
shawl.  The  other  players  are  then 
asked  to  come  in  one  by  one.  As 
each  appears,  one  who  is  chosen  for 
the  purpose  introduces  him  to  the 
King  and  Queen  and  says  that  they 
wish  him  to  sit  between  them.  Just 


as  he  is  about  to  take  his  seat  the 
King  and  Queen  rise  and  allow  him 
to  fall  between  the  chairs.  He  then 
takes  his  place  among  the  other 
spectators,  and  witnesses  the  recep- 
tion of  his  companions.  The  King 
and  Queen  must  rise  exactly  at  the 
right  moment.  If  they  do  so  too 
soon,  the  victim  will  have  time  to 
save  himself;  if  they  wait  until  he 
has  rested  his  weight  on  the  shawl, 
he  will  discover  the  trick  and  get 
up  quickly. 

KING  ARTHUR  WAS  KING  WIL- 
LIAM'S SON,  a  singing  game  played 
by  boys  and  girls.  A  row  of  hats  is 
placed  on  the  floor,  and  the  leader 
of  the  game,  putting  the  first  one  on 
his  head,  marches  about  and  sings  to 
the  tune  of  "  Maryland,  My  Mary- 
land": 

"  King  Arthur  was  King  William's  son, 
And  when  the  battle  he  had  won, 
Upon  his  breast  he  wore  a  star, 
And  it  was  called  the  sign  of  war." 

He  then  picks  up  the  next  hat  and 
puts  it  on  the  head  of  any  one  he 
chooses,  who  must  then  follow  him 
while  they  sing  the  same  verse. 
This  goes  on  till  all  the  company  are 
in  line.  Sometimes  the  first  line  is 
"King  William  was  King  James's 
(or  King  George's)  son."  A  kissing 
game  is  played  by  adding  to  this 
stanza,  or  a  similiar  one,  the  lines, 

"  Star  of  the  East,  Star  of  the  West, 
Star  of  the  one  you  love  the  best, 
Down  on  the  carpet  you   must  kneel, 
As  the  grass  grows  on  the  field, 
Salute  your  bride  and  kiss  her  sweet, 
And  rise  again  upon  your  feet." 

This  game  is  played  in  this  and 
other  ways  in  Ireland,  and  is  com- 
mon in  the  Middle  and  Southern 
United  States. 

KING  C/ESAR.    See  PEELAWAY. 

KING'S  CASTLE,  a  game  in  which 
several  players  try  to  dislodge  one 
from  some  position  he  has  chosen. 
It  is  called  in  France  Le  Rot  De- 
tront  (The  Dethroned  King).  The 
King  selects  for  his  castle  a  hillock 
or  mound,  and  the  other  players  try 
to  dethrone  him  by  pushing  or 
pulling  him  down.  Sometimes 


KING'S   LAND 


448 


KITE-FLYING 


only  pushing  is  allowed.  During 
the  civil  war  in  England  between  the 
Parliament  and  Charles  I.,  the  Puri- 
tans besieged  Hume  Castle,  and  the 
commander,  when  ordered  to  sur- 
render, replied, 

"  I,  William  of  the  Wastle, 
Am  now  in  my  castle, 
And  a'  the  dogs  in  the  town 
Winna  gae  me  gang  down." 

This  rhyme  is  supposed  to  have 
been  quoted  from  a  boy's  game  of  the 
time,  probably  the  same  as  that  just 
described.  In  Pennsylvania  the  de- 
fender of  the  castle  says : 

"  Hally,  hally,  hastle, 
Come  into  my  new  castle." 

In  a  variation  of  the  game  all  the 
players  act  as  defenders  except  one, 
who  tries  to  gain  entrance,  saying : 

"  Hally,  hally,  hastle, 
Get  off  my  new  castle." 

KING'S  LAND,  See  TAG. 
KITE-FLYING.    The  article  KITE 
in  C.  C.  T.  describes  several  forms  of 


Japanese  Kite. 

Kites,  and  tells  some  interesting 
things  about  them.  A  Japanese 
form  is  shown  in  the  illustration, 
easily  made  from  the  thin  slips  of 
bamboo  in  a  Japanese  fan,  and 
covered  with  tissue-paper.  The 


points  in  which  skill  is  especially 
shown  in  making  a  kite  are  the 
arrangement  of  the  string  and  the 
tail.  Two  or  more  short  strings  are 
fastened  to  the  kite  frame  and  these 
are  joined  in  a  knot,  to  which  the 
kite  string  is  afterward  tied.  The 
kite  (without  its  tail),  if  lifted  by 
this  knot,  should  hang  with  its  sides 
perfectly  even  and  the  point  where 
the  tail  is  to  be  attached  a  little 
lower  than  the  top.  If,  in  flying, 
the  kite  plunges  sidewise,  it  is  prob- 
ably because  this  knot  is  too  high; 
if  it  whirls  around,  the  knot  is  too 
low. 

The  tail  should  never  be  less 
than  twelve  times,  and  may  be  even 
twenty  times,  the  length  of  the  kite. 
It  may  be  made  of  string  with 
stuff  "  bobs  "  of  folded  paper  three 
inches  long  placed  at  intervals  of 
three  inches,  or  it  may  be  of  strips 
of  cloth  tied  together,  in  which  case 
it  should  be  somewhat  shorter.  To 
fly  a  kite,  one  person  must  hold  it 
in  the  air  as  high  as  he  can,  while 
the  other  stands  about  fifty  feet  dis- 
tant in  the  direction  from  which 
the  wind  is  blowing,  with  the 
string  in  his  hand.  At  a  signal 
from  the  latter,  the  former  releases 
the  kite,  while  the  latter  runs 
towards  the  wind  till  the  kite  has 
mounted  a  little  way.  He  then  lets 
out  string  till  the  kite  is  as  high  as 
he  wants  it  to  go.  The  running  is 
for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
force  of  the  air  striking  the  kite,  as 
near  the  ground  the  wind  is  apt  to 
be  light.  In  a  strong  wind  it  is 
often  unnecessary  to  run  at  all. 
When  a  kite  has  reached  such  a 
height  that  the  weight  of  string 
attached  to  it  is  all  it  can  carry,  it 
will  go  no  higher  by  itself,  but  the  end 
of  the  string  may  be  attached  to  a 
second  kite  which  may  be  sent  up 
in  the  usual  manner.  One  kite  after 
another  may  thus  be  sent  up  till  their 
combined  pull  is  all  that  the  flyer 
can  hold.  Two  kites  sent  up  in 
this  way  can  be  made  to  pull  a  car- 
riage, the  main  kite  being  pre- 


KITE-FLYING 


449 


KNAVE'S   DIAL 


ceded  about  100  feet  by  a  smaller 
one,  called  a  pilot  kite,  which  can 
be  turned  to  one  side  or  the  other 
by  strings,  and  the  carriage  can 
thus  be  guided  somewhat.  Benja- 
min Franklin  once  allowed  himself 
to  be  drawn  across  a  river  by  a  kite, 
when  he  was  bathing. 

While  the  kite  is  in  the  air,  if  little 
pieces  of  paper  with  holes  in  the 
middle  be  strung  on  the  string,  the 
force  of  the  wind  will  carry  them  up 
to  the  kite.  These  are  called  "  mes- 
sengers." Messengers  made  like  a 
toy  paper  windmill  will  twirl  around 
as  they  rise. 

Kite-fighting,  a  contest  between 
two  kite- flyers  to  see  which  can 
capture  or  disable  the  other's  kite. 
With  ordinary  kites  this  is  done 
by  entangling  the  tail  of  one  in 
the  string  of  the  other.  The  kite 
whose  tail  is  thus  entangled  is  said 
to  be  captured.  To  capture  a 
hostile  kite,  the  flyer  must 
make  his  own  kite  pass  under 
the  string  of  the  other  and 
then  let  out  twine;  when  his 
kite  has  fallen  behind  that  of 
the  enemy  he  pulls  it  in  rapid- 
ly. Kites  with  broken  glass 
or  knife  blades  fastened  to  the 
tail  are  some- 
times used  in 
these  contests, 
the  object  in 
this  case  being 
to  cut  the  op- 
ponent's  string 
by  sweeping  the 
tail  across  it. 
They  should  be 
six-sided.  The 
pieces  of  glass 
for  the  tail  are 
obtained  by 
chipping  them  from 
a  thick  glass  bottle. 
Pieces  with  one  edge 
sharp  and  the  other 
thick  and  blunt  are 
selected,  and  three  are 
fastened  to  the  string 


all  point  outward.  Strips  of  wood 
are  now  bound  to  the  string  length- 
wise between  the  knives  to  keep 
them  in  place.  Kite-fighting  origi- 
nated in  China,  where  it  is  a  favor- 
ite sport. 

History.  Kites  appear  to  have 
been  brought  into  Europe  from 
China  or  Japan,  where  they  were 
first  used.  The  English  name  is 
from  a  supposed  resemblance  to  the 
bird  called  a  Kite.  The  French  call 
the  kite  cerf  -volant  (flying  stag),  the 
Scotch  name  it  Dragon,  and  the 
Germans  call  it  Drache  which  means 
the  same  thing. 

KNAVE'S  DIAL,  a  SoLITAlREgame 
of  CARDS,  played  with  one  or  two 
full  packs.  All  cards  of  the  suit  of 
the  first  one  played  are  placed,  as 
they  appear,  in  a  circle  to  represent 
the  numbers  on  a  clock  dial,  the 
Queen  counting  as  u  andtheKingas 


Kite-cutter. 


at  one  point  with  wax,  so  that  they 


Knave's  Dial. 


12.  The  Knave  is  placed  in  the  cen- 
tre. On  this  dial  is  placed  another 
of  a  differently  colored  suit,  and  so 
on  till  all  the  cards  are  used.  Cards 
that  cannot  at  once  be  put  in  place 
are  laid  aside  to  form  stock,  and 
the  stock  can  be  shuffled  and  relaid 
twice.  If  the  four  dials  can  thus 


KNIGHT  OF  THE  WHISTLE 


45° 


KNITTING-NEEDLE 


be  formed,  one  above  another,  the 
player  wins. 

KNIGHT   OF   THE    WHISTLE,  a 

trick,  which  the  victim  supposes  to 
be  a  game.  The  person  who  is  to 
be  duped  is  told  that  the  game  con- 
sists in  passing  a  whistle  around  a 
circle  of  pluyers,  while  one,  standing 
in  the  middle,  is  required  to  find  it 
by  its  sound,  as  it  is  blown  from 
time  to  time.  Whoever  "counts 
out "  for  the  game  must  arrange 
that  the  player  in  the  middle  is 
some  one  who  does  not  know  the 
trick,  which  will  now  be  explained: 
Tlie  whistle  is  fastened  to  one  end 
of  a  string  about  two  feet  long,  at 
the  other  end  of  which  is  a  bent  pin. 
The  pin  is  hooked  into  the  clothes 
of  the  player  in  the  middle  of  the 
ring,  so  that  the  whistle  always  hangs 
behind  him.  It  is  blown  by  some 
one,  and  the  seeker  turns  quickly  to 
find  it,  thus  carrying  it  in  front  of 
some  one  else,  who  blows  it  again. 
The  victim  of  the  trick  is  thus  kept 
turning  from  side  to  side  till  he  dis- 
covers the  deception.  The  pin  can 
be  hooked  into  his  clothes  without 
his  noticing  it  by  making  him  kneel 
down  and  close  his  eyes,  and  then, 
after  going  through  a  mock  cere- 
mony, declaring  him  a  "Knight  of 
the  Whistle,"  and  striking  him  on 
the  back.  While  this  is  going  on, 
the  whistle  can  be  attached  to  him 
unobserved.  The  players  should 
pretend  to  pass  the  whistle  from  one 
to  the  other  so  as  to  increase  the 
deception. 

KNIGHTS  OF  SPAIN,  a  game 
played  by  three  boys,  representing 
Spanish  knights,  and  any  number  of 
girls,  representing  a  mother  and  her 
daughters.  The  mother  and  daugh- 
ters sit  in  a  row,  and  the  knights  ad- 
vance to  ask  the  hand  of  one  of  the 
latter  in  marriage.  A  dialogue  is 
carried  on  in  verse,  of  which  there 
are  many  varieties.  The  following 
is  one  common  form  : 

KNIGHTS. 

"  Here  come  three  lords  out  of  Spain, 
A  courting  of  your  daughter  Jane." 


MOTHER. 

'  My  daughter  Jane  is  yet  too  young 
To  be  ruled  by  your  nattering  tongue." 

KNIGHTS. 

'  Be  she  young  or  be  she  old, 
"Tis  for  the  price  she  may  be  sold. 

'  So  fare  you  well,  my  lady  gay, 
We  must  turn  another  way.1' 

MOTHER. 

'  Turn  back,  turn  back,  you  Spanish  Knight 
And  scour  your  boots  and  spurs  so  bright." 

ONE  OF    THE  KNIGHTS. 

'  My  boots  and  spurs  they  cost  you  nought, 
For  in  this  land  they  were  not  bought?' 

MOTHER. 

'  Turn  back,  turn  back,  you  Spanish  Knight, 
And  cnoose  the  fairest  in  your  sight." 

ONE  OF  THE  KNIGHTS. 

'  I'll  not  take  one  nor  two  nor  three, 
But  pray  Miss  (Mary)  walk  with  me." 

The  knight  then  takes  the  hand 
of  the  girl  named  and  walks  around 
the  room  with  her.  On  his  return 
he  says : 

"  Here  comes  your  daughter  safe  and  sound, 
In  her  pocket  a  thousand  pound. 

'*  On  her  finger  a  gay  gold  ring, — 
I  bring  your  daughter  home  again." 

Sometimes  the  girl  runs  away  and 
is  pursued  by  her  mother  or  the 
knight. 

History.  This  game  is  played  in 
many  different  forms  throughout 
Europe.  The  English  and  Scotch 
versions  are  similar  to  ours,  but  in 
Spain  the  "knights"  represent  an 
embassy  from  the  Moorish  king. 
The  verse  probably  dates  from  the 
middle  ages.  In  the  last  century 
the  game  was  very  popular  in  the 
United  States,  and  it  is  still  played 
somewhat.  Another  version  of  the 
game  begins  "  Here  comes  a  duke 
a-roving,"  sometimes  corrupted  into 
"We  are  three  ducks  a-roving." 

KNITTING  NEEDLE,  Experiment 
with  a,  Heat  a  knitting-needle 
to  redness  in  an  alcohol  flame, 
holding  it  by  a  cork  on  one  end 
so  that  the  fingers  may  not  be 
burned.  Dip  the  red  hot  needle 
into  cold  water,  and  then  hold  it 
again  in  the  flame.  It  will  change 


KNURR   AND  SPELL 


45 1 


KNURR   AND   SPELL 


color  curiously,  turning  first  yellow, 
then  orange,  crimson,  violet,  blue, 
and  finally  gray.  The  reason  is, 
that  a  film  of  rust  forms  on  the 
needle,  which  alters  its  color  as  it 
grows  thicker.  In  tempering  steel 
(see  KNIFE  in  C.  C.  T)  these  colors 
are  carefully  watched,  for  the  kind 
of  steel  depends  on  the  time  when  it 
is  taken  from  the  fire  and  cooled. 
If  the  knitting-needle  be  cooled 


when  it  is  yellow,  for  instance,  it 
will  be  much  harder  than  if  cooled 
when  it  is  blue. 

KNURR  AND  SPELL,  corrupted 
into  "  Northern  Spell,"  a  game 
of  ball  played  by  any  number  of 
persons,  with  trap,  bat.  and  ball. 
The  trap  is  like  that  used  in  TRAP 
BALL.  The  bat,  represented  in  the 
illustration,  is  of  wood  with  a  han- 
dle of  cane,  four  or  five  feet  long. 


Knurr  and  Spell. 


The  ball  is  of  wood  or  white  porce- 
lain, about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  di- 
ameter. The  players  take  turns  at 
the  bat,  and,  sending  the  ball  into 
the  air  from  the  trap,  as  in  Trap 
Ball,  try  to  knock  it  with  the  bat 
as  far  away  as  possible.  The  dis- 
tance of  the  spot  where  the  ball 
strikes  from  the  trap  is  measured 
in  yards,  and  after  each  player  has 
had  a  certain  number  of  turns,  the 
distances  made  by  each  are  added 
together.  He  whose  sum  is  largest 


is  the  winner.  In  striking  the  ball, 
the  bat  is  held  in  both  hands  by  the 
end  of  the  handle,  and  whirled 
around  the  player's  head.  The  dis- 
tance to  which  the  ball  can  be  driv- 
en depends  less  on  force  than  on 
skill,  which  can  be  gained  only  by 
practice. 

This  game  is  played  chiefly  in  the 
north  of  England.  The  bat  used 
is  called  the  Knurr  (a  knot  or 
knob),  and  the  trap  the  Spell. 


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LA  C  R  O  S  S  E,  an  out-door  game 
played  by  24  persons,  12  on  a  side, 
each  of  whom  has  a  stick,  orcrosse, 
like  that  shown  in  the  illustrations, 
and  fully  described  in  Rule  I.  below. 
At  each  end  of  the  playing-field, 
which  is  as  near  125  yards  long  as 
possible,  is  a  goal  consisting  of  two 
posts,  six  feet  high  and  the  same 
distance  apart.  Each  side  faces 
one  of  these  and  tries  to  carry  or 
throw  toward  it  with  the  crosse  a 
solid  rubber  ball,  somewhat  smaller 
than  a  base-ball.  The  side  that  suc- 
ceeds in  propelling  the  ball  through 
their  r-pponents"  goal,  either  by 
throwing  or  striking  it  with  the 
crosse,  or  by  kicking  it,  scores  a 
goal,  and  the  side  that  gains  the 
greatest  number  of  goals  in  the 
allotted  time  (see  Rule  IX.,  Sec.  8), 
wins  the  game. 

The  titles  of  the  players  and  their 
positions  at  the  beginning  of  the 
game  are  given  belcw,  those  defend- 
ing the  lower  goal  being  in  italics. 

(Goal) 
Goal-keeper 

Po  i  n  t  Inside  Home 

Cover  Point  Outside  Home 

First  Defence  FirstAttack 

Second  Defence         Second  Attack 
Third  Defence  Third  Attack 

Centre  Field  Centre  Field 

Third  Attack  Third  Defence 

Second  Attack  Second  Defence 

First  Attack  First  Defence 

Outside  Home  Cover  Point 

Inside  Home  Point 

Goal-keeper 
(Goal) 

The  players  generally  remain  near 
these  positions  throughout  the 

fame.  In  the  Defence  half  of  the 
eld,  the  players,  as  a  rule,  try  to 
throw  the  ball  as  nearly  as  they  can 
the  full  length  of  the  field,  and  at 
the  same  time  land  it  at  about  Cover 
Point  at  the  other  end ;  while  the 


Attack  half  usually  run  toward  their 
opponents' goal  until  "  checked,"  or 
stopped,  when  they  "  pass"  the  ball 
to  another  of  their  team,  who,  in 


Facing. 


turn,  does  the  same,  each  player  re- 
turning to  his  original  position  up- 
on surrendering  the  ball.  Thus,  if 
the  Attack  are  well  trained  and  play 
well  together,  one  of  them  will 
eventually  have  a  good  opportunity 
to  "shoot  for  goal."  At  the  open- 
ing of  the  game,  the  ball  is  "  faced" 
in  the  centre  of  the  field ;  that  is, 
placed  on  the  ground  there  between 
the  crossed  sticks  of  the  two  op- 
posing players  whose  positions  are 
each  Centre  (see  list  of  positions), 
and  who  must  each  have  one  knee 
on  the  ground.  When  "  Play"  is 
called,  each  Centre  has  one  of  three 
methods  of  play  to  adopt:  either  he 
can  use  some  trick  to  obtain  the 
ball  himself  (and  this  is  the  most 
frequently  used),  or  else  he  can  draw 
his  stick  rapidly  away,  trying  to 
force  the  ball  behind  him,  where 
one  of  his  team  is  always  ready  to 
receive  it,  should  the  Centre  be 
successful.  In  the  third  and 
last  method,  which  the  Princeton 
College  Lacrosse  Team  invented,  he 
may,  by  jumping  up  on  his  feet  and 
keeping  his  body  between  the  ball 
and  his  opponent,  give  a  player  on 
his  side  a  chance  to  run  up  and  ob- 
tain the  ball.  The  ball  must  not  be 


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touched  with  the  hand,  however,  at 
any  time,  by  any  player,  except  the 
Goal-keeper.  He  who  succeeds  in 
getting  it  after  the  "  face"  may 
strike  it  with  his  crosse,  run  with  it 
in  his  crosse,  or  throw  it  by  means 
of  his  crosse.  The  opposing  team 
try  to  get  the  ball  from  him,  either 
by  striking  his  crosse  with  their 
crosses,  or  by  "  body-checking" 
him,  that  is  to  say,  running  into 
him  bodily.  Care  must  be  taken, 
however,  not  to  run  against  an  op- 
ponent's back,  and  not  to  use  one's 
hands,  arms,  or  legs  in  "  body- 
checking." 

A  line  drawn  six  feet  in  front  of 
each  goal  is  called  the  "  Goal-crease," 
and  no  attacking  player  is  allowed 
inside  it  until  the  ball  has  passed 
Cover  Point.  The  Goal-keeper, 
while  defending  the  goal,  stands 
inside  the  "  Goal-crease,"  and  is  al- 
lowed privileges  that  are  denied  to 
the  other  players.  (See  Rule  XII.) 

Picking  up  and  Carrying.  A 
player,  when  running,  always  picks 
up  the  ball  by  pushing  his  crosse 
under  it;  when  standing,  however, 
he  hooks  the  ball  towards  him  with 
his  crosse  and  then  pushes  it  under, 
the  ball  rolling  on  by  its  own  im- 
petus. In  pushing  the  crosse,  the 
player  leans  down  so  that  it  will  not 
make  too  great  an  angle  with  the 
ground.  When  the  ball  is  already 
running  toward  the  player  he  has 
merely  to  let  it  roll  up  on  his  crosse, 
but  the  crosse  must  be  held  at  a 
greater  angle  the  faster  the  ball  is 
coming.  If  the  ball  is  rolling  very 
fast  and  the  crosse  is  held  so  as  to 
offer  too  gentle  an  incline,  the  ball 
is  likely  to  bound  up  into  the 
player's  face.  If  the  ball  comes  on 
a  swift  bound,  the  player  should  be 
able,  by  not  standing  directly  in 
front  of  it,  to  catch  it  in  his  net 
without  any  difficulty,  the  old  idea  of 
"blocking"  or  knocking  it  straight 
downward  and  catching  it  when  it 
rises,  being  entirely  given  up,  nowa- 
days, as  in  doing  that  too  much 
valuable  time  is  lost.  When  it 


comes  on  the  fly  it  is  received  on 
the  net,  the  crosse  being  drawn  back 
slightly  as  the  ball  strikes  it. 

A  "liner"  is  caught  by  a  player's 
moving  to  one  side,  holding  his 
crosse  in  a  horizontal  position,  and 
allowing  it  to  "  give  "  a  little  when 
the  ball  strikes  it.  All  these  move- 
ments (and  many  more  could  easily 
be  described)  require  a  great  deal  of 
practice  to  render  them  successful. 

Running  and  Dodging.  As  a 
rule,  each  team  has  its  own  method 
of  play,  but  good  critics  consider  it 
poor  play  to  keep  the  men  running 
until  "  checked  ;"  it  being  far  better 
to  save  their  strength  by  teaching 
the  Defence  to  throw  as  far  and  as 
accurately  as  possible,  and  the  Attack 
to  "  pass "  among  themselves  as 
quickly  and  accurately  as  possible. 
In  running,  the  ball  is  held  on  the 
crosse,  which  is  inclined  slightly 
downward  in  front  of  the  player, 
the  inclination  increasing  with  the 
speed.  The  ball  is  kept  in  place 
partly  by  the  resistance  of  the  air, 
and  rests  against  the  stick  of  the 
crosse,  which  is  turned  slightly  to 
one  side  for  the  purpose.  When  the 
runner  meets  an  opponent,  he  must 
take  care  to  prevent  the  latter  from 
striking  his  crosse,  and  at  the  same 
time  prevent  "body-checking." 
Sometimes  he  changes  the  crosse 
from  one  hand  to  another,  or  even 
turns  his  back,  which  makes  it  diffi- 
cult for  the  enemy  to  get  at  his 
crosse.  Sometimes,  with  a  quick 
wrist-movement,  he  throws  the  ball 
over  his  opponent's  head,  or  to  one 
side,  running  on  and  catching  it 
again  before  his  antagonist  has  time 
to  turn.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
player  who  is  trying  to  get  the  ball 
strives  to  knock  it  out  of  the  run- 
ner's stick,  or  else,  which  is  far  more 
customary  nowadays,  he  tries  to 
upset  him  by  "body-checking." 
One  method  of  knocking  a  ball  out 
of  a  runner's  stick  is  to  strike  the 
crosse  down,  not  hitting  the  ball, 
which  may  then  be  caught  in  the 
air. 


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Throwing.  This  is  the  term 
applied  nowadays  strictly  to  the 
Defence  who  "throw"  the  full  length 
of  the  field.  The  act  of  sending  the 
ball  from  one  Attack  man  to  another 
is  now  termed  either  "  tipping,"  or 
"  passing,"  and  that  of  attempting 
to  send  the  ball  between  the  posts  a 
"  shoot  for  goal."  When  an  Attack 
player  with  the  ball  finds  that  he 
can  run  no  farther  and  that  dodging 
is  useless,  he  passes  the  ball  to 
another  player  on  his  own  side, 
either  one  who  is  farther  forward, 
or  who  has  a  clear  field  before  him. 
There  are  many  kinds  of  throws,  of 
which  only  a  few  will  be  described 
here.  Of  Defence  throws,  the  best  is 
to  turn  the  back  in  the  direction  in 
which  the  ball  is  to  be  thrown  and 
raise  the  crosse  straight  up,  so  as  to 
throw  over  the  head.  Skilful 


Throwing  backward. 

players  throw  thus  with  great  accu- 
racy of  aim,  and  the  plan  has  the 
advantage  that,  as  the  thrower's 
back  is  toward  the  checking  player, 
it  is  hard  for  the  latter  to  interfere. 
The  crosse  must  be  turned  side- 
wise  a  little  to  prevent  the  ball's 
falling  off,  as  the  player  turns,  and 
the  throw  is  made  chiefly  from  the 


elbow,  the  crosse  being  stopped 
suddenly  just  before  the  hands 
touch  the  face. 

Perhaps  the  most  universal,  and 
certainly  the  best  Attack  throw  is 
made  by  bringing  the  crosse  around 
to  the  right  side,  then  raising  it, 
and  throwing  from  the  shoulder. 

Tipping  may  be  done  in  two  ways  : 
either  by  a  single  players'  tossing 
the  ball  a  foot  or  so  and  catching  it 
again,  repeating  this  performance 
as  he  runs,  or  else  by  two  players 
running  along  together,  and  as  each 
is  compelled  by  opponents  "  check- 
ing" them  to  do  so,  tossing  or  pass- 
ing the  ball  a  few  feet  from  one  to 
the  other.  (See  Rule  XII.)  Other 
details  of  the  game  are  given  in  the 
following  playing  rules  of  the  New 
England  Amateur  Lacrosse  Associa- 
tion. Those  of  the  rules  relating  to 
the  discipline  of  the  association  and 
having  nothing  to  do  with  the  game, 
are  omitted. 

RULE  I. —  The  Crosse,  SEC.  i. 
The  crosse  may  be  of  any  length  to 
suit  the  player ;  woven  with  cat- 
gut, which  must  not  be  bagged. 
("  Cat-gut "  is  intended  to  mean 
raw-hide,  gut,  or  clock-strings  ;  not 
cord  or  soft  leather.)  The  netting 
must  be  flat  when  the  ball  is  not  on 


Goal  Tend. 

it.     In    its  widest    part  the  crosse 
shall  not  exceed  one  foot.    A  string 


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must  be  brought  through  a  hole  at 
the  side  of  the  tip  of  the  turn  (to 
prevent  the  point  of  the  stick  catch- 
ing an  opponent's  crosse).  A  lead- 
ing string  resting  upon  the  top  of 
the  stick  may  be  used,  but  must  not 
be  fastened,  so  as  to  form  a  pocket, 
lower  down  the  stick  than  the  end 
of  the  length  strings.  The  length 
strings  must  be  woven  to  within 
two  inches  of  their  termination,  so 
that  the  ball  cannot  catch  in  the 
meshes. 

SEC.  2.  Players  may  change  their 
crosse  during  a  match. 

RULE  II.— The  Ball.  SEC.  I. 
The  ball  must  be  of  sponge  rubber, 
manufactured  by  the  New  York 
Rubber  Co.  In  each  match  a  new 
ball  must  be  used,  furnished  by  the 
home  team.  It  shall  become  the 
property  of  the  winning  team. 

SEC.  2.  The  ball  shall  be  of  the 
size  of  the  ball  marked  No.  40,  regu- 
lation by  the  New  York  Rubber  Co. 

RULE  III.— The  Goals.  SEC.  i. 
The  goals  must  be  at  least  125 
yards  from  each  other,  and  in  any 
position  agreeable  to  the  captains 
of  both  sides.  The  top  of  the  flag- 
poles must  be  six  feet  above  the 
ground,  including  any  top  orna- 
ment, and  six  feet  apart.  In  matches 
they  must  be  furnished  by  the  chal- 
lenged party. 

RULE  IV.  —  The  Goal  Crease. 
SEC.  I.  No  attacking  player  must 
be  within  six  feet  of  either  of  the 
flag  poles,  unless  the  ball  has  passed 
Cover-point's  position  on  the  field. 

RULE  V.—  Referee.  SEC.  i.  The 
Referee  shall  be  selected  by  the 
captains. 

SEC.  2.  Before  the  match  begins, 
the  referee  shajl  see  that  properly 
qualified  Umpires  are  selected,  as 
provided  for  in  Rule  VI.  All  dis- 
puted points  and  matters  of  appeal 
that  may  arise  during  his  continu- 
ance in  office  shall  be  left  to  his  de- 
cision, which,  in  all  cases,  must  be 
final,  without  appeal. 

SEC.  3.  Before  the  match  begins, 
he  shall  draw  the  players  up  in  lines, 


and  see  that  the  regulations  respect- 
ing the  ball,  crosses,  spiked  soles, 
etc.,  are  complied  with.  He  shall 
also  see  that  the  regulations  respect- 
ing the  goals  are  adhered  to.  He 
shall  know  before  the  commence- 
ment of  a  match  the  number  of 
games  to  be  played,  the  time  for 
stopping,  and  any  other  arrange- 
ments that  may  have  been  made  by 
the  captains.  He  shall  have  the 
power  to  suspend,  at  any  time  during 
the  match,  any  player  infringing 
these  laws — the  game  to  go  on  dur- 
ing suspension. 

SEC.  4.  When  "  foul  "  has  been 
called  by  either  captain,  the  referee 
shall  immediately  cry  "  time,"  after 
which  the  ball  must  not  be  touched 
by  either  party,  nor  must  the  players 
move  from  the  positions  in  which 
they  'happen  to  be  at  the  mo- 
ment, until  the  referee  has  called 
'"play."  If  a  player  should  be  in 
possession  of  the  ball  when  "time"  is 
called, he  must  drop  it  on  the  ground. 
If  the  ball  enters  goal  after  "  time  " 
has  been  called,  it  shall  not 
count. 

SEC.  5.  The  jurisdiction  of  the 
referee  shall  not  extend  beyond  the 
match  for  which  he  is  appointed  ; 
and  he  shall  not  decide  in  any 
matter  involving  the  continuance  of 
a  match  beyond  the  day  on  which 
it  is  played.  The  referee  must  be 
on  the  ground  at  the  commence- 
ment of  and  during  the  match.  At 
the  commencement  of  each  game, 
a.id  after  "fouls"  and  "balls  out  of 
bounds,"  he  shall  see  that  the  ball  is 
properly  faced,  and,  when  both  sides 
are  ready,  shall  call  "play."  He 
shall  not  express  an  opinion  until  he 
has  taken  the  evidence  on  both 
sides.  After  taking  the  evidence,  his 
decision  in  all  cases  must  be  final. 
Any  side  rejecting  his  decision,  by 
refusing  to  continue  the  match, 
shall  be  declared  losers. 

SEC.  6.  When  game  is  claimed  and 
disallowed,  the  referee  shall  order 
the  ball  to  be  faced  for,  from 
where  it  is  picked  up ;  but  in  no 


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case  must  it  be  closer  to  the  goals 
than  ten  yards  in  any  direction. 

RULE  VI.— Umpires.  SEC.  I. 
There  shall  be  one  Umpire  at  each 
goal.  They  shall  not  be  members 
of  either  club  engaged  in  a  match, 
nor  shall  they  be  changed  during 
its  progress  without  the  consent  of 
both  captains. 

SEC.  2.  Their  jurisdiction  shall 
last  during  the  match  for  which 
they  are  appointed.  They  shall  not 
change  goals  during  a  match. 

SEC.  3.  No  person  shall  be  al- 
lowed to  speak  to  an  umpire,  or  in 
any  way  distract  his  attention,  when 
the  ball  is  near  or  nearing  his  goal. 

SEC.  4.  They  shall  stand  behind 
the  flags  when  the  ball  is  near  or 
nearing  their  goal.  In  the  event  of 
game  being  claimed,  the  umpire  at 
that  goal  shall  at  once  decide 
whether  or  not  the  ball  has  fairly 
passed  through  the  flags,  his  de- 
cision simply  being  "game"  or  "  no 
game,"  without  comment  of  any 
kind.  He  shall  not  be  allowed  to 
express  an  opinion,  and  his  decision 
shall  in  all  cases  be  final,  without 
appeal. 

SEC.  5.  In  the  event  of  the  field 
captains  failing  to  agree  upon  the 
umpires,  after  three  nominations  (in 
accordance  with  this  rule)  have 
been  made  by  each  party,  it  shall  be 
the  duty  of  the  referee  to  appoint 
one  or  more  umpires,  as  may  be  re- 
quired, who  shall  not  be  one  of  the 
persons  objected  to,  who  must  be 
duly  qualified,  as  required  by  this 
rule. 

SEC.  6.  Only  the  captain  of  either 
side  and  one  other  player  by  him  ap- 
pointed shall  have  the  right  to  call 
"  foul,"  and  the  referee  shall  not 
stop  the  game  when  "  foul "  is 
called  by  any  one  else.  In  cham- 
pionship matches  they  shall  be  ap- 
pointed the  day  previous. 

RULE  VII. — Captains.  Captains 
to  superintend  the  play  shall  be 
appointed  by  each  side  previous  to 
the  commencement  of  a  match. 
They  shall  be  members  of  the  club 


by  whom  they  are  appointed,  and 
no  other.  They  may  or  may  not  be 
players  in  the  match ;  if  not,  they 
shall  not  carry  a  crosse,  nor  shall 
they  be  dressed  in  lacrosse  uniform. 
They  shall  select  umpires  and 
referees,  as  laid  down  in  these  rules, 
toss  for  choice  of  goals,  and  the  cap- 
tain and  one  player  appointed  by 
him  shall  be  entitled  to  call  "foul  " 
during  a  match.  They  shall  report 
any  infringement  of  the  laws  during 
a  match  to  the  referee. 

RULE  VIII. — Names  of  Players. 
The  players  on  each  side  shall  be 
designated  as  follows  :  "  Goal-keep- 
er," who  defends  the  goal ;  "  Point," 
first  man  out  from  goal ;  "  Cover- 
point;"  in  front  of  Point ;  "  Centre," 
who  faces;  "Home,"  nearest  op- 
ponent's goal;  others  shall  be  termed 
"  Fielders.' 

THE  GAME. 

RULE  IX.- -Miscellaneous.  SEC. 
3.  The  game  must  be  started  by  the 
referee  facing  the  ball  in  the  centre 
of  the  field  between  a  player  on  each 
side.  The  ball  shall  be  laid  upon  the 
ground  between  the  sticks 'of  the 
players  facing,  and  when  both  sides 
are  ready  the  referee  shall  call 
"  play."  The  players  facing  shall 
have  their  left  side  toward  the  goal 
they  are  attacking,  and  shall  not  be 
allowed  to  use  a  left-handed  crosse. 

SEC.  4.  A  match  shall  be  decided 
by  the  winning  of  most  goals  in 
every  match,  unless  otherwise  agreed 
upon.  Games  must  in  all  cases  be 
won  by  putting  the  ball  through  the 
goal  from  the  front  side. 

SEC.  5.  Captains  shall  arrange, 
previous  to  a  match,  whether  it  is  to 
be  played  out  in  one  day,  postponed 
at  a  stated  hour  in  the  event  of 
rain,  darkness,  etc.,  or  to.  be  con- 
sidered a  draw  under  certain  circum- 
stances, and  if  postponed,  if  it  is  to 
be  resumed  where  left  off. 

SEC.  6.  If  postponed  and  re- 
sumed where  left  off,  there  shall  be 
no  change  of  players  on  either 
side. 


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SEC.  7.  Either  side  may  claim  at 
least  five  minutes'  rest,  and  not 
more  than  ten,  between  each  game. 

SEC.  8.  The  time  of  game  shall 
be  two  half  hours,  with  ten  minutes 
rest  between. 

SEC.  9.  No  change  of  players 
must  be  made  after  a  match  has 
commenced,  except  for  reasons  of 
accident  or  injury  during  the  game. 

SEC.  10.  Should  any  player  be 
injured  during  a  match,  and  com- 
pelled to  leave  the  field,  the  oppo- 
site side  shall  drop  a  man  to 
equalize  the  teams.  In  the  event 
of  any  dispute  between  the  field 
captains  as  to  the  injured  player's 
fitness  to  continue  the  game,  the 
matter  shall/at  once  be  decided  by 
the  referee. 

RULE     X. — Spiked  Soles.       No 
player  must  wear  spiked  soles   or 
boots,  and  any  player  attempting  to  ' 
evade  this  law  shall  be  ruled  out  of 
the  match. 

RULE  XI.—  Touching  Ball  ivith\ 
the  Hand.      The   ball  must  not  be  j 
touched  with  the  hand,  save  in  cases 
of  Rules  XII  and  XIII. 

RULE  XII  .—Goal- Keeper.  The 
goal-keeper  while  defending  goal 
within  the  goal-crease,  may  pat 
away  with  his  hand,  or  block  the 
ball  in  any  manner  with  his  crosse 
or  body. 

RULE  XIII. — Ball  in  an  Inacces- 
sible Place.  Should  the  ball  lodge 
in  any  place  inacessible  to  the  crosse, 
it  may  be  taken  out  with  the  hand, 
and  the  party  picking  it  up  must 
"  face  "  with  his  nearest  opponent. 

RULE  X.lV.—Ball  out  of  Bounds. 
Balls  thrown  out  of  bounds  must  be 
"  faced "  for  at  the  nearest  spot 
within  the  bounds,  and  all  the  play- 
ers shall  remain  in  their  places  until 
the  ball  is  faced.  The  referee  shall 
see  that  this  is  properly  done,  and 
when  both  sides  are  ready  shall  call 
play.  The  "bounds"  must  be  dis- 
tinctly settled  by  the  captains  before 
the  commencement  of  the  match. 

RULE  XV. — Accidental  Games. 
Should  the  ball  be  accidentally  put 


through  a  goal  by  one  of  the  players 
defending  it,  it  is  game  for  the  side 
attacking  that  goal.  Should  it  be 
put  through  the  goal  by  any  one  not 
actually  a  player,  it  shall  not  count. 

RULE  XVI.— Ball  Catching  Net- 
ting. Should  the  ball  catch  in  the 
netting,  the  crosse  must  be  struck 
on  the  ground  to  dislodge  it. 

RULE  XVII.— Fouls,  and  Penal- 
ties for  Same.  The  following  shall 
constitute  fouls,  and  be  punished  as 
such  by  the  referee  : 

SEC.  i.  No  player  shall  grasp  an 
opponent's  crosse  with  his  hands, 
hold  it  with  his  arms  or  between 
his  legs,  nor  shall  any  player  more 
than  six  feet  from  the  ball  hold  his 
opponent's  crosse  with  his  crosse, 
run  in  front  of  him,  or  interfere  in 
any  way  to  keep  him  from  the  ball 
until  another  player  reaches  it. 

SEC.  2.  No  player  with  his 
crosse  or  otherwise  shall  hold,  de- 
liberately strike  or  trip  another,  nor 
push  with  the  hand,  nor  wrestle 
with  the  legs  so  as  to  throw  an 
opponent. 

SEC.  3.  No  player  shall  hold  the 
ball  in  his  crosse  with  his  hand  or 
person,  or  lay  or  sit  on  it. 

SEC.  4.  No  player  shall  charge 
into  another  after  he  has  thrown  the 
ball. 

SEC.  5.  The  crosse  or  square 
check  which  consists  of  one  player 
charging  into  another  with  both 
hands  on  the  crosse,  so  as  to  make 
the  crosse  strike  the  body  of  his 
opponent,  is  strictly  forbidden. 

SEC.  6.  No  player  shall  interfere 
in  any  way  with  another,  who  is  in 
pursuit  of  an  opponent  in  posses- 
sion of  the  ball. 

SEC.  7.  "Shouldering"  is  al- 
lowed only  when  the  players  are 
within  six  feet  of  the  ball,  and  then 
from  the  side  only.  No  player  must 
under  any  circumstances  run  into 
or  shoulder  an  opponent  from 
behind. 

SEC.  8.  The  referee  shall  be  the 
judge  of  fouls,  and  shall  call  time 
to  decide  them  only  at  the  request 


LACROSSE 


458 


LADY  OF  THE   MANOR 


of  the  captains  or  the  men  ap- 
pointed by  them. 

SEC.  9.  When  a  foul  is  allowed 
by  the  referee,  the  player  fouled 
shall  have  the  option  of  a  free 
"  run  "  or  "throw"  from  the  place 
where  the  foul  occurred.  For  this 
purpose  all  players  within  ten  feet 
of  said  player  shall  move  away  to 
that  distance,  all  others  retaining 
their  positions.  But  if  a  foul  is 
allowed  within  twenty  yards  of  the 
goal,  the  man  fouled  shall  move 
away  that  distance  from  goal  before 
taking  the  run  or  throw  allowed 
him. 

SEC.  10.  If  a  foul  is  claimed 
and  time  called,  and  the  foul  then 
not  allowed,  the  player  accused  of 
fouling  shall  be  granted  a  free 
"  run  "  or  "  throw  "  under  the  con- 
ditions above  mentioned  (Sec.  9). 

SEC.  ii.  No  player  shall  throw 
his  crosse  at  a  player  or  at  the  ball, 
under  any  circumstances  :  and  such 
action  will  be  considered  a  "foul." 
Should  a  player  lose  his  crosse 
during  a  game,  he  shall  consider 
himself  "  out  of  play,"  and  shall  not 
be  allowed  to  touch  the  ball  in  any 
way  until  he  again  recovers  it. 
Kicking  the  ball  is  absolutely  pro- 
hibited to  players  without  a  crosse. 

SEC.  12.  Any  player  considering 
himself  purposely  injured  during 
play,  must  report  to  his  captain, 
who  must  report  to  the  referee,  who 
shall  warn  or  suspend  the  player 
complained  of. 

SEC.  13.  For  deliberate  fouls 
which  occasion  injury  to  opponents 
or  affect  the  result  of  the  game,  for 
the  first  offence,  the  referee  shall 
have  power  to  suspend  the  player 
committing  it  for  the  rest  of  the 
game  (not  match) ;  for  a  second 
offence,  the  referee  may  remove 
the  offending  player  and  compel 
his  side  to  finish  the  match  short- 
handed. 

SEC.  14.  Any  player  deliberately 
striking  another,  or  raising  his  hand 
to  strike,  shall  be  immediately  ruled 
out  of  the  match. 


RULE  XVIII.— Settlement  of  Dis- 
putes. In  the  settlement  of  any 
dispute,  whether  by  the  umpires  or 
referee,  it  must  be  distinctly  under- 
stood that  the  captains,  with  one 
player  each  to  be  selected  by  them, 
have  the  right  to  speak  on  behalf 
of  their  respective  clubs;  and  any 
proposition  or  facts  that  any  player 
may  wish  brought  before  the  referee 
must  come  through  the  captains  or 
the  players  selected  by  them. 

RULE  XIX.  —  Flag-pole  Down. 
In  the  event  of  a  flag-pole  being 
knocked  down  during  a  match,  and 
the  ball  put  through  what  would 
be  the  goal  if  the  flag-pole  were 
standing,  it  shall  count  game  for  the 
attacking  side. 

History.  Lacrosse,  in  one  form 
or  another,  is  said  to  have  been 
played  by  the  North  American 
Indians  from  a  very  early  time,  to 
teach  their  young  men  strength  and 
endurance.  The  game  is  described 
by  early  French  missionaries  to 
Canada,  and  the  Jesuits  named  it 
La  Crosse,  from  the  stick  with 
which  it  was  played,  which  resem- 
bled the  French  Crosse  or  hockey- 
stick.  The  original  meaning  of  the 
word  is  a  bishop's  staff,  or  crozier, 
shaped  something  like  a  hockey- 
stick.  The  Chippewa  name  was 
Baggatinaway.  On  June  4,  1763, 
the  fort  at  Michilimackinack  (now 
Mackinaw,  Mich.)  was  surprised 
and  taken  from  the  English  by  a 
party  of  Indians  who  pretended  to 
be  playing  a  game  of  Lacrosse.  The 
game  is  still  a  favorite  with  the 
Canadian  Indians,  among  whom  are 
to  be  found  its  finest  players.  It  is 
widely  played  by  Canadians,  and 
has  been  called  their  national  game, 
holding  the  same  place  with  them 
that  Base-ball  does  in  this  country. 
It  has  lately  been  introduced  into 
the  United  States,  where  it  finds 
some  favor,  and  numerous  clubs 
have  been  organized  to  play  it. 

LADY  OF  THE  MANOR,  a  SOLI- 
TAIRE game  of  CARDS,  played  with 
two  full  packs.  Four  piles  of 


LAMP-LIGHTER 


459 


LAWN   BILLIARDS 


twelve  cards  each  are  placed  in  a 
row,  one  pile  at  a  time.  The  rest 
of  the  cards  are  now  divided  into 
thirteen  piles,  which  are  placed  in  a 
semicircle  above  this  row.  Each  of 
the  thirteen  piles  contains  only 
cards  of  the  same  value,  and  they 
are  arranged  in  regular  order,  from 
Ace  to  King.  The  player's  object 
is  now  to  form  families,  without 
following  suit,  by  placing  the  eight 
Aces  in  a  row  below,  and  building 
upwards  from  them.  Cards  may 
be  taken  for  this  purpose  from  the 
top  of  any  of  the  four  original  piles, 
or  from  these  in  the  semicircle.  If 
the  families  can  be  completed,  the 
player  wins.  The  semicircle  should 
be  resorted  to  only  in  case  of  neces- 
sity. 

LAMP  -  LIGHTER,  Experiments 
with.  Lamp-lighters  were  formerly 
used  instead  of  matches  for  lighting 
lamps,  being  lighted  at  a  fire.  They 
are  made  by  rolling  up  strips  of 
newspaper  about  eighteen  inches 
long  and  one  and  a  half  inches  wide, 
beginning  at  one  corner.  The  large 
end  is  folded  over  to  prevent  un- 
winding. In  performing  the  follow- 
ing experiments  keep  away  from 
draughts. 

1.  Light  the  lower  end,  hold  the 
lamp-lighter  slantingly,  and  as   the 
flame  moves  towards  the  upper  end, 
a  tongue  of  flame  still  burns  at  the 
charred  lower  end.     Blow  this  out, 
allowing  the  other  to  burn,  and  its 
place  will  be  taken  by  a  stream  of 
smoke.    This  smoke  may  be  lighted 
like  gas. 

2.  Leave  the  large  end  of  a  lamp- 
lighter open,  and  holding  it  at  that 
end,  to  prevent  unwinding,  and  light 
the  lower  end.     There   is    now  no 
second  flame,  but  the  smoke  pours 
from  the   upper  end,  and   may   be 
lighted  as  before. 

3.  Repeat  Experiment  2,  holding 
the  charred  end  over  the  mouth  of 
a  jar  or  wide-mouthed  bottle.    Pinch 
the  upper  end  after  the  smoke  has 
begun  to  stream  out,  and  it  will  pour 
out  of  the  lower  end,  without  burn- 


ing, into  the  bottle,  which  it  will  fill. 
Light  the  smoke  in  the  bottle  and  it 
will  take  fire  with  a  sudden  flash. 

4.  Fill  the  bottle  with  the  smoke, 
'out  allow  it  to  subside.  Repeat  six 
or  eight  times,  and  several  drops  of 
a  yellow  liquid  will  be  collected. 
Heat  these  in  a  tin  spice-box  over  a 
flame,  and  smoke  will  again  be  pro- 
duced, which  may  be  burned  as 
before. 

LAWN  BILLIARDS,  a  lawn  game 
played  by  from  two  to  ten  persons, 
with  balls  like  CROQUET  balls,  which 
they  try  to  drive  through  a  ring. 
The  implements  are  shown  in  Fig.  i. 
The  ring,  which  is  of  metal,  is  just 
large  enough  to  allow  a  ball  to  pass 
through  it,  and  is  set  loosely  in  a 
wooden  or  metal  peg,  driven  into 


Fig.  i. 

the  ground,  as  in  Fig.  z,  so  that  it 
can  revolve  easily.  The  balls  are 
propelled  with  a  cue,  consisting  of  a 
wooden  handle  three  or  four  feet 
long,  with  a  small  ring  fixed  in  the 
end  at  an  angle.  Each  player  may 
have  one  of  these,  or  each  may  use 
the  same  one  in  succession.  The 
object  of  each  is  to  drive  his  ball 
through  the  ring,  which  scores  one 
point.  If  a  ball  bounds  through 
from  another  ball,  it  counts  two 


Fig.  2. 

points.  No  ball  must  be  pushed  or 
thrown  through  the  ring.  Each 
player  has  only  one  turn,  whether 
he  is  successful  or  not.  Instead  of 
trying  for  the  ring,  any  one  may  en- 
deavor to  knock  another's  ball  out 
of  position,  or  to  strike  the  side  of 


LAWN  TENNIS 


460 


LEAF   PRINTS 


the  ring,  and  so  turn  it  edgewise 
to  another  ball.  Skilful  players 
can  sometimes  send  their  balls 
through  the  ring  when  it  is  turned 
almost  edgewise,  by  striking  it  on 
one  side,  causing  it  to  turn  around 
and  catch  the  ball.  The  ground 
may  be  surrounded  by  a  wooden 
border,  one  side  of  which  is  seen  in 
Fig  2. 

LAWN  TENNIS.     See  TENNIS. 

LAWYER,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  who  usually  sit 
in  two  rows  of  chairs,  facing  one 
another,  excepting  one  who  stands 
between  the  rows.  The  player  who 
stands,  called  the  lawyer,  asks  a 
question  of  any  of  the  others,  and  the 
one  who  sits  opposite  must  answer 
it.  If  the  player  addressed  answers, 
or  if  the  one  opposite  him  does  not 
begin  to  do  so  before  the  lawyer 
counts  ten,  the  one  making  the  mis- 
take must  pay  a  forfeit  and  take  the 
lawyer's  place.  If  both  make  mis- 
takes, the  lawyer  may  decide  which 
is  to  take  his  place.  The  one  who 
answers  must  do  so  as  if  he  had 
been  spoken  to  directly ;  thus,  if  the 
question  is  "  Are  you  fond  of  row- 
ing?" the  opposite  one  must  not 
answer,  for  instance,  "  Yes,  he  enjoys 
it  very  much,"  but  "/enjoy  it  very 
much."  The  players  may  sit  in  a 
circle  instead  of  in  two  rows.  In 
this  case  the  one  opposite  may 
answer,  as  before,  or  the  right  or 
left  hand  neighbor  of  the  person 
questioned,  as  is  agreed  upon  be- 
forehand. 

Though  the  questioner  is  now 
usually  called  the  lawyer,  the  game 
is  probably  named  from  the  fact 
that  the  questioned  player  has  some 
one  to  answer  for  him,  just  as  a 
lawyer  sometimes  acts  for  his 
client. 

LEAD,  Experiments  with.  I.  With 
a  sharp  knife  cut  away  part  of  two 
leaden  bullets  so  as  to  make  a  flat 
surface  on  each.  Press  these  sur- 
faces together  with  a  slight  screwing 
motion,  and  they  will  adhere  so 
tightly  that  it  is  difficult  to  pull  them 


apart.     In   this  way  several  bullets 
may  be  made  to  stick  together. 

2.  Melt    some   lead    in    an    iron 
spoon.     A  gray  scum  will  form  on 
the  top.     Still  holding  the  spoon  in 
the  fire,  stir  the  lead  with  a  piece  of 
iron,  and  in  time  it  will  all  turn  to 
the  gray  substance  that  formed  the 
scum.     If  the  lead  be  weighed  be- 
fore it  is  melted,  and  again  after  it 
has  turned  to  the  gray  substance,  it 
will   be   found   to    have   gained   in 
weight.     This  is  because   the  gray 
substance  has  in  it  not  only  the  lead 
but  also  some  OXYGEN  from  the  air, 
which  united  with  the  lead  to  make 
lead  oxide,  or  litharge. 

3.  Put  a  teaspoon ful  of  litharge 
in  a  quarter  of  a  glass   of  strong 
vinegar.     The  vinegar  will  dissolve 
it,  forming  lead  acetate  or  SUGAR 
OF  LEAD,  with  which  may  be  per- 
formed the   experiments   described 
under  that  title.     It  is  very  pois-'m- 
ous,  so  must  be  used  carefully. 

4.  Pour  a  few  drops  of  sulphuric 
acid  into  the  vinegar  in  which  the 
litharge  was  dissolved,  and  a  white 
powder  will  at  once  appear.     This 
is  sulphate  of  lead.     The  lead,  hav- 
ing a  greater  liking   for  sulphuric 
acid  than  for  vinegar,  left  the  latter 
and  united  with  the  former. 

LEAD  TREE,  a  curious  formation 
made  by  the  action  of  zinc  on  a 
salt  of  lead.  Make  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  lead  nitrate  or  lead  acetate, 
suspend  in  it  a  strip  of  zinc,  and  set 
it  in  a  quiet  place.  Beautiful  lead 
crystals  will  form  in  the  liquid,  re- 
sembling the  growth  of  a  plant. 
The  cause  is  chemical  action.  The 
acid  in  the  lead  salt  (see  SALTS  in 
C.  C.  T.)  prefers  zinc  to  lead,  and 
so  takes  it  up  instead.  The  lead  as 
it  is  thus  slowly  displaced  forms  the 
crystals  seen. 

LEAF  PRINTS.  Prints  of  leaves 
resembling  lithographs  may  be  made 
by  the  following  method.  The  im- 
plements required  are  a  small  ink- 
roller,  such  as  is  used  by  printers  to 
ink  type  (one  three  inches  long  may 
be  bought  for  forty  cents),  quarter 


LEAF  SKELETONS 


461 


LEAP-FROG 


of  a  pound  of  dark  green  printers' 
ink,  which  is  sold  in  tubes,  and 
some  unglazed  paper.  The  ink 
must  be  thinned  by  adding  two  or 
three  drops  of  balsam  copaiba  to  a 
salt-spoonful  of  ink.  The  thinned 
ink  is  spread  evenly  on  a  pane  of 
glass  with  the  roller,  which  is  then 
passed  over  the  leaf  it  is  desired  to 
print.  If  the  leaf  stick  to  the  roller, 
it  is  a  sign  that  the  ink  needs  more 
thinning.  The  leaf  is  then  pressed 
down  on  the  paper  and  leaves  a 
perfect  impression.  The  paper 
should  be  slightly  dampened,  which 
is  best  done  by  keeping  it  in  the 
cellar.  If  the  leaf  is  very  large,  it 
should  be  inked  a  little  at  a  time. 
If  it  is  finely  veined,  the  under  sur- 
face may  be  used  to  print  from : 
otherwise  the  upper  surface  gives 
the  best  results,  If  the  leaf  be  soft, 
it  should  be  covered  with  a  few 
thicknesses  of  newspaper  before 
printing,  and  if  it  is  irregular  in 
thickness,  the  thinner  parts  may  be 
covered  with  paper.  The  best  way 
to  apply  the  pressure  is  with  an 
ordinary  copying  press  ;  but  it  may 
be  done  in  any  other  way,  as  for  in- 
stance with  books,  or  merely  by 
rubbing  the  thumb  over  the  leaf. 
With  practice  excellent  leaf-pictures 
may  thus  be  made. 

LEAF  SKELETONS,  the  bleached 
framework  of  leaves,  from  which  all 
the  skin  and  pulp  have  been  re- 
moved. They  can  be  used  in  vari- 
ous ways  for  decoration.  The  best 
time  to  prepare  them  is  early  in  the 
summer,  when  the  leaves  are  tender. 
Dissolve  four  ounces  of  washing- 
soda  in  a  quart  of  boiling  water  and 
add  two  ounces  of  slaked  lime. 
Boil  this  liquid  a  quarter  of  an  hour, 
and  then,  after  it  has  cooled,  pour 
off  the  clear  fluid.  Boil  the  leaves 
in  this  till  the  skin  and  pulp  are  so 
tender  that  they  can  easily  be  re- 
.  moved  from  the  skeleton  by  rub- 
bing between  the  fingers.  Rub 
them  thus  carefully  in  cold  water, 
and  then  bleach  them  by  soaking 
fifteen  minutes  in  a  quart  of  water 


to  which  has  been  added  one  tea- 
spoonful  of  chloride  of  lime.  Dry 
the  skeletons  by  rubbing  them 
gently  on  blotting  paper. 

LEAP-FROG,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons,  each  of 
whom  in  turn  leaps  over  the  others, 
one  by  one.  The  players  stand 
in  a  row,  about  fifteen  feet  apart, 
each  resting  his  hands  on  his 
thighs  and  bending  his  head  for- 
ward. This  is  called  "  making  a 
back."  The  player  at  one  end  of 
the  line  takes  a  short  run,  and  leaps 
over  each  of  the  others,  placing  his 
hands  on  their  backs  and  letting  his 
legs  pass  one  on  one  side  and  one 
on  the  other.  The  player  who  is 
leaped  assists  the  leaper  by  rising 
slightly  and  then  stooping.  The 
players  may  stand  side  by  side,  in 
which  case  the  leaper  goes  over 
them  sidewise,  or  they  stand  in  file, 
in  which  case  he  leaps  from  their 
backs  over  their  heads.  When  he 
has  thus  gone  over  the  whole  line, 
he  "  makes  a  back  "  at  the  proper 
distance,  and  the  player  who  is 
thus  left  in  the  rear  becomes  the 
leaper. 

Foot  and  a  Half,  a  leap-frog 
game  where  the  person  to  be 
jumped  over  moves  by  degrees 
farther  and  farther  from  the  point 
where  the  jump  begins.  A  line  is 
drawn  (sometimes  called  the  "gar- 
ter ")  to  mark  the  beginning  of  the 
jump,  and  whoever  steps  on  it  must 
take  the  place  of  the  player  leaped 
over.  After  the  players  in  turn 
have  leaped,  the  last  cries  "  Foot 
and  a  Half !"  and  the  player  who  is 
making  the  back  thereupon  places 
his  right  heel  in  the  hollow  of  his 
left  foot,  advances  the  latter  so  that 
its  hollow  covers  his  right  toe,  and 
then  brings  up  his  right  foot  to  its 
original  position.  The  players  then 
leap  again,  always  beginning  at  the 
"garter,"  after  which  the  back  ad- 
vances again  in  like  manner,  and 
the  game  goes  on  till  some  one 
treads  on  the  "garter,  "or  fails  in 
leaping.  The  unsuccessful  one  then 


LEGITIMIST, 


462 


LENSES 


makes  a  back  and  another  game 
begins. 

This  game  is  called  also  "  Fly  the 
Garter  "  and  "  Foot  it."  Sometimes 
it  is  varied  by  allowing  the  last 
player  in  the  first  round  to  make  a 
back  at  the  spot  he  reaches  in  his 
jump.  The  back  thus  changes  at 
each  round,  and  as  the  position  is 
moved  forward  such  a  distance  each 
time,  the  players  are  often  allowed 
one  jump,  or  a  hop,  skip,  and  jutrp, 
between  the  garter  and  the  back. 

In  France  Leap-frog  is  called  Le 
Saut  de Mouton  (The  Sheep's  Leap). 
Besides  the  varieties  described 
above,  French  boys  play  one  called 
Saut  de  Mouton  avec  Mouchoirs 
(Sheep's  Leap  with  Handkerchiefs), 
in  which  each  leaper  is  required,  in 
his  first  turn,  to  lay  his  handerchief 
on  the  back  of  the  player  he  leaps, 
and  at  his  second  turn  to  pick  off 
his  own  handkerchief,  leaving  the 
others.  Another  variety  is  called 
"  Sheep's  Leap  with  Crowns."  Each 
leaper  places  on  his  head  a  crown 
made  of  a  twisted  handkerchief,  and 
at  the  moment  of  leaping  takes  it 
off  and  throws  it  on  the  ground 
before  him.  At  his  second  turn  he 
must  pick  up  his  own  crown  without 
moving  his  feet  from  the  place 
where  he  alighted,  though  he  may 
bend  in  any  direction  or  even  throw 
himself  at  full  length.  If  his  crown 
touch  any  of  the  others,  or  if  he 
touch  any  of  them  in  picking  it  up, 
he  must  make  a  back  in  his  turn. 
The  boy  who  makes  the  back  is 
called  in  French  Le  Patient  (The 
Patient). 

LEGITIMIST,  THE,  a  SOLITAIRE 
game  of  CARDS,  played  with  two 
full  packs.  A  King  is  placed  at  the 
player's  left,  and  then  in  order,  as 
they  appear,  a  Queen,  Knave,  Ten, 
Nine,  Eight,  Seven,  and  Six.  On 
each  of  these  a  card  next  below  it  in 
rank  is  placed,  and  so  on,  till,  when 
the  piles  are  completed,  the  top 
cards  will  be  Ace,  King,  Queen, 
Knave,  Ten,  Nine,  Eight,  and  Seven. 
The  cards  that  cannot  be  used  at 


once  are  placed  aside  to  form  stock, 
which  can  twice  be  taken  up, 
shuffled,  and  relaid.  The  player 
must  take  care  to  notice  when  his 
piles  are  completed.  As  each  ends 
with  a  different  card,  an  inattentive 
player  is  apt  to  build  some  of  them 
too  far. 

LENSES,  Experiments  with. 
Lenses  are  described  in  C.  C.  T. 
Very  fine  ones  can  be  bought  of  an 
optician,  but  the  experiments  de- 
scribed here  can  be  performed  with 
simple  ones.  A  burning  glass  is  a 
double  convex  lens,  and,  so  are  some 
spectacle  glasses. 

1.  Photographic  Lens.      Let  one 
person  hold  up  a  handkerchief,  or  a 
blank  sheet  of  writing-paper,  ten  or 
twelve  feet  in  front  of  a  window,  and 
let  the  other  hold  a  lens  between  the 
paper  and  the  window.     By  moving 
it,  now  nearer  the     paper  and  now 
nearer  the  window,  a  place  will  be 
found  where  a  picture  of  the  window, 
upside  down,  will   be   seen   on    the 
paper.      The  picture  will  be  plainer 
if   the  other  windows  in  the  room 
be  closed,  and   still   plainer  if  the 
lens  be  surrounded  with  a  piece  of 
pasteboard,   so   that   no   light   can 
shine    on    the    paper  except    that 
which  passes  through  the  lens.    The 
picture  is  called  an  image.     In  like 
manner    an    image    of    any    thing 
bright   can   be   made.     This  is  the 
way  an   image   is    thrown   on   the 
plate  in  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

2.  Microscopic  Lens.     Hold  a  lens 
very  close  to  some  small  thing,  and 
move  it  about  a  little.   A  place  will 
be  found  where,  by  looking  through 
the  lens,  the  small  object  will  appear 
larger.     This  is  the  way  a  lens  Js 
used  in  The  MICROSCOPE. 

3.  Telescopic  Lens.     Let  one  per- 
son hold  a  lens,  as  in  Experiment  i, 
and  then  let  the  other,  dropping  the 
handkerchief  or  sheet  of  paper,  look 
through  a  second  lens,  placed  close 
behind  it,  at  the  window.     Move  it 
forward  and   backward  a  little  till  a 
clear   view   of  objects   outside   the 
window  is  obtained.    This  is  the  way 


LEYDEN  JAR 


LEYDEN  JAR 


lenses  are  used  in  the  most  common 
kind  of  TELESCOPE. 

4.  Burning    Glass.     On    a   sunny 
day,  hold  a   lens  so  as  to  make   a 
bright  image  of  the  sun  on  a  board. 
The  board  will  soon  begin  to  smoke 
because  of  the  heat  of  the  image. 

5.  Caustic  Curve.   Instead  of  hold- 
ing the  board  squarely  in  front  of 
the  lens,  tip  it  so  that  the  rays  will 
strike  it  slantingly.    A  curve  of  light, 
called  a  caustic,  will  be  seen  on  the 
board.     This  is  because  most  lenses 
do  not  turn  the  rays  accurately  to 
one  spot. 

6.  Prismatic  Lens.    Look  through 
a  lens  at  a  line  of  light  such  as  the 
edge  of  a  white  house  on  which  the 
sun    is   shining.       It   will    probably 
appear  colored,  since  the  lens  acts 
like  a  PRISM. 

7.  Water  Lens.     A  good  lens  is 
made  by  placing  a  drop  of  water  on 
a  pin-hole  in  a  piece  of  card-board. 
This   magnifies  small   objects  very 
well. 

8.  Bottle  Lens.      A  glass    bottle 
filled  with  water  may  be  used  as  a 
lens,  as  shows  in  the  illustration. 


Bottle  Lens. 

LEYDEN  JAR,  a  device  for  ob- 
taining large  charges  of  electricity. 
A  simple  one  can  be  made  by  filling 
a  glass  tumbler  about  two  thirds 
full  of  shot  and  inserting  a  silver 
teaspoon  (see  Fig.  i).  The  tum- 
bler must  be  held  in  one  hand,  while 
the  teaspoon  is  presented  to  an 
ELECTRIC  MACHINE,  or  an  ELEC- 
TROPHORUS.  If  the  latter  is  used, 


it  must  be  lifted  and  discharged 
several  times,  a  spark  passing  each 
time  to  the  teaspoon.  If  now  the 
experimenter  presents  his  other  hand 
to  the  teaspoon,  the  jar  will  be  dis- 


Fig.  i. 

charged  and  he  will  get  a  shock 
equal  to  the  sum  of  all  the  little 
sparks  that  have  passed  to  the  jar. 
The  jar  should  receive  very  few 
sparks  before  its  first  discharge,  to 
avoid  giving  the  experimenter  a 
severe  shock  ;  but  afterwards  the 
number  of  sparks  received  may  be 
increased  till  the  shock  of  discharge 
is  too  great  to  be  borne. 

A  better  jar,  capable  of  storing 
large  quantities  of  electricity,  may 
be  made  as  follows  (see  Fig.  2.): 
Coat  a  glass  bottle  or  jar  inside  and 
out  with  tin-foil,  or,  if 
the  mouth  of  the  bot- 
tle is  too  small  for 
reaching  the  inside 
easily,  pour  in  shot. 
The  foil  or  shot  must 
reach  the  same  height 
on  both  sides  of  the 
bottle,  and  must  not 
come  within  two  or 
three  inches  of  the  top. 
Insert  in  the  cork  a 
thick  iron  or  copper  wire,  which 
projects  into  the  shot,  or,  in  case 
foil  is  used,  has  a  brass  chain  fast- 
ened to  the  end,  which  lies  on  the 


Fig.  2. 


LEYDEN  JAR 


464 


LEYDEN  JAR 


bottom  and  gives  contact  with  the 
inside  coating.  The  upper  end  of 
the  wire  should  terminate  in  a  metal 
ball.  A  leaden  bullet  may  be 
soldered  to  it,  or  a  wooden  ball 
coated  with  tin-foil  may  be  used. 
This  jar  may  be  charged  and  used 
exactly  like  the  one  already  de- 
scribed, but  it  is  not  necessary  to 
take  it  in  the  hand  at  all.  All  that 
is  required  is  that  the  outside  have 
some  connection  with  the  ground 
while  the  knob  is  receiving  shocks. 
This  can  be  effected  by  winding 
around  it,  as  it  stands  on  the  table, 
one  end  of  a  metal  chain,  and  let- 
ting the  other  hang  on  the  floor. 
Such  chain  can  be  bought  at  any 
hardware  store. 

To  discharge  the  jar  when  the 
charge  is  too  great  to  be  taken 
through  the  body,  a  discharger  is 
necessary,  which  may  be  made  thus 
(see  Fig.  3):  Take  a  bottle,  small 


Fig-  3- 


Fig.  4. 


enough  to  be  held  conveniently  in 
one  hand,  and  through  the  cork  at 
right  angles  to  the  bottle,  pass  a 
piece  of  copper  wire  twelve  or 
fifteen  inches  long.  Bend  the  wire 
into  a  semicircle  curving  outward 
from  the  bottle,  and  fix  balls  on  the 
ends  like  that  on  the  jar.  By  hold- 
ing the  bottle  in  the  hand  and 
touching  one  ball  to  the  knob  of 
the  jar  and  the  other  to  the  outside 
coating,  as  in  Fig.  4,  the  jar  may  be 
discharged  without  injury,  the  elec- 
tricity passing  through  the  copper 
wire. 

Fulminating  Pane,  a  kind  of  Ley- 
den  jar  made  of  a  flat  pane  of  glass 
having  tin-foil  pasted  on  both  sides. 
The  edge  of  the.e^ass  should  be  left 


uncovered  at  least  an  inch  all  around 
the  foil.  The  pane  is  charged  and 
discharged  just  like  the  jar  ;  that  is, 
it  is  charged  by  placing  one  coating 
in  contact  with  an  electrical  ma- 
chine, and  the  other  in  connection 
with  the  ground,  and  discharged  by 
joining  the  two  coatings  with  some 
conductor  of  electricity. 

The  explanation  of  the  way  in 
which  the  jar  or  pane  acts  is  this : 
One  coating,  being  charged  with  one 
kind  of  electricity,  positive  for  in- 
stance, attracts  the  negative  electric- 
ity on  the  other  coating,  and  repels 
its  positive  to  the  ground.  The  two 
kinds  of  electricity  in  the  jar  are 
prevented  from  uniting  by  the  glass, 
but  when  the  coatings  are  joined 
they  rush  together.  Jars  of  thin 
glass  will  hold  larger  charges,  be- 
cause the  nearer  the  coatings  are  the 
stronger  the  attraction  is;  but  on  the 
other  hand,  the  glass  must  not  be 
too  thin  or  it  may  be  broken. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1.  Make  a  Leyden  jar  whose  coat- 
ings   can   be   removed   while   it   is 
charged.    This  can  be  done  by  using 
a  smooth  glass  tumbler  as  the  jar, 
and  making  the  coatings  of  several 
thicknesses  of  foil,  so  that  they  will 
keep  their  shape    when    removed. 
The  coatings  are  not  pasted  to  the 
glass,  and  the  rod  and  knob  of  the 
ordinary  jar  are  omitted.     Fasten  a 
bit  of  sewing  silk  to  the  inside  coat- 
ing.    After  charging  the  jar,  first  lift 
out  the  inside  coating,  and  then  lift 
the  glass  from  the  outer  coating.     If 
the  two  coatings  are  now  joined  there 
will  be  no  discharge  ;  but  after  they 
are   replaced   the   jar    can    be  dis- 
charged.    The  reason  of  this  is  that 
the  charge  is  not  contained  in  the 
coatings,  but  in  the  substance  of  the 
glass. 

2.  Make  a  jar  whose  coatings  are 
of  mercury,  by  setting  a  small  tum- 
bler in   a  larger  one,  and  pouring 
mercury  between  them  and  into  the 
smaller  one.     Charge  this  jar  as  be- 
fore, and  then,  lifting  the  small  glass 


LEYDEN  JAR 


465 


LEYDEN   JAR 


out,  pour  its  contents  into  the  large 
glass,  and  mix  the  two  coatings  to- 
gether. Set  the  jar  up  as  before, 
and  the  jar  can  then  be  discharged, 
though  its  coatings  have  been  min- 
gled. The  reason  is  the  one  already 
given  in  Experiment  i. 

3.  Charge  a  jar,  and  after  letting 
it  stand   several   minutes  discharge 
it.     Let  it   stand   a   minute  longer 
when  it  may  be   discharged  again 
without  charging.  In  this  way  several 
sparks  may  often  be  obtained  from 
one  charge,  each  more  feeble  than 
the  preceding.     The  reason  is  that 
the  electricity  penetrates  the  glass, 
and  does  not  come  out  all  at  once. 

4.  Take  two  call-bells ;  place  them 
on   glass  dishes  and  connect  one  to 
the  knob  of  the  jar  and  the  other 
to  the  outside  coating  by  means  of 
chains  or  wires.     Suspend  a  bit  of 
wood  coated  with  tin-foil,  the  size 
of  a  small  pea,  by  a  silk  thread  just 
midway  between  the  two  bells.   The 
jar  being  charged,  the  copper  will 
swing  backward  and    forward  from 
one  bell  to  the  other,  ringing  each 
as  it  strikes.     After  a  time  this  will 
discharge    the    jar,  the    electricity 
being    carried    in  small    quantities 
from  one  coating  to  the  other  by 
the  copper.     If  the  experiment  does 
not  succeed,  it  may  be  because  the 
bells  are  too  far  apart,  because  the 
bit    of    copper    is    too    heavy,    or 
because    the    jar    is     not   charged 
enough. 

5.  Make  a  Leyden  jar  whose  outer 
coating  consists  of  varnish  sprinkled 
while  yet  soft  with  metallic  powder, 
for  instance  the  bronze  powder  used 
in  painting.     Tin-foil  is  pasted  over 
the  bottom,  and  there  is  also  a  band 
of  foil  about  an   inch  wide  around 
the  jar  at  the  top  of  the  outer  coat- 
ing.    The  wire  connecting  with  the 
inside  coating  is  bent  over  on  the 
outside  till  the  knob  is  about  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  from  this  band 
of  tin-foil.     The  jar  is  then  hung  by 
the  wire  to  the  knob  of  an  electrical 
machine   (see   Fig.    5).     When    the 
machine  is  worked,  brilliant  sparks 


pass  between  the  knob  to  the  outer 
coating,  lighting  up  the  jar. 

6.  Leyden  Battery.  A  battery  is 
made  up  of  several  jars,  all  the  outer 
coatings  and  all  the  inner  coatings 
being  joined.  This  can  be  effected 
by  placing  the  jars  in  a  wooden  box 


Fig-  5- 

lined  on  the  bottom  with  tin-foil, 
and  joining  the  knobs  with  copper 
wire.  A  strip  of  tin-foil  leads  from 
the  bottom  of  the  box  to  the  edge, 
and  when  this  strip  is  connected 
with  one  of  the  knobs  by  a  dis- 
charger, the  battery  is  discharged. 
The  battery  gives  a  powerful  spark, 
and  the  experiments  which  follow 
can  be  performed  better  with  it  than 
with  a  single  jar. 

7.  Through  the  corks  of  two  glass 
bottles  pass  crosswise  thick  copper 
wires  or  rods,  having  at  one  end 
balls  like  that  on  the  jar,  and  bent 
at  the  other  into  hooks.  Glue  a 
piece  of  glass  an  inch  or  two  square 
flat  on  the  top  of  the  cork  of  a  third 


LEYDEN  JAR 


466 


LEYDEN  JAR 


bottle,  somewhat  lower  than  the 
other  two.  Place  the  taller  bottles 
so  that  the  knobbed  ends  of  the 
wires  will  touch  the  glass  plate,  and 
be  about  an  inch  apart.  Connect 
the  hooked  end  of  one  of  the  wires 
by  a  wire  or  chain  to  one  coating  of 
a  Leyden  jar  or  battery,  and  that  of 
the  otl  er  wire  to  the  other  coating 
by  a  discharger  (see  Fig.  6).  A 


spark  will  pass  directly  across  the 
glass,  and  through  any  substance 
placed  on  it.  By  this  means  the 
effect  of  the  electric  spark  on  all 
kinds  of  substances  can  be  observed. 
By  placing  pieces  of  different  kinds 
of  metal  close  to  the  knobs  so  that 
the  spark  will  pass  between  them, 
;  its  color  can  be  varied.  This  is  be- 
i  cause  the  heat  turns  a  little  of  the 


Fig, 

metal  to  vapor,  which  colors  the 
spark.  The  color  can  also  be  varied 
by  passing  it  through  different  gases 
(see  HYDROGEN  and  CARBONIC 
ACID).  If  the  charge  is  passed 
through  a  small  wire  it  will  heat  it 
red  hot,  or  perhaps  will  melt  it. 

If  gunpowder  be  placed  on  the 
glass  plate,  the  discharge  will  scat- 
ter it  without  setting  it  off;  but  if 
a  wet  string  be  placed  in  the  circuit, 
the  spark  will  light  the  powder. 
The  reason  is  that  an  ordinary  spark 
is  too  sudden  to  set  the  powder  off, 
but  the  wet  string  makes  it  a  little 
slower. 

If  the  spark  be  passed  through  a 
lump  of  sugar,  one  or  more  eggs, 
or  fruit,  they  will  be  lighted  up  and 
shine  (if  the  experiment  be  tried  in 
the  dark)  for  a  little  while  after  the 
spark  has  passed. 

If  the  spark  be  passed  through  a 
sheet  of  gold  leaf  pressed  between 
two  pieces  of  silk  or  glass,  the  gold 
will  be  turned  to  a  violet  powder. 


6. 

If  the  spark  be  passed  through  a 
bit  of  unglazed  paper,  wet  wirh  a 
solution  of  iodide  of  potassium, 
brown  spots  will  appear  on  the  pa- 
per. This  is  because  the  iodide  is 
separated  into  iodine  and  potash, 
and  the  former  makes  the  brown 
spots. 

8.  Place  a  steel  wire  inside  a  glass 
tube,  and   wind  around  it  insulated 
copper  wire.      Discharge  a  Leyden 
battery  through  this  wire,  and  the 
steel  wire  will  become  a  MAGNET. 

9.  Spin  by  means  of  a  TWIRLER 
a  disk  on  which  are  lines,  figures,  or 
pictures.     If  the  disk  spin    rapidly 
none  of  the  figures  will  be  visible  ; 
but  if'the  room  be  darkened,  and  a 
Leyden  jar  be  discharged,  the  disk 
will    seem   to   stand   still,   so   that 
everything  on  it  can  be  seen  plainly. 
This   is   because   the  spark  lasts  a 
very   short   time,    so   that  while  it 
lights   the   room  the  disk  changes 
position  very  little,  and  seems  to  the 
eye  to  be  perfectly  still. 


LIGHT   MEASURING 


467 


LIGHT   MEASURING 


10.  Twist  together  two  thickly  in- 
sulated pieces  of  copper  wire  four 
or  five   feet   in  length.     (Insulated 
wire  may  be  bought  of  a  dealer  in 
telegraph  supplies.)     Hold  the  ends 
of  one  piece  in  the  hands,  and  dis- 
charge a  Leyden  jar.     A  shock  will 
be  felt,  although  the  two  wires  are 
not  connected.    The  electric  current 
which  passes  through  the  hands  in 
this  case  is  said  to  be  an  "  induction 
current." 

1 1.  Place  a  fulminating  pane  on  a 
table,  the  lower  surface  being  con- 
nected with  the  earth.     Lay  a  coin 
on    the    upper    surface,   and    then 
charge   the    pane.     If  any  one  now 
try  to  remove  the  coin  he  will  re- 
ceive a  shock.     The  coin  may  safely 
be  offered  to  any  one  who  will  pick 
it  up  at  the  first  trial. 

LIGHT  MEASURING,  or  PHO 
TOMETRY.  The  intensity  of  light 
is  measured  in  "candle-power;"  so 


to  measure  the  brightness  of  a  lamp 
it  is  necessary  to  find  how  much 
brighter  or  dimmer  it  is  than  a 
candle.  Two  of  the  simplest  ways 
are  given  below : 

i.  About  six  inches  in  front  of  a 
white  wall  stand  a  bottle  with  a 
stick  fixed  in  its  mouth  (Fig.  i). 


Fig.  i. 

Place  the  candle  b  about  two  feet 
distant,  and  the  lamp  a  by  its  side. 
Each  will  throw  a  shadow  of  the 


Fig.    2. 


stick  on  the  wall;  that  thrown  by 
the  lamp  is  marked  a',  and  that  of 
the  candle  b'.  By  moving  either 
lamp  or  candle  sidewise,  the  edges 
of  the  shadows  maybe  made  just  to 
touch.  It  will  be  seen  that  one  is 
not  as  dark  as  the  other.  Now 
move  the  lamp  slowly  back,  keeping 


the  edges  of  the  shadows  close  to- 
gether, until  they  are  of  the  same 
shade.  Then  measure  the  distance 
of  the  lamp  and  candle  from  the 
wall,  and  find  out  how  many  times 
farther  the  lamp  is  than  the  candle. 
The  square  of  the  number  thus  ob- 
tained will  be  the  candle-power  of 


LIVES 


468 


LITTLE   LOTS 


the  lamp.  Thus,  suppose  the  can- 
dle is  two  feet  from  the  wall,  and 
the  lamp  six  feet.  It  is  three 
times  as  far  as  the  candle,  and  its 
candle-power  is  three  squared,  or 
three  times  three,  that  is,  nine.  The 
standard  candle  is  one  weighing  one 
sixth  of  a  pound,  and  burning  120 
grains  an  hour.  A  "  number  six  " 
sperm  candle  with  the  wick  kept 
trimmed  to  about  half  an  inch  will 
be  nearly  right.  Fig.  2  shows  the 
same  kind  of  comparison  made  be- 
tween a  lamp,  C,  and  a  candle  B. 
The  screen  is  a  sheet  of  paper  held 
between  two  books,  and  the  object 
that  throws  the  shadow  is  an  un- 
lighted  candle,  A.  The  shadows 
are  shown  at  E  and  F. 

2.  On  a  piece  of  smooth,  unglazed 
paper  make  a  grease-spot  the  size 
of  a  quarter-dollar,  so  that  light 
will  shine  through  it  evenly  and 
clearly.  Pin  the  paper  to  two  books 
set  up  on  each  side  of  it,  and  place 
the  candle  on  one  side  and  the  lamp 
on  the  other,  at  equal  distances. 
From  the  candle  side  the  spot  will 
now  appear  light  on  a  dark  ground, 
and  from  the  lamp  side  it  will  look 
dark  on  a  light  ground.  The  rea- 
son of  this  is  that  the  grease-spot 
lets  through  the  light,  hence  it  looks 
brighter  on  the  side  opposite  the 
brighter  light.  Now  move  the  lamp 
slowly  away,  or  bring  the  candle 
nearer,  till  the  spot  appears  of  the 
same  shade  as  the  surrounding 
paper.  Measure  the  distances  of 
lamp  and  candle,  and  find  the  can- 
dle-power as  before. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1.  Find  the   candle-power  of   a 
lamp  and  then  put  a  piece  of  glass  in 
front  of  it,  and  find  the  candle-power 
again.     It  will  be  much  less,  as  only 
part  of  the  light  gets  through  the 
glass. 

2.  Find    the  candle-power  of    a 
lamp  with  the  flame  turned  broad- 
side and  then  edgewise.     It  will  be 
greater  in  the  former  case. 

LIVES,  a  game  of  CARDS,  played 


by  any  number  of  persons  with  a 
full  pack.  The  dealer  gives  each 
player,  in  order,  one  card.  Each 
player  in  turn,  beginning  at  the 
dealer's  left,  now  has  the  right  to 
exchange  his  card  for  that  of  his 
left-hand  neighbor.  If  he  does  not 
choose  to  do  so,  he  says,  "  I  stand." 
If  he  does  choose,  the  neighbor  is 
obliged  to  exchange  with  him,  un- 
less he  holds  a  King.  The  dealer, 
instead  of  exchanging,  cuts  the 
pack,  if  he  wishes,  and  takes  a  card 
from  the  middle.  As  the  object  is 
to  avoid  holding  the  lowest  card,  the 
players  who  have  high  cards  should 
"stand,"  and  those  with  low  ones 
should  exchange.  Ace  counts  as 
the  lowest  card.  If  a  player  ex- 
change an  Ace,  Two,  or  Three,  he 
must  announce  it  aloud  and  those 
who  have  higher  cards  will  of  course 
stand.  Any  player  who  gives  to 
his  right-hand  neighbor  a  worse 
card  in  exchange  will  also  stand. 
The  holder  of  the  lowest  card,  when 
all  have  either  stood  or  exchanged, 
is  said  to  "  lose  a  life."  If  the 
dealer,  in  drawing  from  the  pack, 
get  a  King,  he  loses  a  life.  Any 
player  losing  three  lives  must  re- 
tire from  the  game,  which  is  con- 
tinued till  only  one  player  is  left, 
who  is  declared  the  winner. 

This  game  is  called  in  England 
"  Ranter-go- Round."  It  resembles 
COMMERCE,  and  may  be  the  original 
form  of  that  game.  A  former  way 
of  scoring  was  with  counters  on  a 
board  resembling  a  NINE  MEN'S 
MORRIS  board,  the  players'  counter 
being  pushed  nearer  and  nearer  to 
the  centre  as  his  "  lives  "  were  suc- 
cessively lost.  When  the  counter 
reached  the  centre,  its  owner  went 
out  of  the  game. 

LETTERS.    See  LOGOMACHY. 

LITTLE  LOTS,a  SOLITAIRE  game 
of  CARDS,  played  with  a  EUCHRE 
pack.  The  cards  are  dealt  in  eight 
piles  of  four  each,  only  the  last  or 
top  card  of  each  pile  being  turned 
face  upward.  Any  two  top  cards 
that  match  must  be  laid  aside,  and 


LIVING  STATUARY 


469 


LOGOMACHY 


the  next  cards  turned  up  in  their 
places.  This  is  repeated  as  long  as 
possible,  and  if  all  the  cards  can  be 
thus  matched  the  game  is  won. 
Should  any  pile  remain,  containing 
only  two  cards,  the  player  may  look 
at  them,  and  if  they  match  they  are 
laid  aside  like  the  others. 

This  game  is  said  to  be  a  favorite 
in  Switzerland. 

LIVING  STATUARY,  tableaux  in 
which  the  performers  are  dressed 
to  represent  statues,  either  singly 
or  in  groups.  The  statues  are 
draped  entirely  in  white  cloth,  wear 
canton  flannel  skull-caps  to  which 
cotton  wicking  is  sewed  for  hair, 
white  stockings,  white  slippers  or 
sandals,  and  white  cotton  gloves, 
to  which  are  sewed  sleeves  made  of 
white  cotton  stockings.  The  face 
is  whitened  with  fine  chalk,  mag- 
nesia, or  bismuth.  If  the  drapery 
is  arranged  skilfully  and  the  stat- 
ues can  remain  perfectly  motion- 
less, the  effect  is  fine.  Celebrated 
statues  or  groups  may  thus  be  imi- 
tated, or  entirely  original  ones  may 
be  arranged.  Pedestals  may  be 
made  of  tables  and  boxes  covered 
with  cotton  sheeting.  The  statues 
show  best  against  a  black  or  dark 
background  in  a  pale  blue  light, 
which  may  be  produced  by  putting 
light  blue  glass  in  front  of  the 
lamps.  All  the  "  properties  "  that 
appear  in  the  groups  must  either 
be  covered  with  white  cloth  or 
painted  white. 

Living  statuary  is  sometimes  used 
in  connection  with  ordinary  tab- 
leaux, to  adorn  a  royal  palace  or 
garden. 

LOGOMACHY,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons  with  small 
squares  of  cardboard,  on  each  of 
which  is  printed  a  letter  of  the  al- 
phabet. It  is  sometimes  called  "Let- 
ters, "and  "Word-making  and  Word- 
taking."  The  players  sit  around 
a  table,  in  the  middle  of  which  the 
cardboard  letters  are  heaped,  blank 
side  upward.  They  are  thoroughly 
mixed  and  then  each  player  draws  a 
letter  to  see  which  shall  open  the 


game.  He  who  d  raws  a  letter  nearest 
to  the  beginning  of  the  alphabet  is 
the  first  player.  After  the  letters 
thus  drawn  have  been  returned  to 
the  pile,  which  is  mixed  again,  the 
first  player  draws  a  letterand  places 
it,  face  upward,  by  itself  on  the  table 
to  begin  what  is  called  the  pool. 
The  player  on  his  left  does  likewise, 
and  so  on,  in  order,  till  some  one 
draws  a  letter  which  forms  a  word 
with  others  in  the  pool.  He  then 
places  those  letters  in  front  of  him 
so  that  they  spell  the  word.  The 
next  player  may  take  his  word  from 
him  by  combining  with  it  his  drawn 
letter,  or  any  letters  in  the  pool,  or 
both,  so  as  to  form  a  different  word 
or  he  may  combine  his  drawn  letter 
with  others  in  the  pool  to  form  an- 
other word.  If  he  can  do  neither, 
he  places  his  drawn  letter  in  the 
pool  like  the  others.  So  the  game 
goes  on,  each  player  having  the 
chance  of  taking  a  word  from  any 
other  player,  making  a  new  word 
of  his  own,  or  adding  his  letter  to 
one  of  his  own  words.  He  wins 
who  first  gets  a  number  of  words 
agreed  upon  beforehand  (usually 
ten)  and  holds  them  while  a  round 
is  played.  Thus,  A  may  get  ten 
words,  but  he  has  not  won  till  B,  C, 
D,  and  the  others  have  each  a 
chance  to  take  one  or  more  from 
him.  If  they  cannot,  A  is  the  win- 
ner; but  if  one  of  his  words  is  taken 
from  him,  the  game  goes  on  as  be- 
fore. 

In  this  game,  the  practised  player 
knows  by  heart  the  words  that  can 
be  taken  away,  and  what  letters  can 
take  them,  so  he  plays  quickly;  but 
the  beginner  must  study  each  word 
carefully.  If  he  can  take  no  word, 
he  should  add  his  letter  to  one  of 
his  own  words,  if  possible,  to  pre- 
vent its  being  taken  by  another 
player.  Some  words,  especially  the 
small  ones  are  almost  sure  to  change 
hands  at  once.  Thus,  "  pat  "  can 
be  taken  by  e  (making  "  pate,"  or 
"tape")  by  h  ("path"),  by  n 
("  pant  "),  by  r  ("rapt  "  or  "  part")  or 
by  s  ("  spat "  or  "  past  ").  This  is 


LOGOMACHY 


470 


LOTO 


evident,  but  few  see  before 
some  study  (for  instance)  that 
"  stream "  can  be  taken  by  a  / 
(making  "  mastery  ")  or  others  still 
more  difficult. 

It  is  a  good  plan  for  a  beginner  to 
practice  alone,  forming  words,  and 
twisting  them  about  in  every  pos- 
sible way,  so  as  to  become  familiar 
with  the  changes  that  may  be  made. 
If  the  player  can  make  a  word  either 
from  the  pool  or  by  taking  one 
from  another  player,  he  should  in 
general  prefer  to  make  the  one 
that  is  least  likely  to  be  taken 
from  him.  But  if  one  of  the  play- 
ers has  nearly  ten  words,  the  others 
should  try,  first  of  all,  to  reduce 
his  number. 

The  rules  of  Logomachy  differ 
with  the  players.  Certain  points 
should  always  be  settled  before  the 
game,  such  as  the  dictionary  to  be 
used  as  a  standard,  the  use  of  plu- 
rals, etc.,  and  the  length  of  time  to 
be  allowed  for  each  play.  The 
rules  that  follow  may  thus  be  modi- 
fied to  suit  the  players. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

\.  No  one  shall  touch  the  pile  of 
letters  but  the  one  whose  turn  it  is 
to  play. 

2.  The  player  must  draw  the  let- 
ter which  he  touches  first. 

3.  While   he   is   considering  his 
play,  his    letter    must   lie    on    the 
table,  in  plain  sight. 

4.  A  letter  must  be  played  within 
two  minutes  after  it  is  drawn. 

5.  Each  player's  words  must  be 
in  plain  sight,  and  turned  so  that 
the   others   can    read    them    most 
easily. 

6.  No  player  may  form  a  word 
that  he  cannot  define,  at  least  well 
enough  to  show  that  he  is  not  form- 
ing it  at  random,  in  hope  that  such 
a  word  may  be  found  in  the  dic- 
tionary. 

7.  Singulars  and  plurals  shall  be 
considered  different  words.    [Some- 
times a  plural  in  s  is  considered  the 
same  word  as  its  singular.] 


8.  If  any  player  can  form  or  take 
a  word  with  the  letters  in  the  pool, 
he  may  do  so  before  drawing  his 
letter. 

The  word  Logomachy  is  formed 
Greek  words,  and  means  from  two 
Word-contest. 

LONDON  BRIDGE,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  children.  Two 
leaders  form  an  arch  with  uplifted 
hands,  under  which  the  others 
march  in  line,  si.iging,  "  London 
Bridge  is  falling  down,  my  fair 
lady  !"  When  they  desire,  the  lead- 
ers lower  the  arch,  catching  one  of 
the  players.  The  one  thus  caught 
is  asked  which  of  two  articles  he  will 
have,  and  according  to  his  answer, 
as  previously  agreed,  he  is  made  to 
stand  behind  one  or  the  other  of  the 
leaders.  When  all  have  been  caught, 
the  leaders  and  their  followers  end 
the  game  by  pulling  against  each 
other  as  in  a  TUG  OF  WAR.  Some- 
times the  song  sung  while  the  line 
is  marching  has  several  verses. 

History.  This  game  is  mentioned 
by  the  French  author,  Rabelais,  in 
1533,  under  the  name  of  "  Fallen 
Bridge."  In  Germany  the  keepers 
are  called  Devil  and  Angel,  King 
and  Emperor,  or  by  other  names. 
In  France  the  game  is  called 
"  Heaven  and  Hell."  The  Germans 
of  Pennsylvania  call  it "  Die  Holldnd- 
isch  Bruck  "  (The  Holland  Bridge), 
and  in  Massachusetts  it  is  some- 
times called  "  Charlestown  Bridge." 
In  parts  of  Ireland  an  actual  bridge 
is  made  of  boards,  and  one  player 
takes  the  part  of  the  Devil,  who 
breaks  it  down  at  intervals,  while 
the  song  is  sung. 

LOTO,  or  LOTTO,  a  game  of 
chance  played  by  any  number  of 
persons,  with  numbered  cards  and 
counters.  The  cards  are  usually  24 
in  number,  and  each  is  divided  into 
'27  squares  in  three  rows.  Five  of  the 
nine  squares  in  each  row  have  num- 
bers on  them  and  four  are  blank; 
thus  there  are  15  numbers  on  each 
card.  The  whole  24  cards  have 
thus  360  numbers,  which  are  the 


LOTO 


471 


LUMINOUS   PAINT 


numerals  from  i  to  90  four  times 
repeated.  The  numbers  on  each 
card  are  not  selected  with  any  sys- 
tem, but  are  put  down  at  random ; 
thus,  one  of  the  cards  may  appear  as 
in  the  figure.  The  counters  are 
shown  below. 


M       177 


57  62      I  90 


Loto-Card  and  Counters. 

For  convenience,  the  numbers 
from  i  to  9  are  placed  in  the  first 
column,  those  from  10  to  19  in  the 
second,  and  so  on.  Each  person  is 
given  one  or  more  of  these  cards, 
according  to  the  number  of  players, 
and  each  has  also  15  counters  for 
each  card.  One  of  the  players,  or 
some  one  not  in  the  game,  holds  a 
bag  filled  with  counters  numbered 
from  i  to  90,  and  drawing  them  one 
at  a  time,  reads  each  aloud  as  it  is 
drawn.  Whenever  a  number  is 
thus  read  each  player  who  has  it  on 
one  or  more  of  his  cards  places  a 
counter  over  it  on  each  card.  He 
who  first  covers  all  the  numbers  on 
one  card  wins  the  game.  Loto  par- 
ties are  often  given,  at  which  the 
winners  receive  prizes,  and  the  game 
is  sometimes  varied  by  giving  prizes 
to  those  who  first  have  two,  three, 
four,  and  five  counters  on  the  same 
line.  The  game  is  almost  entirely 
one  of  chance,  the  only  effort  re- 
quired being  to  watch  the  cards 
carefully  as  the  numbers  are  read 
out,  to  make  sure  that  each  one 
read  is  covered. 

Object,  or  Spelling  Loto.  The 
numbers  are  replaced  by  letters, 
each  line  on  the  cards  spelling  the 
name  of  an  object,  a  picture  of 
which  is  shown  at  the  end  of  the 
line,  as  in  the  illustration. 

Other  varieties,  bearing  pictures  of 
flowers,  or  other  objects,  are  known 
as  Historical,  Botanical,  or  Geo,- 


graphical  Loto,  and  are  played  in 
the  same  manner  as  numbered  or 
spelling  Loto. 

History.  Lotto  is  Italian  for  lot. 
In  the  time  when  Genoa  was  a  re- 
public, a  magistrate  of  that  city 
chose  the  members  of  his  council, 
it  is  said,  by  placing  90  names  in  an 
urn  and  drawing  five.  The  people 
began  to  bet  on  the  successful 
names,  and  soon,  substituting  num- 


Spelling  Loto-Card. 

bers,  devised  agamblinggame  which 
became  very  popular.  From  this 
our  Loto  is  derived.  It  was  taken 
from  Italy  to  Germany  about  1750, 
and  to  France  in  1776.  In  France 
the  numbers  on  the  cards  are  some- 
times given  curious  names.  For 
instance,  the  4  is  called  "  The  Com- 
missary's Hat,"  the  22  "  The  Two 
Chickens, "and  the  69  "The  Infalli- 
ble." In  the  western  United  States 
the  Loto  numbers  are  placed  in  a 
vessel  of  peculiar  shape,  and  drop 
out  one  by  one  on  pressing  a  spring. 
The  game  is  then  called  Keno. 

LUMINOUS  PAINT.  Paint  which 
will  glow  at  night  may  be  made  as 
follows :  Wash  oyster  shells  per- 
fectly clean  in  warm  water,  and  heat 
them  for  half  an  hour  in  a  coal  fire. 
When  they  are  cool,  pound  them  in 
a  mortar,  removing  and  throwing 
away  all  gray  pieces.  When  the 
white  part  has  been  reduced  to 
powder,  put  some  of  it  into  a  cruci- 
ble with  an  equal  quantity  of  flow- 
ers of  sulphur,  in  alternate  layers. 
Cement  the  lid  of  the  crucible  with 
sand  mixed  with  glue,  and  bake  it 


LYCOPODIUM 


472 


MAGIC   LANTERN 


for  an  hour  in  hot  coals.  The  re- 
sulting; powder  should  be  white,  and 
any  of  it  that  is  gray  should  be  re- 
moved. Make  the  white  powder 
into  a  paint  with  gum  arabic  and 
water.  The  powder  is  sulphide 
of  lime  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
lime  of  the  oystershells  and  the 
sulphur.  Objects  painted  with  it 
will  glow  faintly  for  a  long  time 
after  dark.  If  the  interior  of  a  room 
be  covered  with  it,  the  room  will  be 
filled  with  a  faint  light  even  on  the 
darkest  nights. 

LYCOPODIUM,  Experiments  with. 
Lycopodium  consists  of  the  spores 
or  seeds  of  a  kind  of  moss,  and  is 
one  of  the  finest  and  lightest  pow- 
ders known.  It  may  be  bought  at 
a  druggist's. 

1.  Put  a  little  of  the  powder  on  a 
piece  of  paper,  and  blow  it  into  a 
candle-flame.     There  will  be  a  sud- 
den flash  of  light.     This  method  is 
sometimes  used  on  the  stage  to  imi- 
tate lightning. 

2.  Half  fill  a  bottle  with  the  pow- 
der, and  tilting  it  forward  and  back- 
ward, observe  how  it  runs  almost  as 


freely  as  water.  This  is  because  the 
particles  are  very  fine  and  slip  over 
each  other  easily. 

3.  Dust  a   layer  of  the   powder 
over  the  surface  of  water  in  a  basin. 
Plunge  a  finger  into  the  water  an 
inch  or  so.     It  will   not  be  wetted 
at  all,  but  will  have  a  little  of  the 
dry  powder  on  it  when  it  is  with- 
drawn.     The   reason,  as   is    easily 
observed,  is  that  a  layer  of  the  pow- 
der envelopes  the  finger  as  it  enters 
the  water,  and  keeps  it  from  getting 
wet. 

4.  Lower  a  coin  into  the  water  by 
a  thread.     It  will  be  kept  from  get- 
ting wet  in  the  same  manner. 

5.  Drop  water  on  the    layer  of 
powder.     It  will  gather  itself  into 
drops  like  beads. 

6.  Dust  Lycopodium  over  a  piece 
of  glass,  and  look  through  it  at  a 
candle-flame.    A  halo  will  be  seen 
around  the  flame  as  if  there  were  a 
fog  or  mist  between  it  and  the  ob- 
server.    This  effect  is  produced  by 
the  smallness  of  the  particles,  which 
are  about  the  size  of  the  water-drops 
in  fog. 


M 


MAGIC   LANTERN,  an  arrange- 
ment for  showing  lighted  pictures 


Magic  Lantern. 


in  a  dark  room  by  means  of  lenses 
(see  LENS,  in  C.  C.  T.).     The  pict- 


ures, which  are  on  slips  of  glass 
called  slides,  are  either  photo- 
graphed, or  painted  with  transpar- 
ent colors.  They  are  lighted  from 
behind,  and  an  enlarged  image  of 
them  is  thrown  by  the  lenses  on 
the  wall  or  on  a  screen,  where  it 
may  be  seen  by  a  large  number  of 
people.  The  lamp  E  (see  figure)  is 
generally  enclosed  in  a  case  B,  of 
sheet-iron  or  tin,  at  one  end  of 
which  the  lenses  AA'  are  fixed. 
Between  these  and  the  lamp  is  a 
place  where  the  exhibitor  may  push 
in  the  glass  slides  on  which  are  the 
pictures.  The  farther  the  lantern 
is  from  the  wall  or  screen  on  which 
the  pictures  are  thrown,  the  larger 
the  pictures  will  be ;  but  as  the  same 
quantity  of  light  has  then  to  be 
spread  over  a  larger  surface,  they 


MAGIC   LANTERN 


473 


MAGIC   LANTERN 


will  be  dim  unless  the  light  is 
powerful.  In  the  large  lanterns  used 
at  public  entertainments,  where 
the  pictures  are  often  20  or  30  feet 
in  diameter,  the  lamp  is  a  calcium 
light  (see  CALCIUM  in  C.  C.  T.)  or  is 
furnished  by  the  electric  arc  (see 
ELECTRIC  LIGHT)  ;  but  in  the 
smaller  ones,  sold  at  toy  stores,  an 
oil  lamp  is  generally  used,  which 
gives  enough  light  for  pictures  sev- 
eral feet  in  diameter. 

Magic  Lantern  pictures  may  be 
thrown  on  a  smooth  white  wall,  or 
on  a  sheet,  stretched  so  that  there 
are  no  wrinkles  in  it.  If  the  for- 
mer, the  lantern  must  be  placed 
among,  or  behind,  the  spectators ;  if 
the  latter,  it  may  be  placed  on  the 
other  side,  for  the  pictures  will 
show  through  the  sheet.  Before 
giving  an  exhibition  the  best  dis- 
tance for  the  lantern  must  be  de- 
cided on  by  trial.  The  lantern  is 
first  placed  where  the  spot  of  light 
is  as  large  as  the  wall  or  screen  will 
admit.  A  picture  is  then  slipped  in, 
and  the  outer  lens-tube  C  D  pushed 
in  and  out  (called  focusing)  till  the 
picture  on  the  wall  is  clear  and 
distinct.  Some  lanterns  are  focused 
by  turning  a  little  screw  on  the  lens- 
tube.  If  the  picture  is  not  bright 
enough,  the  lantern  is  moved  a 
little  nearer  and  focused  again. 
The  pictures  will  be  reversed  on  the 
wall,  so  they  must  be  put  into  the 
lantern  upside  down,  and  pushed  to 
the  right  when  they  are  to  move  to 
the  left  of  the  screen. 

A  set  of  pictures  is  usually  sold 
with  each  lantern,  but  they  can 
be  bought  separately.  Sometimes 
amusing  pictures  are  made  to  move 
or  change  suddenly  before  the  eyes 
of  the  spectators.  The  exhibitor 
may  make  his  own  pictures  by 
painting  them  on  slips  of  glass,  or 
by  PHOTOGRAPHY. 

Dissolving  Views,  magic  lantern 
pictures,  one  of  which  appears  to 
change  slowly  into  another.  Two 
lanterns  are  so  placed  that  they 
throw  their  pictures  on  exactly  the 


same  spot.  Each  has  a  cover  which 
can  be  placed  over  its  lens-tube. 
A  picture  is  placed  in  each,  one  of 
which  is  shown  while  the  other  is 
shut  off.  If  the  cover  be  placed 
slowly  on  the  lens-tube  of  the  first, 
while  that  of  the  second  is  with- 
drawn gradually,  the  first  picture 
will  fade  out  while  the  other  ap- 
pears. The  effect  is  better  if,  in- 
stead of  covering  the  lenses,  the 
light  can  be  turned  off  and  on  with- 
out opening  the  lanterns.  One 
lamp  is  then  turned  down  and  the 
other  is  turned  up  at  the  same  time, 
making  the  change  much  more 
gradual.  A  simple  magic  lantern 
can  be  made  at  home  by  placing  a 
kerosene  lamp  in  a  wooden  box 
from  one  to  two  feet  square,  cutting 
a  hole  above  the  chimney  for 
draught.  Opposite  the  lamp  must 
be  cut  a  round  hole  about  two 
inches  in  diameter,  and  just  inside 
this  hole  is  placed  a  small  globe, 
such  as  is  used  for  fish,  full  of  water. 
Several  inches  from  the  globe,  out- 
side the  box,  is  placed  the  picture, 
and  beyond  it  is  held  an  ordinary 
burning  glass,  or  single  magnifying 
glass.  By  moving  it  forward  and 
backward,  the  position  will  be  found 
where  a  clear  and  distinct  picture 
is  cast  on  the  screen. 

Instead  of  a  lamp,  a  beam  of  sun- 
light from  a  HELIOSTAT  may  be 
used.  With  this,  pictures  must  be 
shown  in  the  day-time,  but  they  may 
be  enlarged  greatly,  since  sunlight 
is  so  powerful.  The  lenses  may 
be  simply  set  in  holes  in  blocks 
of  wood  so  that  they  will  stand  up- 
right on  the  table  in  front  of  the 
heliostat,  and  the  picture  is  held  in 
one  hand  at  the  proper  distance. 
Not  only  magic  lantern  pictures, 
but  images  of  all  sorts  of  small  ob- 
jects may  be  thrown  on  a  screen  in 
this  way. 

Water  Lantern.  A  simple  substi- 
tute for  lenses  is  the  Water  Lan- 
tern, represented  in  the  picture, 
which  is  made  as  follows :  In  a 
wooden  box,  open  at  one  side,  fix  a 


MAGIC   LANTERN 


474 


MAGIC   LANTERN 


mirror  at  an  angle  of  45°,  held  in 
place  by  slats  nailed  to  the  sides  of 
the  box  and  facing  the  open  side, 
so  as  to  reflect  upward  the  horizon- 
tal beam  from  the  heliostat.  In 
the  top  of  the  box  is  a  hole,  five 


Water  Lantern. 


inches  in  diameter,  in  which  rests  a 
hemispherical  glass  dish  five  and 
one  half  inches  across,  made  by 
cutting  off  part  of  a  plain  glass  fish- 
globe  or  gas-globe.  When  filled 


with  water  this  takes  the  place  of 
the  condensing  lens  of  the  magic 
lantern.  The  smaller  lens  is  sup- 
ported on  a  shelf,  which  stands  on 
a  wooden  slide  with  a  slot  in  it, 
enabling  it  to  be  fixed  at  any  height 
by  tightening  a  screw,  as  shown  in 
the  illustration.  This  lens  is  made 
like  the  other,  but  is  about  four 
inches  in  diameter  and  correspond- 
ingly shallow.  On  the  sides  of  the 
shelf  are  two  upright  pieces  of 
wood,  between  which  is  swung  a 
looking-glass  about  seven  by  four 
inches. 

The  beam  of  light,  passing  up- 
ward through  the  two  water-lenses, 
may  be  sent  in  any  desired  direction 
by  this  upper  mirror.  If  placed  at 
an  angle  of  45°,  it  will  direct  the 
beam  horizontally  toward  the 
screen.  The  picture  or  object  to 
be  shown  is  to  be  laid  on  the  lower 
lens,  and  focused  by  raising  or  low- 
ering the  upper  shelf.  A  magic 


B 


90° 


E 


Plan   of  Attachment   for  Showing   Photo- 
graphs. 

lantern  may  be  made  to  show  ordi- 
nary photographs,  engravings,  etc., 
but  as  they  do  not  transmit  light 
like  the  glass  slides,  they  must  be 
placed  where  the  light  will  shine 
full  on  their  faces,  and  yet  where 
they  will  be  directly  before  the  lens. 
To  do  this,  the  arrangement  of  the 
lantern  has  to  be  changed  a  little, 


MAGICAL  MUSIC 


475 


MAGIC   WHEELS 


a  slightly  larger  box  being  required, 
because  the  lamp  has  to  stand  on 
one  side.  An  arrangement  which 
can  be  used  with  an  ordinary  magic 
lantern  can  be  made  as  follows : 
A  five-sided  box  is  made,  whose 
top  and  bottom  have  the  shape 
shown  in  the  diagram.  The  sides 
A  B  and  E  are  each  5^  inches  long, 
and  the  others,  C  and  D,  3^  inches. 
The  lens-tube  is  unscrewed  from 
the  nozzle  of  the  lantern,  and  a  hole 
just  large  enough  to  receive  it  is 
cut  in  the  side  B.  In  the  side  C 
another  hole  is  cut  to  receive  the 
nozzle.  The  two  holes  must  have 
their  centres  at  the  same  height. 
In  the  side  E  a  square  hole  is  cut  a 
little  larger  than  a  cabinet-sized 
photograph,  and  in  it  is  fitted  a 
shutter,  to  whose  inside  a  photo- 
graph may  be  fastened  by  little 
clips  or  buttons  turning  over  the 
corners,  or  in  any  other  way  de- 
sired. The  light  in  such  an  ar- 
rangement requires  to  be  very 
strong  to  throw  a  good  image  more 
than  a  few  feet,  but  with  a  calcium 


Lantern  with  Attachment. 

light  an  image  of  almost  any  object 
can  be  thrown  to  a  great  distance. 
The  lantern  with  its  attachment  is 
shown  in  the  last  figure. 

MAGICAL   MUSIC.        See   HIDE 
THE  HANDKERCHIEF. 


MAGIC  PICTURE.  Fasten  to- 
gether two  panes  of  clear  glass  about 
a  foot  square,  so  that  they  are  sepa- 
rated by  a  very  thin  space,  about 
one  twenty-fifth  of  an  inch,  or  the 
thickness  of  about  seven  of  the 
leaves  of  this  book.  This  can  be 
done  by  placing  bits  of  pasteboard 
of  this  thickness  between  the  panes 
at  the  corners.  The  panes  are  fast- 
ened at  their  edges  by  a  paste  made 
of  powdered  chalk  and  white  of  egg, 
and  then  bordered  with  paper,  a 
small  aperture  being  left  to  pour 
into  the  space  between  the  glasses 
the  following  composition  : 

Melt  together  at  a  low  heat  150 
grains  of  tallow  and  15  grains  of 
white  wax ;  add  30  grains  of  clear 
linseed  oil.  When  well  mixed, 
fill  with  the  mixture  the  space  be- 
tween the  panes,  and  close  the 
aperture.  The  mixture  will  be 
opaque  when  cold,  but  a  slight  de- 
gree of  heat,  such  as  that  obtained 
by  holding  it  in  the  sun's  rays,  will 
make  it  transparent.  If  an  engrav- 
ing or  chromo  be  now  glued  to  one 
of  the  panes  with  its  face  toward 
the  glass,  it  will  be  invisible  till  the 
glass  be  slightly  heated,  when  it 
will  appear. 

MAGIC  PICTURES.  Draw  pict- 
ures on  paper  with  a  mixture  of  gal- 
lic acid  and  mucilage.  This  will  not 
be  visible  when  dry,  but  if  the  paper 
be  sprayed  with  a  solution  of  cop- 
peras in  an  ordinary  atomizer,  the 
lines  will  turn  black.  An  exhibi- 
tion of  magic  portraits  may  be  ar- 
ranged by  hanging  up  sheets  on 
which  comic  pictures  have  been 
drawn  with  the  mixture.  A  mem- 
ber of  the  company  is  asked  whether 
he  wishes  his  portrait  taken,  and 
the  spray  is  directed  on  one  of  the 
pictures,  which  is  then  given  him  to 
examine. 

MAGIC  WHEELS,  THE,  an  optical 
toy,  made  as  follows :  Cut  out  of 
card  board  two  wheels  about  an  inch 
in  diameter,  each  having  at  least 
eight  spokes.  The  wheels  need  no 
rims,  as  the  spokes  alone  produce 


MAGIC   WHEELS 


476 


MAGNETS 


the  desired  effect.    The  shape  may 
be  like  Fig.  i,  or  Fig.  2.     Fix  the 


Fig.  i.  Fig.  2. 

wheels  about  a  half  inch  apart  on  a 

.splinter  of  wood,  an  inch  and  a  half 
long,  which  passes  through  their 
centres,  forming  a  sort  of  TOP  or  TEE- 
TOTUM. Spin  this  on  something 
which  will  contrast  with  the  spokes ; 
— on  a  dark  ground  if  the  card-board 
be  white,  and  on  a  light  ground  if  it 
be  dark.  While  it  is  spinning,  look 

rat  it  at  an  angle,  so  that  the  spokes 

:on  one  side  of  the  upper  wheel  will 
overlap  those  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  lower  wheel,  which  are  mov- 
ing in  the  contrary  direction.  An 
appearance  will  be  seen  like  that  in 

j  Fig.  3.     By  moving  the  eye  up  and 


down,  so  that  more  or  less  of  the 
upper  and  under  spokes  will  over- 
lap, the  curves  will  change  their 
position  and  form.  The  same  can 
be  seen  by  using  only  one  wheel  and 
spinning  it  beneath  a  lamp,  or  in 
sunlight,  so  that  the  shadow  will 
take  the  place  of  the  second  wheel. 
The  same  toy  can  be  made  in  larger 
form  by  nailing  slats  crosswise  on 
one  another  and  mounting  them  on 
an  axle.  When  the  wheels  are 
twirled  with  different  velocities  the 


curves  will  change.  The  curves  can 
also  be  seen  by  twirling  an  inverted 
Japanese  umbrella  like  a  top,  being 
formed  by  the  ribs  and  their  sup- 
ports. 

Another  form  of  the  toy  can  be 
obtained  by  makinga  teetotum  with 
one  wheel,  like  that  described  above, 
and  spinning  it  over  a  sort  of  grat- 
ing of  bars,  cut  from  card-board. 
The  curves  seen  will  be  different 
from  those  in  the  picture.  The 
curves  which  are  seen  result  from 
the  fact  that  the  spokes,  in  re- 
volving across  one  another,  cut  off 
the  light  more  of  the  time  in  some 
places  than  in  others.  These  there- 
fore appear  more  opaque,  and  in  the 
cases  given  above  they  form  curves. 

MAGNESIUM,  Experiments  with. 
Magnesium  is  described  in  C.  C.  T. 

1.  Coil  a  strip  of  magnesium  rib- 
bon around  a  lead-pencil.    Hold  the 
coil  by  putting  a  piece  of  iron  wire 
through,  it  and  light  one  end  of  the 
ribbon  with  a  match.     It  will  burn 
brightly. 

2.  See   CARBONIC  ACID,  Experi- 
ment 6. 

MAGIC  STICK,  THE.  See  GUESS- 
ING THE  SIGN. 

MAGNETS,  Experiments  with. 
Magnets  and  their  proper  ties  are 
described  in  C.  C.  T.  Bar  or 
horse-shoe  magnets  can  be  obtained 
at  toy  stores.  The  horse-shoe  shape, 
shown  in  the  illustration,  is  for 
convenience.  The 
bit  of  metal  laid 
across  the  ends  is 
called  an  armature. 
If  the  north  and 
south  poles  of  his 
magnet  are  not 
marked,  the  experi- 
menter should  first 
find  out  which  they 
are.  This  can  be 
done  with  a  bar  mag- 
net, by  placing  it  in 
a  little  sling  made  of 
Horse-shoe  cloth  or  thick  paper, 
Magnet.  and  suspending  it  by 
a  thread,  so  that  it  hangs  horizon- 


MAGNETS 


477 


MAGNETS 


tally.  No  articles  of  iron  or  steel 
should  be  anywhere  near  it.  It  will 
presently  point  north  and  south,  and 
the  ends  can  then  be  marked  with  the 
letters  N  and  S,  or  in  any  other  way 
desired.  Or  the  poles  can  be  discov- 
ered at  once  by  means  of  a  pocket 
compass.  The  end  of  the  magnet 
which  attracts  the  north  end  of  the 
compass  magnet  is  its  south  pole. 
The  same  pole  should  repel  the  south 
end  of  the  compass  magnet.  It  is 
just  as  well  to  test  the  magnet,  even 
if  the  poles  are  marked,  for  it  maybe 
a  French  magnet ;  and  as  in  France 
the  words  north  and  south,  ap- 
plied to  the  poles  of  a  magnet,  mean 
just  the  opposite  of  what  they  do 
here,  the  result  would  be  confusing. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

I.  Magnetization.  Lay  a  needle 
on  the  table,  and  draw  one  of  the 
poles  of  the  magnet  over  it  several 
times,  always  in  the  same  direction. 
The  needle  will  become  magnetic, 
the  end  at  which  the  magnet  pole 
began  to  be  drawn  over  it  becoming 
a  pole  of  the  same  name.  A  better 
way  is  to  use  opposite  poles  of  two 
magnets,  bringing  them  together  in 
the  middle  of  the  needle,  and  draw- 
ing them  apart  toward  the  ends.  It 
is  well  to  magnetize  several  needles 
of  different  sizes,  for  use  in  the  fol- 
owing  experiments. 
•  2.  Try  to  magnetize  pieces  of  soft 
iron — nails,  for  instance.  It  will  be 
found  that  they  became  magnets  in- 
stantly, as  soon  as  the  magnet 
touches  them,  or  even  when  it  is 
held  near  them  ;  but  when  it  is  taken 
away  the  magnetism  leaves  them, 
except,  perhaps,  a  very  slight  trace. 
To  detect  very  feeble  magnetism, 
not  strong  enough  to  attract  even 
very  small  bits  of  iron,  use  a  pocket- 
compass.  Apply  the  compass  to 
the  ends  alternately,  and  if  one  end 
of  the  needle  is  attracted  at  one  end 
and  the  other  at  the  other,  it  is  cer- 
tain that  the  object  is  a  magnet. 

3.   Magnetization    by  the    Earth. 
Hold  an  iron  poker  nearly,  but^not 


quite,  vertical,  the  lower  end  point- 
ing a  little  to  the  west  of  north. 
By  testing  with  a  compass-needle, 
as  above,  it  will  be  found  to  be  a 
magnet;  but  as  soon  as  it  is  held  in 
any  other  position  it  ceases  to  be  so. 
It  may  be  made  to  retain  some  of 
its  magnetism  for  a  short  time  by 
striking  it  several  sharp  blows  with 
a  hammer  while  it  is  held  in  the 
position  just  described. 

4.  A  String  of  Magnets.     Apply 
a  small  nail  to  the  end  of  a  magnet 
held  in  the  air.     The  nail  becomes 
a  magnet  for  the  time  being,  and  will 
thus  support  another  nail.     In  this 
way  a  long  string  of   nails  can  be 
hung  from  the  original  magnet  when 
it  is  a  strong  one.     But  if  the  first 
nail  be  pulled  from  the  magnet,  its 
magnetism  leaves  it,  and  hence  the 
whole  string  of  nails  falls  apart. 

5.  Magnetic   Transparency.     Put 
a  piece  of  paper  between  the  magnet 
and  a  piece  of  iron.      The  iron  will 
be  attracted  as  strongly  as  before. 
If  iron  filings  be  scattered  on  a  sheet 
of   paper,  they  will  arrange   them- 
selves in  different  figures  if  the  pole 
of  a  magnet  be  moved  about  under 
the    paper.       Substances    through 
which  a  magnet  will  attract  in  this 
way  are  called  "  magnetically  trans- 
parent."     It  will  be  interesting  to 
try  a  large  number  of  substances,  and 
see  which  are  magnetically  trans- 
parent and  which   are    not.      The 
substances  must  all  be  thin,  unless 
the  magnet  used  is  very  strong. 

6.  Magnetic    Curves.       Place     a 
sheet  of  paper  over  a  magnet,  and 
scatter  over    it    fine    iron   filings. 
Gently  tap  the  paper,  and  the  filings 
will    arrange    themselves   in    lines, 
following  what  are  called  the  "  lines 
of  force  "   of  the  magnet.     If  two 
or  more  magnets  be    used    instead 
of  one,  and  placed  in  different  posi- 
tions,  the    lines   of  force    become 
quite  complicated.    They  will  differ 
according  as  the  magnets  are  laid 
on  their  sides,  or  held  under  the 
paper  endwise,  one   pole  touching 
the  paper.    The  illustration  shows 


MAGNETS 


478 


MAGNETS 


them  as  they  appear  over  the  poles 
of  a  horse  shoe  magnet.  To  pre- 
serve these  curves,  prepare  the  paper 
by  rubbing  over  it  a  piece  of  wax, 
the  end  of  which  has  been  warmed. 
The  paper  will  thus  be  coated  thinly 
with  wax.  When  the  filings  have 
arranged  themselves,  hold  the  paper 


over  a  hot  stove ;  this  will  melt  the 
wax,  which,  when  it  has  cooled,  will 
retain  the  filings  in  place.  A  small 
magnetic  needle  suspended  close 
over  the  curves,  while  the  magnet 
is  still  beneath,  will  set  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  curve  at  the  point  where 
it  is.  A  method  by  which  the  filings 


Magnetic  Curves. 


may  be  made  to  arrange  themselves 
as  they  fall,  without  any  jarring, 
and  hence  may  be  arranged  directly 
on  a  freshly- varnished  pane  of  glass, 
is  as  follows  :  Magnetize  two  needles 
of  the  largest  size  so  that  the  point 
of  one  and  the  eye  of  the  other  shall 
be  north  poles.  Stick  them  side  by 
side  in  a  piece  of  cork,  and  the  free 
ends  will  then  be  opposite  poles. 


Pick  up  a  quantity  of  filings  with 
these  needles,  shake  off  the  loose 
ones,  and  then,  holding  them  over 
the  glass  under  which  is  the  large 
magnet,  jar  them  off  a  few  at  a  time. 
Each  filing  has  been  magnetized  by 
its  contact  with  the  needle,  and 
hence  will  arrange  itself  properly  as 
it  falls. 
Drop  a  little  melted  paraffine  on 


Experiment  7. 


the  first  layer  of  filings,  and  hold 
over  them  a  hot  fire  shovel  that  it 
may  melt  and  run  in  among  them 
thoroughly.  Then  shake  on  another 
ayer  in  the  same  way  as  the  first, 


and  so  on.  In  this  way  the  curves 
may  be  built  up  into  the  air,  pre- 
senting many  striking  forms. 

7.  Magnetic  Poles.     Take  two  bar 
magnets  of  equal  strength,  and  hold- 


MAGNETS 


479 


MAGNETS 


ing  one  horizontally,  hang  a  nail  or 
key  from  one  of  its  poles  A.  Then 
slide  the  other  over  it,  the  pole  B 
of  opposite  name  to  the  end  from 
which  the  nail  hangs  being  in  ad- 
vance. When  it  comes  above  the 
nail,  the  nail  will  drop,  the  influence 
of  the  two  opposite  poles  balancing 
each  other. 

8.  Fill  a  glass  tube  with  steel  fil- 
ings, or  small  steel  brads,  and  mag- 
netize it  as  in  Experiment  i,  taking 
care  not  to  shake  it.  It  will  act  in 
all  respects  like  an  ordinary  magnet, 
but  if  it  be  shaken,  so  as  to  alter 
the  position  of  the  filings,  the  mag- 
netism will  disappear.  This  is  not 
because  the  filings  are  demagnet- 
ized, but  because,  their  poles  being 
turned  in  opposite  directions,  the 
effects  balance  each  other. 


5a 

A  d  O 


9-  Take  a  short  iron  bar,  a  stove- 
holder,  for  instance,  and  lay  it  on  a 
table  near  a  compass,  so  that  one 
end  of  the  holder  may  be  on  one 
side  of  the  north  end  of  the  compass- 
needle,  near  enough  to  draw  it  aside 
a  little.  Approach  the  north  pole 
of  a  magnet  to  the  other  end  of  the 
stove-holder  and  the  compass- 
needle  will  recede.  The  reason  is, 
that  at  first  the  compass-needle 
made  the  iron  a  magnet  with  its 
nearest  end  a  south  pole,  but  after- 
ward the  influence  of  the  stronger 
magnet  turned  it  into  a  magnet  with 
poles  reversed.  If,  instead  of  the 
northpole  of  the  magnet,  the  south 
pole  be  presented  to  the  stove- 
holder,  the  compass-needle  will  be 
attracted  more  strongly  instead  of 
being  repelled. 

*£ 

rfr   & 


18  a 
Floating  Magnet  Figures. 


10.  Try  the  above  experiment,  us- 
ing a  large  mass  of  iron,  a  stove,  for 
instance,  instead    of    a   small    bar. 
The   result  will   be   the   same,  but 
will  take  place  more  slowly.     The 
reason  is  that  magnetism  takes  time 
to   travel   through    iron,  and    this 
time  may  be  noticeable  in  the  case 
of  a  large  mass  like  a  stove. 

11.  Repellent   Magnets.     Tie  two 
bits  of  iron  wire  to  the  ends  of  a 
thread    several    inches    long,    and 
hang  them   by  the  middle  of  the 
thread  over  a  pin  in  the  edge  of  a 
mantel,  or  in  any  way  so  that  they 
do  not  touch  the  wall.     Then  bring 
either  pole  of  a  magnet  underneath 


the  wires,  and  they  will  repel  each 
other  more  and  more,  as  the  mag- 
net is  held  nearer.  The  reason  is, 
that  the  wires  both  become  mag- 
nets under  the  influence  of  the 
magnet  under  them,  and  their  like 
poles  being  near  each  other,  they 
repel  each  other.  If  sewing-needles 
be  used  instead  of  iron  wire,  they 
will  continue  to  repel  each  other 
slightly  after  the  magnetism  is  taken 
away,  having  become  permanently 
magnetized. 

12.  Floating  Magnet  Figures. 
Magnetize  any  number  of  steel  sew- 
ing-needles of  the  same  size,  so 
that  their  points  are  north  poles 


MAGNETS 


480 


MAIDS   AND   BACHELORS 


and  float  them  vertically  in  water 
by  sticking  them  through  bits  of 
cork  so  that  their  eyes  just  project 
above  the  cork.  The  pieces  of  cork 
should  be  as  small  as  will  sustain 
the  needles.  Hold  the  north  pole 
of  a  strong  magnet  above  the  float- 
ing needles,  and  they  will  group 
themselves  in  regular  figures,  de- 
pending on  the  number  used.  Some 
of  these  are  shown  in  the  figure. 
It  will  be  seen  that  sometimes  the 
same  number  of  needles  can  form 
more  than  one  figure,  and  jarring 
the  vessel  of  water  often  causes  one 
figure  to  change  into  another.  In 
the  diagram,  the  number  of  magnets 
in  the  figures  is  marked  over  or  un- 
der each,  and  when  the  same  num- 
ber form  more  than  one  figure,  the 
different  ones  are  denoted  by  letters. 

13.  Magnetism  and  Heat.     Heat 
a  nail  red-hot  and  then  try  to  attract 
it  by  a  magnet.     It  will   be   found 
impossible,  but  as  the  nail  cools  it 
will  be  more  and  more   attracted, 
till  when    it  has  entirely  cooled  it 
will  be  attracted  as  strongly  as  ever. 

Heat  a  magnet  red  hot.  It  will 
lose  its  magnetism  completely,  and 
will  not  regain  it  on  cooling. 

14.  Magnet  and  Needle.  A  horse- 
shoe magnet  must  be  used  for  this 
experiment.     Magnetize  a  threaded 
needle  by  rubbing  it  always  in  one 
direction  on  one  pole,  returning  it 
in  an  arc  through  the  air.     Taking 
the  end  of  the  thread  (which   may 
be  only  an  inch  or  two   long)  be- 
tween  finger  and   thumb,  suspend 
the  needle  over  the  pole  that  at- 
tracts   it,   the    point    being    about 
quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  magnet. 
Then,  with  a  circular  sweep  of  the 
hand,  to  keep  the  point  in  its  posi- 
tion, draw  the  eye  down  toward  the 
other  pole.     If  this   is   done   skil- 
fully,  the   needle   will   remain  sus- 
pended horizontally  just  above  the 
magnet. 

Electro-Magnets.  A  bar  electro- 
magnet can  be  made  by  winding 
insulated  copper  wire  around  a  bar 
of  soft  iron.  To  make  horse-shoe 


magnets,  which  are  more  generally 
useful,  a  bent  bar  is  similarly  wound, 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  if 
one  pole  is  wound  from  left  to 
right,  the  other  must  be  wound 
from  right  to  left.  The  wire  will 


Electro-Magnet. 

then  be  arranged  as  if  a  single  bar 
had  been  wound  in  the  same  direc- 
tion for  its  entire  length  and  then 
bent.  This  will  be  seen  by  winding 
string  around  a  flexible  stick,  and 
then  bending  it. 

The  size  of  wire  used  depends  on 
circumstances.  The  larger  it  is, 
the  less  resistance  it  has  to  the  elec- 
tric current ;  but  on  the  other  hand, 
the  larger  it  is,  the  farther  removed 
each  successive  layer  of  wire  is  from 
the  bar,  which  lessens  its  effect. 
So,  if  the  magnet  is  to  be  used  in  a 
long  circuit,  where  the  resistance  is 
great  any  way,  and  the  addition  of 
more  makes  little  difference,  small 
wire  should  be  used ;  otherwise, 
larger  wire.  Several  layers  of  the 
wire  should  be  wound  on  :  trial  will 
show  the  best  number  in  each  case. 
The  ends  of  the  winding  wire  being 
connected  with  an  ELECTRIC  BAT- 
TERY, some  of  the  experin  ents  de- 
scribed above  may  be  repeated. 
(See  also  TELEGRAPHS.) 

MAIDS  AND  BACHELORS, a  game 
played  by  equal  numbers  of  boys 
and  girls.  The  boys  go  into  an  ad- 
joining room,  and  then  each  boy  and 
each  girl  chooses  a  trade  or  employ- 
ment, which  must  not  be  the  same 
for  any  two  boys  or  two  girls.  The 
j  girls  march  around  in  a  circle,  each 


MAKING  A   WILL 


481 


MANOMETRIC   FLAME 


making  signs  to  represent  the  oc- 
cupation she  has  chosen  ;  the  car- 
penter pounding  nails,  the  washer- 
woman washing  clothes,  and  so  on. 
The  boys  then  form  in  line  and 
march  in,  each  representing  his 
chosen  trade  in  like  manner.  The 
boys  walk  around  the  girls  in  the 
opposite  direction  and,  at  a  signal, 
each  seeks  the  one  with  the  same 
trade  as  himself.  Those  left  with- 
out partners  are  called  Maids  and 
Bachelors. 

MAKING  A  WILL,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  one  of 
whom  represents  a  lawyer,  and  the 
other  his  client,  who  is  about  to 


make  a  will.  The  lawyer  writes 
down  a  numbered  list  of  articles 
supposed  to  belong  to  his  client,  and 
then  asks  him  to  say  to  whom  he 
will  leave  each,  mentioning  them 
only  by  number.  He  writes  down 
what  the  client  says,  and  when  the 
latter  has  bequeathed  all,  the  lawyer 
reads  them,  with  the  names  of  the 
persons  to  whom  they  have  been 
left.  Two  other  players  are  then 
chosen  as  lawyer  and  clienti 

MANOMETRIC  FLAME,  Experi- 
ments with.  Take  a  piece  of  pine, 
A  (See  Fig.  i),  one  inch  thick,  one 
and  one  half  inches  wide,  and  nine 
inches  long,  and  bore,  one  inch 


Fig.  I.  Manometric  Flame  Apparatus. 


MANOMETRIC   FLAME 


482 


MANOMETRIC   FLAME 


from  its  top,  a  hole  an  inch  in  di- 
ameter, and  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
deep.  In  a  block,  B,  of  the  same 
width,  three  quarters  of  an  inch 
thick  and  two  inches  long,  bore  a 
similar  hole.  Bore  a  half-inch  hole 


through  the  first  piece  in  the  centre 
of  the  shallow  hole,  and  through 
the  second  piece  bore  two  three- 
sixteenth  inch  holes;  one  straight 
through  the  centre,  and  one  oblique- 
ly downward  just  below  it,  but  open- 


Fig.  2.  Manometric  Flames. 


ing  into  the  shallow  hole.  Fit 
short  glass  tubes  E  and  C  into  the 
half-inch  hole,  and  the  oblique  three- 
sixteenth  inch  hole,  and  into  the 
other  hole  fit  a  glass  jet,  D  (see 
CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS),  bent  at 
right  angles.  All  the  tubes  can  be 
fitted  by  wrapping  them  in  paper 


coated  with  glue.  Over  the  shallow 
hole  in  A,  glue  a  piece  I,  of  very 
thin  sheet-rubber,  and  then  glue  the 
other  block  to  this,  so  that  the  rub- 
ber separates  the  shallow  holes. 
Remember  that  the  end  of  the  nine- 
inch  piece  with  the  hole  in  it  goes 
to  the  top,  and  that  the  oblique  hole 


MANOMETRIC   FLAME 


483 


MAP   MAKING 


in  the  other  block,  must  point  down- 
ward. Fasten  the  two  blocks  firmly 
together  with  tvtfine.  Secure  the 
nine-inch  piece  to  a  board,  so  that 
it  will  stand  alone.  Attach  to  the 
largest  tube  a  piece  of  large  rubber 
tubing  with  a  paper  cone,  G,  at  the 
end,  like  that  used  in  some  of  the 
experiments  on  SOUND  FIGURES. 

From  a  piece  of  wood  one  foot 
long,  four  inches  wide,  and  quar- 
ter of  an  inch  thick,  cut  a  square, 
with  two  rods,  H  and  K,  projecting 
from  it,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 
On  each  side  of  the  square  fasten  a 
piece  of  thin  silvered  glass  M,  by 
winding  twine  around  the  top  and 
bottom.  Point  the  shorter  rod 
bluntly,  and  with  it  make  a  dent 
for  it  to  be  twirled  in,  in  a  piece  of 
wood,  K,  which  is  glued  on  the  end 
of  a  brick,  L.  Connect  the  oblique 
tube  C  with  a  gas  burner  by  rubber 
tubing.  The  gas  will  enter  one  side 
of  the  box  formed  by  the  shallow 
holes  in  the  blocks,  and,  issuing  at 
the  jet,  may  be  lighted.  Now,  if  a 
note  be  sung  into  the  cone,  the  vi- 
bration of  the  air  on  the  other  side 
of  the  sheet-rubber  will  push  it  in 
and  out,  and  so  make  the  gas-flame 
rise  and  fall.  To  see  it  rise  and  fall, 
however,  the  mirror  must  be  used. 
Hold  the  mirror  by  the  longer  rod, 
and  placing  the  shorter  in  the  dent 
prepared  for  it,  just  in  front  of  the 
flame,  twirl  it  between  the  finger 
and  thumb.  When  no  sound  is 
made,  the  flame  as  seen  in  the  mir- 
ror will  be  drawn  out  into  a  long 
band  of  light.  But  when  a  note  is 
sung  into  the  cone,  this  band  breaks 
up  into  a  row  of  tongues  of  flame, 
snowing  that  the  gas-jet  is  jumping 
up  and  down  very  rapidly.  The 
appearance  of  the  tongues  differs 
with  the  note  sung,  or  the  noise 
made  in  the  cone,  and  many  inter- 
esting experiments  can  be  tried  with 
different  notes  and  sounds.  Fig.  2 
shows  some  of  the  various  appear- 
ances. 

These  flames  are  the  invention 
of  Prof.  Konig,  a  German  scientist, 


and  are  called  "  Manometric,"  from 
the  Greek  manos,  thin,  and  metron, 
measure,  because  the  varying  den- 
sity of  the  air  on  one  side  of  the 
rubber  is,  as  it  were,  measured  by 
the  jumping  up  and  down  of  the 
flame. 

A  simpler  apparatus  than  the 
above,  which  often  gives  good  re- 
sults, is  made  from  a  tin  tube  nar- 
rowed at  one  end,  so  that  by  means 
of  rubber  tubing  a  glass  tube  may 
be  fastened  to  it.  The  end  of  the 
glass  tube,  which  is  drawn  out  to  a 
jet,  is  placed  in  the  middle  of  a  can- 
dle-flame. By  singing  into  the  tube 
and  examining  the  flame  with  a  re- 
volving mirror,  as  before,  the  vibra- 
tions may  be  observed. 

MAP  MAKING.  The  simplest 
kind  of  map  to  make  is  one  of  a 
room,  or  what  is  called  a  "ground 
plan."  The  first  thing  to  decide  on 
is  the  scale,  or  size,  of  the  map. 
This  should  depend  somewhat  on 
the  division  of  the  scale  or  rule 
used.  If  the  inches  are  divided  into 
tenths,  then  five  feet  may  be  repre- 
sented on  paper  by  one  inch,  so  that 
one  foot  would  be  represented  by 
two-tenths  of  an  inch.  But  if  the 
inches  are  divided  into  eighths,  then 
it  would  be  better  to  represent  four 
feet  by  an  inch,  so  that  one  foot 
would  be  represented  in  this  case 
also  by  two  of  the  small  divisions. 
The  simplest  kind  of  a  room  to  map 
is  one  where  all  the  corners  are 
right  angles.  All  that  is  needed  is 
a  "  square  "  or  "  triangle  "  having 
one  right  angle,  so  that  a  "  square 
corner "  can  be  drawn  from  it. 
Begin  at  any  corner  of  the  room, 
measure  to  the  nearest  corner,  and 
then  draw  on  the  paper  a  line  of 
corresponding  length.  Measure  the 
next  side  and  draw  the  next  line  at 
right  angles  to  the  first.  Keep  on 
in  this  way  till  the  starting  point  is 
reached.  If  the  last  angle  does  not 
come  out  a  right  angle,  some  mis- 
take has  been  made. 

If  the  room  has  not  all  its  corners 
right  angles,  as  for  instance  the  one 


MAP   MAKING 


484 


MARBLES 


shown  in  Fig.  i.then  instead  of  meas- 
uring the  line  A  C,  the  dotted  lines 
A  B  and  B  C  must  be  drawn  on  the 
floor,  taking  care  that  B  is  a  right 
angle.  These  are  laid  down  on  the 
map  in  light  pencil  lines,  and  then 


FIG.  i. 

the  points  A  and  C  are  joined,  after 
which  A  B  and  B  C  can  be  rubbed 
out.  D  E  and  D  F  are  used  in  like 
manner.  The  lines  can  be  made  on 
the  floor  with  thread  attached  to 
pins,  or  by  laying  down  sticks. 
Some  rooms  have  curved  walls,  as 


FIG.  2. 

in  Fig.  2.  These  curves  are  almost 
always  parts  of  circles,  and  the  first 
thing  to  do  is  to  find  the  centre  of 
the  circle.  This  is  done  by  taking 
any  two  points,  A  B,  joining  them 
by  a  line,  finding  the  middle  and 
then  drawing  there  a  line  at  right 
ang'es  to  it.  The  same  is  done  with 
two  other  points  C  and  D,  and  the 
point  O,  where  the  two  lines  meet, 
is  the  centre  of  the  circle.  By 
measuring  the  perpendicular  dis- 
tance of  O  from  the  nearest  wall,  its 
place  may  be  found  on  the  chart, 
and  then  by  using  a  pair  of  com- 
passes the  circular  part  of  the  wall 
can  easily  be  drawn. 

To  draw  the  plan  of  a  whole 
house  the  same  method  is  followed. 
In  drawing  the  plan  of  a  piece  of 
ground  in  the  same  way,  the  plot, 
if  irregular,  should  be  inclosed  as 


nearly  as  possible  by  straight  lines 
at  right  angles,  and  by  parts  of 
circles.  When  these  have  been 


FIG.  3. 

mapped,  as  in  Fig.  3,  the  irregular 
lines  may  be  drawn  by  the  eye. 

MARBLES.  The  manufacture  of 
marbles  is  described  in  C.  C.  T. 
Many  games  are  played  with  them, 
most  of  which  are  variations  of 
those  described  below. 

Ring  Came.  A  ring  is  drawn  on 
hard  ground  with  a  pointed  stick,  or 
on  a  pavement  or  floor  with  chalk, 
and  each  player  places  in  it  one  or 
more  marbles,  as  agreed  before- 
hand. A  line  is  drawn  six  or  seven 
feet  distant,  and  each  player  shoots 
a  marble  from  it  toward  the  ring,  he 
who  comes  nearest  to  the  centre 
being  allowed  the  first  turn.  This 
is  sometimes  called  "lagging." 
The  players  in  turn  now  shoot  at 
the  marbles  in  the  ring,  trying  to 
knock  one  or  more  of  them  out. 
As  long  as  anyone  succeeds,  he  con- 
tinues to  play,  shooting  each  time 
from  the  spot  where  his  own  marble 
rested  after  the  previous  shot.  The 
marbles  he  strikes  out  of  the  ring 
become  his  property  if  the  game  is 
"for  keeps,"  or  "in  earnest,"  but 
are  given  back  to  their  former 
owners  at  the  close,  if  the  game  is 
"  for  fun."  When  a  player  fails  to 
strike  any  marbles  out  of  the  ring, 
he  ceases  to  play,  leaving  his  own 
marble  where  it  lies.  Any  player 
may  shoot  at  another's  marble  left 
thus  outside  the  ring,  instead  of  at 
those  in  the  ring.  A  marble  thus 


MARBLES 


485 


MARBLES 


hit  is  said  to  be  "  killed,"  and  the 
player  who  kills  it  wins  not  only 
that  marble  but  any  that  its  owner 
has  already  won  in  the  game.  If  a 
player's  marble  remain  in  the  ring,  it 
is  "dead"  also,  and  its  owner  must 
place  back  in  the  ring  all  the 
marbles  he  has  won.  The  owner  of 
a  marble  dead  in  either  of  these 
ways  takes  no  further  part  in  the 
game. 

Marbles  are  often  simply  tossed 
by  the  hand,  but  the  proper  way  of 
shooting  is  to  flip  them  from  the 
closed  hand  with  the  thumb.  The 


Manner  of  Shooting. 

second,  third,  and  little  fingers  are 
closed  tightly,  the  thumb  bent,  its 
end  being  caught  under  the  middle 
finger,  and  the  forefinger,  then  bent 
over  so  that  its  tip  touches  the 
thumb.  The  marble  is  placed  on 
the  forefinger  nail,  and  then  by 
straightening  the  thumb  it  can  be 
sent  with  great  accuracy  by  a  skilled 
player.  Sometimes,  when  the  mar 
bles  are  simply  rolled,  instead  of 
being  shot  thus,  if  an  opponent  cries 
"  Knuckle  down  tight !"  the  marble 
must  be  shot  properly,  the  knuckle 
of  the  forefinger  touching  the 
ground.  The  shooter  is  often  al- 
lowed various  privileges  if  he  can 
claim  them  before  his  opponent  for- 
bids him.  Thus,  if  he  say  "  Round- 
ings,"  he  has  the  privilege  of  shoot- 
ing from  any  point  at  the  same  dis- 
tance from  his  mark.  But  if  his  op- 
ponent says  "  Fen  roundings  "  first 
he  cannot  take  the  privilege.  The 
word  "  fen "  which  is  used  in  all 
similar  cases,  is  thought  to  be  a 
corruption  of  "  defend,"  in  the  old 
sense  of  "forbid." 

The  form  of  the  ring,  the  number 
of  marbles  placed  in  it,  and  the  dis- 
tance of  the  starting  line  vary  in 
different  places,  and  the  game  is 


often  given  some  fanciful  name  in 
allusion  to  the  changed  shape  of 
the  ring.  Thus,  forms  of  the  game 
played  in  New  York  City  are  called 
"  In  the  Fat,"  and  "  In  the  Soup." 

Instead  of  starting  from  a  straight 
line,  or  "  offing,"  the  players  some- 
times shoot  from  any  part  of  an 
outer  circle. 

Fortifications,  a  kind  of  marbles 
originally  played  in  France.  The 
ground  is  marked  out  to  represent 
a  fort,  and  the  players  try  to  knock 
the  marbles  fairly  outside  the 
lines.  Each  may  start  from  any 
outside  line,  and  make  his  first  shot 
at  the  marbles  in  the  inside  figure, 
called  the  "fortress."  In  other 
respects  this  is  like  the  Ring  Game. 

Pyramid.  Inside  a  ring  about 
four  feet  in  diameter  are  placed  four 
marbles,  three  closely  together  and 
the  fourth  on  top,  forming  a  pyra- 
mid. Each  player  shoots  from  a 
spot  previously  agreed  upon.  Any 
one  who  hits  the  pyramid  receives 
as  many  marbles  as  he  can  knock 
out  of  the  ring.  Any  one  who  fails 
to  hit  it,  gives  a  marble  to  one  of 
the  players,  who  has  charge  of  the 
ring,  and  is  called  the  banker. 
When  all  the  marbles  aie  gone  from 
the  ring,  another  player  becomes 
banker.  The  banker  must  furnish 
the  four  marbles  which  form  the 
pyramid  at  the  opening  of  each 
game. 

Bridge.  This  is  played  with  a 
board,  through  which  are  cut  sev- 
eral arches,  each  of  which  has  a 
number  over  it.  The  players  take 
turns  in  serving  as  banker,  as  in 
the  last  game.  Each  player  gives 
the  banker  a  marble  before  he 
shoots,  and  the  banker  pays  him 
back  a  number  of  marbles  equal  to 
the  number  over  the  arch  through 
which  he  shoots.  If  he  does  not 
shoot  through  an  arch,  the  player 
gets  nothing,  and  if  he  misses  the 
bridge  altogether,  he  gives  the  bank- 
er another  marble. 

Three  Holes,  a  marble  game 
based  on  somewhat  the  same  prin- 


486 


MATCHES 


ciples  as  GOLF.  It  is  played  in 
many  ways,  but  in  all  three  little 
boles  are  made  in  a  row,  each  about 
two  inches  across  and  one  inch  deep. 
They  may  be  three  or  four  feet  apart, 
or  more,  if  the  players  are  skilful. 
An  "offing,"  or  starting-line,  is 
drawn  about  a  yard  from  the  first 
hole.  The  players  in  turn  shoot 
from  this  line  at  the  first  hole,  and 
when  anyone  has  lodged  his  marble 
in  it,  he  shoots  from  that  hole  either 
at  the  second  or  at  the  marble  of 
any  other  player.  Each  marble  re- 
mains where  it  stops,  till  the  owner's 
next  turn.  Any  one  whose  marble  is 
struck  is  put  out  of  the  game.  When 
the  second  hole  is  made,  the  third 
hole  is  shot  at  from  the  second,  and 
he  who  first  gets  his  marble  into  it 
wins  the  game,  and  takes  all  the  re- 
maining marbles.  But  a  game  may 
be  won  also  by  a  player  who  has 
gained  only  one  hole,  by  striking 
his  opponents  and  putting  them  all 
out. 

Sometimes,  when  a  player  has 
gained  the  first  hole,  he  can  make 
the  others,  in  turn,  place  their 
marbles  in  front  of  that  hole  and 
shoot  at  them  from  the  starting- 
line.  If  he  hit,  the  owner  of  the 
marble  he  hits  is  out  of  the  game, 
and  the  next  in  turn  puts  up  his  to 
be  fired  at.  But  as  soon  as  the 
player  misses  one  of  the  marbles,  his 
turn  comes  to  an  end. 

Sometimes  the  player  is  required 
to  make  the  three  holes,  one  after 
another,  nine  times,  before  he  wins, 
but  he  is  allowed  to  shoot  from  as 
great  a  distance  from  each  hole  as 
he  can  measure  by  stretching  out' 
his  hand,  from  little  finger  to  thumb. 
This  is  called  "  taking  a  span." 

Battle  Game,  an  in-door  game  of 
marbles  played  by  two  persons 
with  equal  numbers  of  marbles, 
representing  the  soldiers.  Players 
sit  on  the  floor,  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  room,  so  that  the  seams  of  the 
carpet  or  joints  in  the  floor  run  from 
right  to  left.  Each  player  places  his 
marbles  as  he  pleases  on  his  own 


side  of  the  seam,  or  line  nearest  the 
middle  between  that  and  the  next 
seam  toward  him,  which  is  called 
his  "dead  line."  One  marble  is 
used  by  both  players  to  shoot  with, 
alternately,  and  the  object  of  each 
is  to  knock  his  opponent's  men  be- 
yond their  dead-line.  Any  man 
driven  beyond  this  line,  either  di- 
rectly by  the  shooter,  or  by  one  of 
his  fellow  soldiers,  is  dead;  and  he 
who  first  "  kills  "  all  his  opponent's 
men  is  the  winner.  The  hand  must 
not  be  advanced  beyond  the  dead- 
line in  shooting.  If  a  player  hit  one 
of  his  own  men  by  accident,  driving 
him  beyond  the  middle  line,  such 
man  becomes  a  prisoner,  and  may  be 
placed  by  the  opponent  as  one  of  his 
own. 

MATCHES,  Experiment  with. 
Place  two  matches  in  the  end  of  a 
small  pasteboard  match-box,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration,  and  a  third 


Experiment  with  a  Match-box. 

between  them.  Light  the  third  one 
in  the  middle,  and  then  ask  the  com- 
pany to  guess  which  of  the  upright 
matches  will  take  fire  first.  All 
guesses  will  be  wrong.  Neither  of 
the  upright  matches  will  take  fire, 
for  when  the  lighted  match  has 
burned  through,  the  others,  acting 


MAY-DAY  SPORTS 


487 


MELTING   ICE 


as  springs,  will  break  it  in  two  and 
throw  it  aside  to  some  distance, 
putting  it  out.  This  experiment 
resembles  that  of  the  TOOTHPICK 
COMB. 

MAY-DAY  SPORTS.  The  chief 
sport  for  May-day  (the  ist.  of  May) 
is  dancing  around  the  May-pole.  A 
pole,  decorated  with  flowers,  may  be 
set  up  on  any  lawn,  but  in  the 
Northern  States,  where  May-day  is 
often  cold  and  cheerless,  a  smaller 
pole  may  be  erected  in  the  house,  by 
fastening  it  to  a  box  or  frame,  like  a 
CHRISTMAS-TREE.  An  even  num- 
ber of  colored  ribbons  may  be  tied 
to  the  top,  each  being  held  at  the 
end  by  a  child.  Half  of  them  hold 
the  ribbons  in  their  right  hands  and 
the  rest  in  their  left.  All  move  for- 
ward, half  going  in  one  direction  and 
half  in  the  other.  First  those  going 
to  the  right  pass  under  the  ribbons, 
and  then  those  going  to  the  left,  so 
that  finally  the  ribbons  are  woven 
around  the  pole. 

At  a  May-day  party,  one  of  the 
girls  should  be  chosen  Queen  of  the 
May,  and  should  then  be  given  con- 
trol of  all  the  games.  She  may 
select  any  number  of  maids  of  honor 
to  assist  her. 

May-Baskets,  little  baskets  of 
flowers  hung  upon  the  door-knobs 
of  friends  by  children  in  New  Eng- 
land. This  must  be  done  silently, 
for  it  is  considered  a  disgrace  to  be 
caught. 

History.  May-games  have  been 
common  from  the  earliest  times. 
The  ancient  Romans  celebrated  a 
festival  of  the  kind  called  Floralia, 
in  honor  of  Flora,  the  goddess  of 
flowers.  In  England  the  Druids 
were  accustomed  to  light  bonfires 
on  the  hills  on  May-day  to  welcome 
the  spring.  On  the  eve  of  the  day 
the  young  men  of  each  village,  both 
in  England  and  on  the  Continent, 
went  to  the  woods  and  cut  a  May- 
pole, which  was  decorated  and  set 
up  in  some  open  place,  and  on  the 
following  day  all  the  people  danced 
about  it.  Many  of  our  singing 


games  are  thought  to  be  derived 
from  this  dance  about  the  May- 
pole. It  was  also  customary  to 
choose  the  prettiest  maiden  or  the 
village  as  queen  of  the  May.  Early 
on  May-day  morning  young  men 
brought  bouquets  or  boughs  laden 
with  blossoms,  and  placed  them  at 
some  girl's  door  or  under  her 
window.  These  were  called  in 
England  May-buskets  (bushes),  of 
which  our  word  May-baskets  is  prob- 
ably a  corruption.  May  games 
were  forbidden  in  England  in  Puri- 
tan times,  but  many  of  the  customs 
connected  with  them  survived  and 
were  brought  to  this  country  by  the 
earliest  settlers.  They  are  not  ob- 
served to-day  as  much  as  they  were 
fifty  years  ago,  but  in  New  England 
the  hanging  of  May-baskets  is  still 
common,  and  May-poles  are  now 
and  then  put  up  in  various  parts  of 
the  country.  Many  are  to  be  seen 
in  Central  Park,  New  York,  every 
May-day,  set  up  by  the  school- 
children, who  march  thither  with 
them  in  procession  through  the 
streets.  In  some  parts  of  France  a 
procession  of  young  girls,  dressed  in 
white,  is  formed  on  May-day.  At 
their  head  is  the  prettiest,  with  a 
white  veil,  a  crown  of  flowers,  and 
a  candle  in  her  hand.  They  go  from 
door  to  door,  singing  and  asking 
from  every  one  a  contribution  for 
the  adornment  of  the  church  altar. 
Similar  processions  are  also  to  be 
seen  in  other  European  countries. 
In  Cornwall,  England,  a  miniature 
ship,  decorated  with  flowers,  is 
borne  about. 

MELTING  ICE,  Experiments  on, 
i.  Put  lumps  of  ice  into  a  pail 
of  water,  and,  after  stirring  for  a 
time,  take  the  temperature  of  the 
water  with  a  thermometer.  It  will 
be  found  to  be  at  the  freezing  point. 
Put  the  pail  over  a  fire,  and  con- 
tinually stir  the  contents.  Before 
the  ice  has  melted,  test  the  temper- 
ature again,  and  it  will  be  found 
still  at  the  freezing  point.  The 
reason  is,  that  all  the  heat  of  the  fire 


MENAGERIE 


488 


MENAGERIE 


goes  to  melt  the  ice,  and  does  not 
begin  to  make  the  water  hotter  till 
all  the  ice  is  melted. 

2.  Mix  warm  and  cold  water  to- 
gether till  it  has  exactly  the  temper- 
ature of  176°  Fahrenheit.  Weigh  a 
lump  of  ice,  and  put  exactly  the 
same  weight  of  the  water  into  a 
pail.  Crack  the  ice  into  small  bits 
and  put  it  into  the  water.  When  it 
is  all  melted  the  water  will  be  at  the 
freezing  point.  The  experiment 
will  not  succeed  exactly  unless  the 
pail  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  for 
otherwise  the  heat  of  the  room  will 
affect  the  water.  A  good  plan  is  to 
arrange  the  pail  as  described  in  CON- 
DUCTION OF  HEAT. 

MENAGERIE,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons,  each  of 
whom  has  a  full  pack  of  cards  and 
takes  the  name  of  an  animal,  reptile 
or  bird.  Each  player  shuffles  Iris 
pack  and  then  places  it  face  down- 
ward before  him.  The  first  player, 
(who  is  selected  in  any  way  the 
company  choose)  then  takes  his 
top  card  and  places  it,  face  upward, 
where  all  may  see  it.  Each  in  turn, 
toward  the  left,  does  the  same,  and 
on  the  second  and  succeeding 
rounds  the  card  that  each  turns  is 
placed  on  the  first,  forming  a 
second  pile  of  cards  for  each  player. 
When  any  one  turns  over  a  card 
that  is  the  same  as  any  other  on  the 
table  that  he  can  see,  he  must  call 
out  the  assumed  name  of  its  owner, 
and  its  owner  must  call  out  his 
assumed  name.  Whichever  does 
so  first  must  give  the  other  all  of 
his  cards  that  are  face-upward.  He 
who  first  gets  rid  of  all  his  cards  wins, 
but  the  game  may  be  continued  till 
one  of  the  players  is  left  with  all  the 
cards  on  the  table.  Instead  of  names 
of  animals,  any  others  may  be  chosen 
that  the  company  agree  upon,  and 
if  they  are  long  and  hard  to  remem- 
ber, the  game  is  more  amusing. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

i.  In  turning  the  cards,  each 
player  must  turn  the  face  from  him 
and  not  toward  him. 


2.  Any  dispute,  as  to  which  player 
speaks  first,  shall  be  decided  by  vote 
of  the  players. 

3.  When  a  player  has  turned  over 
the  last  card  of  his  pile,  so  that  all 
his  cards  are  face  upward,  he   must 
turn  the  pack  face  downward  and 
proceed  as  before. 

MENAGERIE,  a  trick  in  the  form 
of  a  game.  Those  who  have  played 
the  game  before  are  taken  into 
another  room  to  represent  the 
menagerie,  while  those  who  are  ig- 
norant of  it  remain  as  spectators. 
One  of  the  former,  chosen  as  exhib- 
itor, calls  the  spectators,  one  by  one, 
into  the  exhibition  room,  asking 
each  as  he  does  so  what  animal  he 
prefers  to  see  first.  The  spectator 
is  led  up  to  what  looks  like  a  cage, 
but  when  a  cloth  is  removed  he 
finds  himself  looking  at  his  own  face 
in  a  mirror.  Each  spectator  re- 
mains in  the  exhibition  room  to 
laugh  at  those  who  follow.  The 
cage  can  be  made  of  chairs  covered 
with  a  table-cloth  or  shawl,  and  the 
mirror  should  be  placed  at  one  end 
so  that  it  looks,  when  properly 
draped,  like  a  sort  of  window. 

Another  way  to  play  the  game  is 
to  arrange  a  box  about  two  feet 
square,  and  from  four  to  six  feet 
long,  open  at  both  ends,  but  having 
a  sliding  door  in  the  middle.  The 
whole  is  draped  with  cloth.  Two 
spectators  are  admitted  at  a  time, 
and  after  each  has  told  what  animal 
he  wishes  to  see,  one  is  told  to  look 
in  at  one  end  of  the  den  and  the 
other  at  the  other.  The  sliding 
door  is  then  raised  and  each  finds 
himself  gazing  into  the  other's  face. 
When  no  box  has  been  prepared, 
a  piano,  arranged  as  for  a  KALEID- 
OSCOPE, may  be  used  instead,  the 
sliding  door  being  dispensed  with; 
but  in  this  case  it  must  be  ar- 
ranged to  have  the  two  spectators 
look  into  the  den  at  exactly  the 
same  time  or  the  trick  will  fail. 

MENTAL  PHOTOGRAPHS,  a 
game  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons with  pencil  and  paper.  A  list 
of  questions  is  first  agreed  upon  as  to 


MENTAL   PHOTOGRAPHS 


489 


MERCURY   BUBBLES 


the  likes  and  dislikes  of  the  person 
addressed,  such  as  "  What  is  your  fa- 
vorite color  ?"  "  Who  is  your  favor- 
ite historical  character?"  and  so  on. 
One  of  the  players,  who  acts  as  lead- 
er, then  reads  the  questions  aloud, 
one  by  one,  and  the  others  answer 
them  on  paper,  numbering  the  re- 
plies to  correspond  with  the  ques- 
tions The  papers  containing  the 
answers  are  then  given  to  the  leader, 
who  reads  one  at  a  time  in  connec- 
tion with  the  questions.  The  play- 
ers try  to  guess,  from  the  kind  of 
answers  given,  who  the  writer  is. 
Of  course  the  writer  must  try  to  an- 
swer the  questions  honestly,  or  else 
there  will  be  no  use  in  guessing  from 
the  answers  who  he  is.  Sometimes 
"  Mental  Photograph  Albums,"  with 
printed  questions,  are  kept  by  people 
who  wish  to  record  thus  the  feelings 
of  their  friends.  Such  albums  were 
very  popular  at  one  time. 

The  questions  should  be  agreed 
upon  by  the  company,  and  varied  to 
suit  the  tastes  or  ages  of  the  players. 
A  sample-list  is  given  below  : 

1.  What  virtue  do  you  most  ad- 
mire? 

2.  What  vice  do  you  most  abhor  ? 

3.  Who   is   your    favorite    prose 
author? 

4.  Who  is  your  favorite  poet  ? 

5.  What  is  your  favorite  novel  ? 

6.  What  is  your  favorite  game  ? 

7.  In  what  are  you  most  extrava- 
gant? 

8.  How  do  you   prefer  to    save 
money? 

9.  What  do  you  think  the  pleas- 
antest  season  ? 

10.  What  is  your  favorite  picture  ? 

11.  What  is  your  favorite  statue? 

12.  What  is  your  favorite  flower? 

13.  What  is  your  aim  in  life  ? 

14.  What  is  the  sweetest  word  ? 

15.  What  is  the  saddest? 

1 6.  What  is  your  favorite   man's 
name  ? 

17.  What  is  your  favorite  woman's 
name  ? 

1 8.  What  is  your  greatest  fault  ? 

19.  What  do  you  most  desire  ? 
Another  way  of  playing  the  game 


is  to  have  several  written  or  printed 
sets  of  answers  to  questions  such  as 
those  given  above.  These  sets  are 
numbered,  and  are  held  by  the  one 
who  asks  the  questions.  Each 
player  in  answer  to  one  of  the  quer- 
ies gives  a  number  at  random,  and 
the  leader  then  reads  the  corre- 
sponding reply.  This  form  of  game 
is  called  in  Germany  Die  Beichte 
(The  Confession). 

MERCHANTS,  THE,  a  game  in 
which  the  players  personate  mer- 
chants, and  each  guesses,  from  his 
country  and  the  initial  letter  of  the 
article,  what  his  neighbor  has  for 
sale.  The  players  being  seated  in 
line,  the  one  at  the  end  begins,  for 
instance:  "I  am  an  English  mer- 
chant, and  I  sell  C— ."  The  next  in 
line  must  supply  the  article,  which 
may  be  carpets,  china,  cheese,  cloth- 
ing, or  any  production  of  England, 
but  must  be  nothing  not  made  or 
grown  there,  like  coffee  or  cinna- 
mon. Any  one  who  violates  this 
rule  must  pay  a  forfeit,  and  his 
turn  passes  to  the  next.  Whoever 
names  a  correct  article  then  an- 
nounces in  like  manner  his  own 
country  and  the  first  letter  of  what 
he  sells,  and  the  game  goes  on  thus, 
as  long  as  the  players  choose.  It 
should  be  played  mpidly. 

MERCURY-BUBBLES.  Pour  into 
a  large  tumbler  a  layer  of  mercury 
about  half  an  inch  thick,  and  place 
it  under  a  water  faucet,  from  which 
water  issues  at 
high  pressure. 
The  glass  first 
fills,  and  then 
little  balls  of 
mercury  are 
seen  floating 
about  in  it. 
These  balls  are 
bubbles  of  mer- 
cury, filled  with 
water,  which 
has  been  car- 
ried down  by 
the  force  of  the  jet,  and  float  in  the 
water  as  soap-bubbles  do  in  air.  For 
the  success  of  the  experiment  it  is 


Mercury  Bubbles. 


MERCURY    FOUNTAIN 


49° 


MICROPHONE 


necessary  that  the  water  should 
issue  from  the  faucet  with  force 
enough  to  carry  it  down  to  the  mer- 
cury through  the  water  in  the  tum- 
bler. 

Bubbles  can  also  be  blown  on  the 
surface  of  mercury  under  water  by 
blowing  through  a  glass  tube  filled 
with  water,  whose  end  is  just  under 
the  mercury  surface. 

MERCURY  FOUNTAIN.  Provide  a 
bottle  with  a  rubber  stopper  having 
two  holes  (see  CHEMICAL  EXPERI- 
MENTS). Through  one  of  the  holes 
pass  a  glass  tube  bent  into  U  shape 
at  its  lower  end,  and  through  the 
other  a  glass  tube  having  its  upper 
end  drawn  out  to  a  jet.  Fill  the 
bottle  with  water,  and,  placing  the 
finger  over  the  jet,  pour  mercury 
into  the  other  tube.  When  the  fin- 
ger is  removed,  the  weight  of  the 
mercury  will  force  the  water  out  of 
the  jet  in  a  stream.  Six  inches  of 
mercury  in  the  tube  will  raise  the 
water  to  a  height  of  several  feet. 

MERELLES.  See  NINE  MEN'S 
MORRIS. 

MESMERISM,  atrick  in  which  one 
person  pretends  to  mesmerize  an- 
other. The  one  to  be  mesmerized, 
called  the  "subject,"  who  must  be 
unacquainted  with  the  trick,  is  told 
to  sit  opposite  the  operator,  who 
calls  for  two  soup-plates  filled  with 
water.  By  previous  arrangement, 
the  bottom  of  one  has  been  black- 
ened by  holding  it  over  a  candle, 
and  this  one  is  given  to  the  subject. 
The  latter  is  directed  to  fix  his  eyes 
steadily  on  the  operator's  face, 
and  to  imitate  every  motion  as  ex- 
actly as  possible.  The  operator 
then  dips  his  finger  in  the  water  in 
his  plate,  rubs  it  on  the  bottom,  and 
then  draws  a  line  on  his  face. 
The  subject  does  the  same,  except 
that  as  the  bottom  of  his  plate  is 
blackened,  he  thus  makes  a  black 
mark  on  his  face.  As  his  eyes  are 
fixed  on  the  operator's  face,  he 
does  not  percieve  that  his  finger- 
tip is  black.  When  the  operator 
has  thus  caused  him  to  decorate 


his  face  as  much  as  he  chooses,  he 
tells  the  subject  that  his  will  must 
be  very  strong,  as  he  finds  it  impos- 
sible to  place  him  under  the  mes- 
meric influence.  The  subject  may 
then  be  shown  his  face  in  a  mirror. 

A  variation  of  this  trick  is  called 
in  France  Le  Singe  (The  Monkey). 
The  one  who  represents  the  monkey 
sits  opposite  another  person  andeach 
is  given  a  hat  but  the  monkey's 
hat  has  been  previously  blackened 
on  top.  The  monkey  is  told,  as  in 
the  trick  just  described,  that  he  must 
imitate  all  the  motions  of  the  one 
opposite,  who  from  time  to  time 
rubs  his  face  with  his  hat.  In  this 
trick  there  is  no  pretense  of  mes- 
merism, but  the  victim  is  told  that 
the  motions  he  is  required  to  imitate 
are  very  difficult,  and  that  he  who 
succeeds  in  doing  so  perfectly  will 
win  the  game.' 

MICROPHONE,  a  device  for  mak- 
ing very  low  sounds  audible  at  a 
distance.  A  si  tuple  one  can  be  made 
by  any  one  who  possesses  an  ELEC- 
TRIC BATTERY  and  a  telephone. 

Cut  off  two  pieces  of  lead-pencil 
in  which  the  lead  is  as  large  as  pos- 
sible, one  two  inches  long  and  the 
other   half  an   inch.      Sharpen  the 
tirst  at  both  ends,  and  split  the  other 
lengthwise,  so  that  half  the  lead  will 
be  in  each  piece.     Make  a  little  pit 
with  a  sharp  knife  in  each  lead,  stick 
i  the  short  pieces  of  pencil  in  holes 
j  in   a   board   two   inches  apart,  and 
I  support    the    long    piece    between 
them,  each  of  its  points  resting  in 
one  of  the  little  pits  ;  insert  a  copper 
wire  in  each  of  the  holes  from  the 
j  opposite  sides,  so  that  each  may  be 
in  contact  with  one  of  the  short  leads 
j  One  of  these  wires  leads  to  one  pole 
;  of  the  battery,  and  the  other,  after 
:  passing  through  a  telephone,  to  the 
i  other   pole.      The    board     bearing 
j  the  pencils  is  fastened  upright.     If 
now  the  telephone  be  held  to  the 
ear  while   some  one  scratches  the 
board     bearing     the    pencils,     the 
scratch  will  be  plainly  heard   in  the 
telephone.     In  like  manner  other 


MILK-LAMP 


49 I 


MIND-READING 


slight  noises  will  be  reproduced,  such 
as  the  ticking  of  a  watch  held  against 
the  board.  In  delicate  forms  of  the 
instrument  the  footsteps  of  a  fly 


walking  across  the  board  can  be 
heard.  The  microphone  will  work 
better  if,  instead  of  lead-pencil, 


pieces    of   gas  carbon   be  arranged 


Microphone. 


in  the  same  way.  Gas  carbon  can 
be  obtained  at  gas-works,  or  of  a 
dealer  in  electrical  supplies,  as  it  is 
used  in  electric  lights. 

The  reason  why  the  sound  is 
magnified  in  the  telephone  is  this  : 
The  "  lead  "  in  a  pencil  (which  is 
really  not  lead  at  all,  but  graphite), 
is  a  substance  whose  resistance  to 
the  electric  current  varies  greatly 
with  pressure.  Scratching  on  the 
board,  or  making  any  other  slight 
noise,  joggles  the  pieces  of  lead- 
pencil.  They  push  against  each 
other,  their  resistance  is  altered,  and 
hence  the  current  passing  through 
the  telephone  varies.  Now,  a  vari- 
able current  in  a  telephone  produces 
a  sound  (see  C.  C.  T.,  TELEPHONE) 
hence  the  noise  made  on  the  board 
is  reproduced. 

The  word  microphone  is  from 
the  Greek  micros,  small,  9&A phoneint 
to  hear. 

MILK-LAMP,  THE.  Admit  a  sin- 
gle ray  of  light  intoa  darkened  room, 
as  explained  under  PRISM,  and  with 
a  mirror  reflect  the  beam  down  into 
a  tumbler  of  water  with  which  a  few 
teaspoon fuls  of  milk  have  been 
mixed.  The  milk  will  shine  with  a 
brilliant  white  light,  lighting  the 
whole  room. 

MIND-READING,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  one 
of  whom  leaves  the  room,  while 
the  others  agree  on  some  simple 
thing  for  him  to  do.  The  player 


without  is  then  called  in,  and  one 
of  the  company  takes  him  by  the 
hand,  at  the  same  time  thinking  in- 
tently of  the  thing  agreed  upon. 
He  must  not  move  unless  the  first 
player  moves.  The  player  who 
went  out  must  keep  his  mind  quiet, 
trying  to  think  of  nothing  in  particu- 
lar, moving  in  any  direction  he  feels 
impelled  to  move,  and  doing  what- 
ever he  feels  impelled  to  do.  The 
player  will  often  do  the  very  thing 
which  he  was  required  by  the  com- 
pany to  do. 

People  are  not  agreed  as  to  the 
reason  for  this.  Some  think  that 
the  player's  mind  is  really  influenced 
by  that  of  the  one  who  holds  his 
hand,  others  that  success  is  reached 
by  mere  chance,  and  others  still  that 
the  player  who  has  his  mind  fixed 
on  the  required  act  thinks  of  it  so 
strongly  that  he  cannot  help  show- 
ing the  other,  by  unconscious  mus- 
cular movements,  what  is  to  be 
done.  It  is  generally  found  that 
certain  players  succeed  better  when 
they  are  leaders,  and  others  when 
they  -are  led.  Instead  of  merely 
taking  hands,  the  player  who  goes 
out  often  holds  the  back  of  the 
other's  hand  against  his  forehead. 
Sometimes  the  one  who  goes  out 
hold's  no  one's  hand  at  all,  but  the 
entire  company  think  very  earnestly 
of  what  they  have  agreed  he  shall  do. 

Exhibitions  of  mind-reading  ire 
sometimes  given  in  public  by  men 


MIRRORS 


492 


MISS  JENNIA  JONES 


who  make  it  a  business,  and  they  do 
many  wonderful  things;  but  in  such 
cases  it  is  hard  to  tell  whether  the 
performers  are  honest  in  what  they 
do,  or  deceive  the  spectators  by 
some  trick.  A  society  has  been 
formed  in  England  to  investigate 
mind-reading  and  similar  things 
scientifically,  and  its  reports  say 
that  it  has  discovered  people  who 
are  remarkable  mind-readers.  For 
instance,  it  is  claimed  that  one  per- 
son was  able  to  tell  the  taste  of 
different  substances  placed  in 
another  person's  mouth,  and  to 
draw  figures  thought  of  by  other 
people.  There  are  still  many  people, 
however,  who  think  that  there  is  no 
such  tiling  as  mind-reading,  and 
that  these  results  were  produced  by 
chance  or  deception.  However  this 
may  be,  mind-reading,  when  played 
as  a  game,  as  just  described,  fur- 
nishes much  amusement.  The  tasks 
agreed  upon  should  be  very  simple 
at  first.  For  instance,  the  player 
may  be  required  to  go  and  stand 
before  some  article  or  person  in  the 
room.  When  some  one  is  found 
who  seems  to  be  able  to  do  this 
well,  the  difficulty  may  be  increased  ; 
thus  he  may  be  required  to  walk  up 
to  any  object  and  lift  it,  to  a  chair 
and  sit  in  it,  or  to  a  person  and 
shake  hands  with  him. 

MIRRORS,  Experiments  with. 
Some  of  the  properties  of  mirrors 
are  described  in  C.  C.  T.,  in  the 
article  on  LIGHT. 

1.  Stand     between    two     mirrors 
which  face  each  other  directly.     A 
long  line  of  images  of  yourself  will 
be  seen,  the  farthest  ones  vanishing 
in   the   distance.       If   a   candle   or 
other  bright  object  be  held   in  the 
hand,  the  number  of  images  which 
can  be  traced  is  much  larger. 

2.  Place  two  small   mirrors  edge 
to  edge,  and  open  and  shut   them, 
like  the  leaves  of  a  book,  the  reflect- 
ing   sides     being     within.      Place 
between   them  a  lighted  candle,  or 
some   other   bright   object,   and  its 
images  will  increase  in  number  as 


the  mirrors  shut  together,  and  lessen 
as  they  open.  (See  KALEIDO- 
SCOPE.) 

3.  In  a  dark  room  hold  the  hol- 
low side   of  a   bright  silver  table- 
spoon, forming  a  concave   mirror, 
before  the  face  and  a  candle-flame 
between  the  spoon  and  your  eyes. 
A  small  image  of  the  flame,  upside 
down,  will   be  seen   about  half  an 
inch   in  front  of  the  spoon.     Hold 
the  back  of  the  spoon  toward  you, 
forming    a    convex   mirror,   and   a 
small  erect  image  of  the  flame  will 
appear  behind  it. 

4.  Paint  the  outside  of  an  argand 
lamp     chimney    black,    and     look 
through  it,  toward  the  light,  at  a  pin- 
hole    in    a  piece  of  cardboard.     It 
will   appear  as    several    circles    of 
light. 

5.  Hold   a  glass  of  water  above 
the    eyes,    and    look    up     into     it 
through   one  of    the    sides.      The 
reflection  of  objects  below  will  be 
seen  in  the  under  side  of  the  water 
surface. 

6.  Cut  out  a  letter  or  design  from 
thick  paper  and  paste  it  on  a  small 
mirror.      If   letters   are   used   they 
must  be  turned  wrong  side  out,  as 
they  appear  when  viewed  in  a  look- 
ing-glass.    If  the  mirror  be  held  in 
sunlight  so  as  to  reflect  a  beam  on 
a  shaded  wall,  the  letter  or  design 
will  appear  there   in    black    on  a 
light  ground. 

MISS  JENNIA  JONES,  a  singing 
game  played  by  any  number  of 
children.  The  following  is  one  of 
many  similar  versions:  A  girl 
represents  Miss  Jennia  Jones,  and 
another  her  mother.  Miss  Jones 
stands  behind  her  mother's  chair  or 
sits  in  her  lap.  The  other  players 
form  a  ring  around  the  two,  and 
one  by  one  advance  and  sing  a 
verse,  the  mother  answering  in  like 
manner.  The  tune  is  the  same  as 
in  the  "  Barberry  Bush."  For 
instance : 

"  I've  come  to  see  Miss  Jennia  Jones, 
Miss  Jennia  Jones,  Miss  Jennia  Jones, 
I've  come  to  see  Miss  Jennia  Jones 
And  how  is  she  to-day  ?  " 


MIXTURE  OF  LIQUIDS 


493 


MIXTURE  OF  LIQUIDS 


"  She's  up-stairs  washing, 
Washing,  washing, 
She's  up-stairs  washing, 
You  can't  see  her  to-day." 

Each  player  asks  the  same  ques- 
tion, and  the  mother  returns  the 
same  answer,  substituting  in  each 
case  a  different  occupation,  as 
"cooking,"  "  ironing,"  or  "baking." 
At  last  she  is  said  to  be  "  sick," 
then  "  worse,"  and  then  "  dead," 
when  the  players  sing  all  together, 

"  What  shall  we  dress  her  in, 
Dress  her  in,  dress  her  in, 
What  shall  we  dress  her  in, 
Shall  it  be  blue  ? 

"  Blue  is  for  sailors, 
Sailors,  sailors, 
Blue  is  for  sailors, 
So  that  will  never  do." 

Various  other  colors  are  then 
suggested,  and  each  is  rejected  in 
like  manner,  till  white  is  men- 
tioned, which  is  accepted. 

Miss  Jones  is  then  buried,  after 
which  the  players  sing  : 

"  I  dreamt  I  saw  a  ghost  last  night 
Under  the  apple-tree." 

Miss  Jones  jumps  up,  the  players 
run  in  all  directions,  and  she  tries 
to  catch  one,  who  must  represent 
Jennia  Jones  in  the  next  game. 

History.  This  game  has  been 
long  played  in  the  Middle  States. 
A  similar  Scotch  game  has  for  the 
name  of  the  heroine  Jenny  Jo 
(Jenny  Joy,  or  Sweetheart)  so  "Jen- 
nia Jones  "  is  probably  a  corruption 
of  "  Jenny,  my  Jo."  The  game 
seems  to  be  derived  from  an  old 
love  ballad,  where  the  heroine  dies 
of  a  broken  heart.  The  reasons 
given  for  rejecting  the  different 
colors  vary  with  the  locality.  Thus 
red  is  sometimes  said  to  be  "  for 
joy,"  and  sometimes  "  for  firemen." 
Yellow  may  be  "  for  glad  folks,"  or 
"  for  Orangemen,"  and  so  on. 

MIXTURE  OF  LIQUIDS,  Experi- 
ments on;  i.  Put  in  a  bottle  equal 
quantities  of  mercury,  sand,  water, 
and  olive  oil.  When  the  bottle  is 
shaken  they  will  form  a  turbid  mix- 
ture ;  but  when  it  is  allowed  to 
stand  a  few  moments,  they  will  sep- 


arate into  four  distinct  layers,  the 
mercury  at  the  bottom,  the  sand 
next,  the  water  next,  and  the  oil  at 
the  top.  They  will  remain  thus,  no 
matter  how  long  the  bottle  is  kept. 
This  arrangement  is  sometimes 
called  the  "phial  of  the  four  ele- 
ments," the  mercury  representing 
fire,  the  sand  earth,  the  water  water, 
and  the  oil  air. 

This  experiment  may  be  varied 
as  follows  :  Use  as  liquids  mercury, 
solutions  of  white  and  blue  vitriol, 
(sulphates  of  zinc  and  copper)  water, 
and  alcohol.  Have  ready  a  leaden 
bullet,  two  balls  of  wax  weighted 
with  shot  so  that  they  will  just  float 
respectively  in  the  white  and  blue 
vitriol,  and  a  cork  weighted  so  that 
it  will  sink  in  alcohol  but  float  in 
water.  Place  these  four  in  the 
bottom  of  a  tall  jar  and  pour  in  the 
liquids  in  the  order  given  above. 
All  the  balls  will  rise  when  the 
mercury  is  poured  in,  and  one  will 
be  left  behind  with  each  of  the 
other  liquids,  so  that  the  balls  will 
be  distributed  throughout  the  jar  at 
the  close.  If  the  lightest  liquids 
are  poured  in  first,  one  ball  will 
rise  as  each  is  introduced.  In  this 
case  each  must  be  poured  in  through 
a  glass  tube,  so  that  it  will  not  mix 
with  the  others.  When  the  glass 
tube  is  pulled  out,  it  should  be  held 
an  instant  in  each  liquid,  so  that 
currents  will  not  be  formed.  The 
liquids  used  in  this  case,  all  but  the 
mercury,  will  mix  with  each  other 
if  stirred,  so  the  phial  cannot  be 
shaken. 

2.  Fill  a  glass  half  full  of  water, 
and  then  make  a  strong  solu- 
tion of  blue  vitriol  in  about  a  quar- 
ter of  a  glass  of  water.  Put  a 
funnel  in  the  glass  of  clear  water, 
the  end  resting  on  the  bottom,  as  in 
the  figure,  and  pour  into  it  quietly 
and  slowly  the  solution  of  blue 
vitriol.  Being  slightly  heavier  than 
pure  water,  it  will  remain  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  glass  if  it  is  kept  still, 
and  by  holding  it  up  to  the  light  the 
line  between  the  blue  liquid  and  the 


MIXTURE  OF  LIQUIDS 


494 


MONETA 


water  will  be  seen  to  be  quite  sharp. 
Let  the  liquids  stand  in  a  still  place 
for  a  week  or  more.  In  a  few  days 
the  line  between  the  two  liquids  will 
become  blurred,  and  after  a  time 
they  will  be  completely  mixed,  the 


blue  liquid,  though  heavier,  having 
crept  up  into  the  water.  This  is  be- 
cause the  particles  of  liquids  are  in 
continual  motion,  even  when  they 
seem  to  us  to  be  still.  The  result  of 
this  motion  is  called  diffusion. 

3.  Color  some  bi-sulphide  of  car- 
bon with  iodine  and  pour  a  few  drops 
into  a  test-tube,  or  bottle  half  full  of 
water.     The  colored  liquid  will  sink 
to  the  bottom.      Leave  the   bottle 
alone  for  a  long  time,  and,  though 
the  liquids  do  not  seem  to  mix,  the 
bi-sulphide  grows  less,  and  finally 
disappears  entirely.     The  odor  near 
the  bottle  shows  that  it  has  evapo- 
rated, though  it  was  under  water. 

4.  Make  some  "  vegetable  parch- 
ment," as  described  in  Experiment 
4,  under  SULPHURIC  ACID,  and  tie 
it  tightly  over  the  large  end  of  an 
argand  lamp  chimney,  so  that  it  will 
hold  water.     Cut  about  two  thirds 
from  the  small  end  (see  CHEMICAL 
EXPERIMENTS,  directions  for  Glass- 
working)  and  fit  it  with  a  stopper  or 
cork  in  which  is  a  glass  tube.     Fill 
the  vessel  thus  formed  with  a  solu- 
tion of  blue  vitriol,  and  press  down 
the  cork  so  that  the  liquid  will  rise 
slightly  in  the  tube.     Suspend  the 
chimney  parchment  end  downward, 


in  a  glass  of  water.  In  an  hour  or 
two  it  will  be  seen  that  the  liquid 
has  risen  in  the  tube.  The  two 
liquids  have  been  mixing  through 
the  parchment,  but  the  water,  since 
it  is  lighter,  has  come  in  faster  than 
the  blue  vitriol  has  gone  out,  so 
there  is  more  liquid  in  the  vessel 
than  there  was  at  first.  The  mix- 
ing of  liquids  through  porous  par- 
titions is  called  Osmose,  from  a 
Greek  word  meaning  "  impulse." 

MONETA,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons  with  a  pack  of 
fifty  cards,  on  which  are  pictures  of 
coins  of  the  United  States.  There 
are  five  each  of  the  one-cent,  two- 
cent,  three-cent,  five-cent,  ten-cent, 
twenty-cent,  twenty-five  cent,  and 
fifty-cent  pieces,  five  silver  dollars, 
and  one  each  of  the  gold  dollar, 
quarter  eagle, three-dollar  piece,  half- 
eagle  and  eagie.  Four  cards  are 
dealt  to  each  player,  and  four  are 
placed  face  upwurd  on  the  table, 
forming  the  Bank.  Beginning  at  the 
dealer's  left,  each  in  turn  may  ex- 
change one  card  at  a  time  for  two 
or  more  of  the  same  value  in  the 
Bank.  Thus,  a  quarter-dollar  may 
be  exchanged  for  two  dimes,  a  three- 
cent  piece,  and  two  cents.  The 
cards  thus  taken  from  the  Bank  are 
placed  by  themselves  to  form  what  is 
called  the  player's  Safety  Fund.  Any 
player,  if  he  can  take  nothing,  may 
"  build''  as  in  the  game  of  CASINOS 
That  is,  he  may  place  a  piece  of 
money  on  another,  or  others  from 
his  hand,  in  the  Bank,  saying"! 
build,"  provided  he  can  take  them 
at  his  next  turn.  Any  succeeding 
player  may  take  the  pile  if  he  can, 
or  add  to  the  build,  but  the  pieces 
cannot  be  taken  separately.  If  a 
player  can  neither  take  nor  build, 
he  must  place  a  card  with  the 
others  in  the  Bank.  Four  more 
cards  are  given  to  each  player  by 
the  dealer  whenever  they  are  need- 
ed. When  all  the  cards  have  been 
used,  if  any  remain  in  the  Bank,  the 
taker  of  the  hist  card  chooses  one. 
the  player  at  his  left  another,  and 


MOON 


495 


MOSAIC 


so  on  till  all  are  gone.  Each  player 
scores  the  money  value  of  the  cards 
in  his  Safety  Fund,  and,  in  addition, 
ten  cents  for  each  card.  Since  each 
card  counts  thus  in  addition  to  its 
face  value,  as  many  cards  as  possible 
should  be  taken ;  thus,  it  is  better 
to  exchange  a  dollar  for  four  quar- 
ters than  for  two  half-dollars. 

MOON,  Observations  on  the,  The 
moon  is  described  in  C.  C.  T.  The 
curious  things  on  its  surface  may  be 
seen  by  any  one  who  has  a  common 
opera-glass.  The  best  time  to  look 
at  the  moon  is  not  when  it  is  full, 
as  people  are  apt  to  suppose,  but 
when  it  is  waxing  or  waning.  The 
part  to  look  at  is  the  line  that  di- 
vides the  bright  from  the  dark  sur- 
face. At  this  line,  it  is  sunrise  on 
the  moon  when  it  is  waxing,  and 
sunset  when  it  is  waning.  Near  it 
the  shadows  are  longer  and  more 
noticeable,  just  as  they  are  on  the 
earth  at  sunrise  or  sunset.  The 
outlines  of  the  lunar  mountains  can 
thus  be  seen  much  more  plainly 
than  when  the  sun  is  shining  down 
full  upon  them,  as  it  is  at  full  moon. 
By  watching  carefully,  the  shadows 
can  be  seen  to  change  as  the  line  of 
sunrise  or  sunset  moves  slowly  over 
the  moon's  surface.  The  principal 
things  to  be  noticed  on  the  bright 
surface  of  the  moon  are  the  dark 
patches,  which  were  formerly 
thought  to  be  seas,  and  the  bright 
streaks  that  run  over  the  surface; 
but  with  an  opera  glass  these  are 
not  nearly  so  interesting  to  watch  as 
sunrise  and  sunset  on  the  lunar 
mountains. 

MURIATIC  ACID,  Experiments 
with.  See  HYDROCHLORIC  ACID. 

MORA,  or  MORRA,  A  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  who  hold 
up  fingers  and  guess  at  the  total 
number.  A  leader  is  appointed, 
who  counts  three,  or  makes  some 
other  signal,  and  at  that  instant 
each  holds  up  as  many  fingers  as  he 
chooses  and  shouts  out  his  guess. 
He  whose  guess  comes  nearest  to 
the  total  number  of  fingers  held  up, 


gains  a  point,  and  he  whose  points 
soonest  amount  to  a  number  pre- 
viously agreed  on,  wins  the  game. 
Every  one  must  make  his  guess  and 
hold  up  his  fingers  at  the  signal,  if 
he  holds  up  any  fingers  at  all ;  but 
any  one  may  guess  and  hold  up  no 
fingers.  No  one  must  change  the 
number  held  up,  and  each  must 
keep  his  hand  raised  till  the  leader 
can  count  the  fingers. 

Mora  is  a  very  ancient  game,  and 
is  played  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
generally  by  only  two  persons.  The 
Romans  called  it  Dtgitis  Mzcare 
(flashing  or  snapping  with  the 
fingers),  and  the  Italian  name  of 
Mora,  or  Morra,  is  said  by  some  to 
be  derived  from  Mtcatura,  another 
form  of  the  Roman  title.  The 
French  call  it  Mourre, 

The  game  is  a  great  favorite  in 
China.  In  the  Friendly  Islands  a 
kind  of  Mora  is  played  called  Liagt, 
The  players  sit  opposite  each  other, 
and  make  signs  with  the  hands  at 
the  same  time.  The  player  whose 
turn  it  is  holds  up  either  his  open 
hand,  his  closed  hand,  or  his  fore- 
finger. His  opponent  does  likewise, 
and  if  he  chance  to  make  the  same 
sign,  it  becomes  his  turn,  and  neither 
gains.  But  if  the  first  player  can 
make  one  or  other  of  the  signs  five 
times  in  succession  without  his  op- 
ponent's doing  the  same,  he  scores 
a  point.  Five  points  win  the  game, 
and  the  score  is  kept  by  throwing 
down  little  sticks  held  in  the  left 
hand. 

MOSAIC,  a  writing  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons.  Each 
writes  a  word  on  a  slip  of  paper,  and 
after  the  slips  are  mixed,  one  of  the 
players  draws  and  reads  them  one 
by  one.  Each  writes  them  down  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  read, 
and  must  then  write  a  story  contain- 
ing the  words  in  that  order.  The 
game  may  be  made  more  difficult 
by  requiring  the  story  to  be  within 
a  specified  length,  or  written  within 
a  certain  time;  and  it  may  be  made 
easier  by  allowing  the  players  to  in- 


MRS.  JARLEY'S  WAX-WORKS      496 


MUGGINS,  OR  SMUT 


troduce  the  words  in  any  order  they 
please. 

MRS.  JARLEY'S  WAX-WORKS,  a 

theatrical  entertainment  suggested 
by  the  character  of  Mrs.  Jarley  and 
her  wax-works,  in  Charles  Dickens's 
story  of  "  The  Old  Curiosity  Shop." 
One  of  the  performers,  dressed  like 
an  old  woman,  takes  the  part  of 
Mrs.  Jarley,  a  little  girl  represents 
Little  Nell,  and  two  boys  act  as  at- 
tendants. The  rest  of  the  perform- 
ers represent  wax  figures,  arranged 
singly,  or  in  groups.  When  Mrs. 
Jarley  wishes  to  exhibit  a  figure,  she 
calls  on  the  attendants  to  bring  it 
forward.  They  stand,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  figure,  double  up  its 
arms  at  the  elbow,  and  then  each, 
placing  his  hands  under  one  of  the 
figure's  elbows,  carry  it  to  the  front 
of  the  stage.  The  figure  must  hold 
its  elbows  stiffly  at  its  side,  but  after 
reaching  the  front,  the  arms  are 
straightened  out  by  the  attendants. 
After  giving  a  comical  description 
of  the  figure,  in  which  Little  Nell 
aids  by  pointing  to  the  various  feat- 
ures with  her  wand,  as  each  is  men- 
tioned, Mrs.  Jarley  orders  one  of 
the  attendants  to  wind  it  up,  which 
he  pretends  to  do,  with  a  large 
imitation  key.  At  the  same  time 
a  person  behind  the  scenes  turns  a 
watchman's  rattle,  to  imitate  the 
sound  of  winding.  The  figure  then 
goes  through  movements,  practised 
beforehand,  and  then  is  set  back  in 
its  place,  as  before,  by  the  attend- 
ants. The  motions  of  each  figure 
must  be  appropriate  to  the  charac- 
ter it  is  supposed  to  represent. 
They  should  be  simple,  and  per- 
formed in  a  series  of  stiff  jerks,  as  if 
worked  by  badly-oiled  machinery. 
The  face  should  be  immovable,  and 
the  can  iage  stiff  and  awkward.  The 
motion  should  grow  slower  toward 
the  end,  as  if  the  machinery  were 
running  down,  and  should  stop 
with  a  jerk  in  the  midst  of  a  move- 
ment. The  attendants  should  then 
bend  the  arms  or  body  back  into  the 
original  position. 


The  attendants  may  have  dust- 
brushes,  and  carefully  dust  the  fig- 
ures before  bringing  them  forward. 
It  adds  to  the  amusement  if  a  care- 
less attendant  overturn  one  of  the 
figures.  The  figure  should  fall  stiffly 
forward,  putting  out  his  hands  just 
before  he  reaches  the  ground.  This 
requires  practice,  but  if  well  done  is 
very  effective.  The  attendants  then 
try  to  lift  him,  one  at  the  head  and 
one  at  the  feet,  when  he  bends  at 
the  waist,  and  has  to  be  straightened 
out  again.  With  a  little  ingenuity, 
many  laughable  variations  may  be 
introduced.  The  figures  should 
practise  their  motions  until  they  are 
perfectly  familiar,  and  they  should 
also  hear  Mrs.  Jarley 's  account  of 
them  several  times  before  the  per- 
formance, otherwise  some  of  the 
jokes,  being  unexpected,  may  cause 
them  to  lose  their  gravity. 

The  stage  should  not  be  crowded 
with  figures,  and  if  there  are  more 
than  can  be  ranged  around  it  at 
once,  there  should  be  more  than 
one  scene.  There  may  thus  be 
shown  a  "  Historical  Chamber,"  a 
"Chamber  of  Horrors,"  a  "Shakes- 
peare Chamber,"  and  so  on,  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  performers. 

MUGGINS,  or  SMUT,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
usually  not  more  than  six,  with  a 
full  pack  of  CARDS.  The  cards  are 
dealt,  one  by  one,  and  each  player 
places  his.  face  downward,  in  a  pile 
before  him,  without  looking  at 
them.  Beginning  at  the  dealer's 
left,  each  one  in  order  then  turns  up 
a  card,  and  places  it  face  upward, 
forming  a  second  pile  for  each  play- 
er, as  the  game  goes  on.  When  an 
Ace  is  turned  up,  it  is  placed  in  the, 
middle,  and  on  each  Ace  the  other 
cards  of  its  suit  must  be  placed  in 
order,  as  they  appear,  ending  with 
the  King.  Any  card  that  cannot  be 
placed  on  one  of  the  middle  piles 
can  be  put  on  any  other  visible  card 
on  the  table  that  is  just  above  it  or 
just  below  it  in  value,  without  re- 
gard to  suit;  thus,  if  a  Ten  is  turned 


MUGGINS,  OR   SMUT 


497 


MUMBLE   THE   PEG 


up,  and  there  is  no  Nine  on  the  top 
of  any  of  the  middle  piles,  it  may 
be  placed  on  a  Nine  or  a  Knave  on 
top  of  any  player's  pile.  So  long  as  a 
player  can  thus  dispose  of  his  cards, 
he  can  continue  to  turn  up ;  but 
when  he  cannot  do  so,  the  turn 
passes  to  the  next.  Each  player's 
object  is  to  get  rid  of  all  his  cards, 
and  the  one  who  does  so  first,  wins, 
if  he  can  sit  till  the  end  of  the  game 
without  being  "  mugginsed."  A 
person  is  said  to  be  "  mugginsed  "  if 
he  breaks  any  of  the  rules  of  the 
game,  when  the  players  cry  "  Mug- 
gins," and  each  gives  him  a  card. 
The  rules  are  very  strict,  and  should 
be  studied  carefully.  They  may  be 
changed,  or  new  ones  may  be  added 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  players.  Much 
of  the  fun  of  the  game  consists  in 
watching  for  some  player  to  break 
one  of  the  rules. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  No  one  must  touch  the  table, 
or  his  cards,  except  when  playing. 

2.  Each  player,  in  turning  a  card, 
must  take  it  with  both  hands  by  the 
corners  farthest  from  him,  and  turn 
it  face  outward. 

3.  As  long  as  he  can  dispose  of 
his  card  by  placing  it  in  the  middle, 
or  on  some  other  player's  pile,  he 
may  continue  to  play  ;  but  when  he 
can  no  longer  do  so,  he  must  place 
his   card   on   the   one   of  his  piles 
which    is    face    upward,    and     say 
"  Stop;"  but  if  a  player  is  mugginsed, 
his  play  ends  at  once. 

4.  A  player  may  not  be  mugginsed 
for  not  saying  "  Stop,"  till  the  next 
one  has  begun  to  play. 

5.  Before  a  player  turns  his  card 
he  must  look  at  the  top  card  of  his 
face-upward  pile,  and  see  whether 
that  can  be  disposed  of.     If  it  can, 
he  must  place  it,  and  then  look  at 
the  one  under  it,  and  so  on  ;  and  in 
no  case  may  a  card  be  turned  over 
before  this  is  done. 

[For  instance,  suppose  A  has  on 
top  of  his  face-upward  pile  a  Knave 
and  under  it  a  Nine.  B's  pile  shows 


a  Knave  on  the  top.  A  looks  first 
at  his  own  Knave,  and,  seeing  that 
it  cannot  be  played,  turns  up  a  card, 
which  proves  to  be  a  Queen.  He 
places  this  on  B's  Knave,  and  must 
then  place  on  it  his  own  Knave  be- 
fore turning  another  card.  The 
Nine  which  is  thus  exposed  cannot 
be  played, so  he  turns  up  another 
card,  which  we  will  suppose  to  be  a 
Ten.  He  places  this  on  B's  Knave, 
and  then  puts  on  his  nine  before 
turning  again.  If  he  turns  up  a  card 
that  cannot  be  played,  he  must  lay 
it  down,  saying  "  Stop."] 

6.  If  a  card  can  be  played  either 
in  the  middle  of  the  table  or  on  a 
player's  pile,  it  must  go  in  the  mid- 
dle ;  and  if  it  can  be  put  on  any  one 
of   two   or   more   players'   piles,   it 
must  go  on  the  one  that  is  first  met 
in  moving  to  the  left  around  the 
table. 

7.  When  a  player's  cards  are  all 
face  upwards,  he  must  turn  the  pile 
over  (saying  "  Flop  "  as  he  does  so) 
and  begin  again. 

8.  When   a   player  comes  to  his 
last  card  he  must,  before  playing  it, 
turn  it  over  three  times  in  the  air, 
saying  "  Muggins  "  each  time,  then 
blow    it   thrice   and    snap   it  once. 
When  it  has  been  played,  he  must 
not  utter  a  sound  during  the  rest  of 
the  game.     If  he  does,  he  is  "  mug- 
ginsed," receives  a  card  from  each 
player,  and  enters  the  game  again. 
The  other  players  may  do  what  they 
choose  (without  touching  him)   to 
make  him  speak  or  laugh  aloud. 

9.  In   giving  a  card  to  a  "  mug- 
ginsed "    player,     each    shall    draw 
such  card  from  the  bottom  of  his 
back-upward    pile,   and    the    mug- 
ginsed player  shall  place  them  un- 
der his  own  pile. 

The  game  is  sometimes  called 
Smut,  from  the  old  custom  of  black- 
ening the  face  of  the  last  player  to 
get  rid  of  his  cards. 

MULBERRY  BUSH.  See  BAR- 
BERRY BUSH. 

MUMBLE  THE  PEG  (corrupted 
into  Mumbledypeg),  the  name  of 


MUMBLE  THE   PEG 


498 


MUMBLE   THE   PEG 


two  different  games.  I.  An  out- 
door game  played  by  a  number  of 
players  usually  not  exceeding  four, 
each  with  a  stick  of  wood  about 
eighteen  inches  long  and  two  or 
three  inches  thick,  pointed  at  one 
end,  called  a  peg.  Each  player,  in 
an  order  which  is  decided  before 
the  game  begins,  throws  his  peg  so 
that  it  may  stick  in  the  ground.  He 
has  bui  one  throw  at  a  time,  whether 
he  succeeds  or  not,  and  in  either 
case  his  peg  remains  where  it  sticks, 
or  lies,  till  his  next  turn.  Any 
player,  in  making  his  throw,  may  try, 
in  doing  so,  to  knock  the  peg  of 
another  player  out  of  the  ground,  or 
to  move  any  peg  that  is  lying  on  the 
ground.  If  he  succeed  in  doing 
either  of  these,  and  at  the  same  time 
put  his  own  peg  into  the  ground,  he 
must  knock  the  peg  so  overturned 
or  moved  as  far  as  he  can  with  his 
own  peg,  and  then  try  to  stick  his 
own  peg  into  the  ground  three  times 
before  the  owner  of  the  other  can 
do  so  once.  If  he  succeed,  the  owner 
of  the  other  peg  is  out  of  the  game  ; 
if  not,  that  owner  holds  his  peg  in 
his  hand  till  his  next  turn.  The 
game  goes  on  till  only  one  player  is 
left,  who  is  the  winner. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  A  peg  shall  be  judged  to  be  in 
the  ground  when  any  other  peg  can 
be  placed  under  it  without  touching 
it. 

2.  When  a  peg  is  thrown,  it  shall 
touch  no  other  before  leaving  the 
player's   hand.     This  game  is  very 
old.     The  Greeks  played  it,  calling 
it   Kandalimos.     In    England    it    is 
known    as    Loggats ;    in    France  as 
Riding  to  Rome,  and  in   Germany 
each  locality  has  a  different  name 
for    it.     The  Swiss  call  it  Hornig- 
geln  (probably  The  Horn  Yell),  the 
Austrians    Schmerpecken    (probably 
Greasy  Sticks),  the  Suabians  Stockles 
(Little  Sticks),  and   the  Bavarians 
Pickeln  (Picking). 

A  game  somewhat  like  it  is  played 
on  horseback  by  the  Turcomans  and 


other  tribes,  in  Central  Asia  and 
India.  The  Oriental  name  is  Neze 
Baze,  and  the  English  call  it  Tent 
Pegging.  A  peg  like  those  used  in 
fastening  tents  is  driven  into  the 
ground,  and  the  players  in  order  try 
to  knock  it  out  with  their  lances  as 
they  ride  past.  ' 

II.  A  game  played  by  any  num- 
ber of  persons,  each  with  a  pocket- 
knife,  one  of  whose  blades  is  open. 
Each  player,  in  turn,  tries  to  throw 
his  knife  so  that  it  will  stick  in  the 
ground  or  the  floor.  Any  one  who 
does  not  succeed  in  three  trials  is 
out  of  the  game.  Any  knife  shall 
be  judged  to  be  in  the  ground  when 
the  handle  of  another  knife  may  be 
held  under  it  without  touching  it. 
When  all  have  tried,  holding  the 
knife  in  one  wav,  another  way  is 
tried,  and  so  on,  till  only  one  player 
is  left,  who  is  the  winner.  The  ways 
of  throwing  the  knife,  and  the  order 
in  which  they  come,  are  different  in 
different  places.  The  following  or- 
der, or  something  like  it,  is  com- 
mon : 

I.  The  knife  is  held  by  the  handle 
and  thrown  as  in  Fig.  i. 


Fig.  i. 

2.  The  same,  holding  the  knife 
by  the  blade. 

3  and  4.  The  same,  with  the  left 
hand. 

5,  6,  7,  and  8.  The  four  preceding, 
making  the  knife  turn  a  complete 
somersault  before  striking  the 
ground. 

9.  The  knife  is  laid  lengthwise  on 


MUSICAL 


499 


MUSICAL   GLASSES 


the  palm  of  the  right  hand,  with  the 
blade  pointing  outward. 

10:  Same,  with  the  blade  inward. 

II  and  12.  Same,  with  knife  held 
across  the  palm,  the  blade  pointing 
first  to  the  right  and  tiien  to  the 
left. 

13-16.  The  four  preceding,  with 
the  left  hand. 

17-24.  The  eight  preceding,  mak- 
ing the  knife  turn  over  before  strik- 
ing. 

25.  Place  the  point  on  the  knee, 
and  throw  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 


Fig.  2. 

26.  The  same,  with  the  handle  on 
the  knee. 

27  and  28.  The  two  preceding, 
with  the  left  hand  and  knee. 

These  are  all  sometimes  repeated 
with  the  blade  at  right  angles  with 
the  handle. 

These  two  games  derive  their 
names  from  the  custom,  still  some- 
times followed,  of  making  the  loser 
in  each  pull  out  with  his  teeth  a 
small  peg,  which  is  so  driven  into 
the  ground  by  the  winner  that  the 
end  is  level  with  the  surface. 

MUSICAL,  a  SOLITAIRE  game  of 
CARDS,  played  with  one  full  pack. 
An  Ace,  Two,  Three,  and  Four  of 
any  suit  are  placed  in  a  line,  and 
under  them,  respectively,  a  Two, 
Four,  Six,  and  Eight,  thus : 


1234 
2468 

In  playing,  any  card  may  be  placed 
on  one  of  the  lower  line,  if  the  num- 
ber of  the  former's  pips  is  the  sum 
of  those  on  the  card  it  is  placed  on 
and  the  one  just  above;  thus,  a  Three 
may  be  placed  on  the  Two,  or  a  Nine 
on  the  Six.  The  Knaves  count  as 
1 1,  the  Queens  as  12,  and  the  Kings 
as  13.  If  the  sum  of  the  two  cards 
exceeds  13,  the  excess  only  is 
counted  ;  thus,  Queen  and  Four,  in- 
stead of  being  16,  counts  only  as  3. 
Any  card  that  cannot  be  used  is 
placed  aside  to  form  Stock,  and  the 
top  card  of  the  Stock  can  be  used 
at  any  time.  The  Stock  can  be 
twice  shuffled,  and  played  again.  To 
win,  all  the  cards  must  be  placed  on 
the  piles,  when  the  top  cards  in  the 
lower  row  will  all  be  Kings.  This 
game  is  entirely  one  of  chance,  and  is 
not  often  played  successfully.  It  is 
called  Musical  because  the  cards  are 
laid  out  in  two  scales  of  numbers. 

MUSICAL  FRIGHT.  See  GOING 
TO  JERUSALEM. 

MUSICAL  GLASSES.  If  the  mois- 
tened finger  be  rubbed  around  the 
edge  of  a  glass  finger-bowl  or  an  or- 
dinary goblet  of  thin  glass  as  in  the 
illustration,  a  clear  musical  sound 
will  be  produced.  This  note  is 
higher  or  lower  according  to  the 
size  of  the  finger-bowl  and  the 
amount  of  water  in  it.  By  choosing 


Musical  Goblet. 

bowls  of  different  sizes  and  pouring 
in  water  to  different  depths,  it  is  pos- 
sible to  tune  them  to  the  notes  of 
the  musical  scale,  so  that  tunes  can 
be  played  upon  them.  A  set  of 
glasses  of  the  same  size  may  even 


MUSICAL   NEIGHBORS 


500 


MY   SHIP 


be  tuned  thus  simply  by  pouring 
different  quantities  of  water  into 
them.  The  giass  sounds  for  some 
time  after  the  ringer  has  left ;  hence 
chords  can  be  played  by  rubbing  one 
after  another.  When  the  player 
wishes  a  note  to  cease,  he  touches 
with  his  finger  the  rim  of  the  glass 
which  is  producing  it. 

MUSICAL  NEIGHBORS,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
half  of  whom  are  blindfolded.  The 
blindfolded  players  are  seated  in 
a  row,  alternate  chairs  being  left 
empty.  The  others  stand  in  the 
middle  of  the  room  till  commanded 
by  the  leader  to  be  seated,  when 
they  sit  quietly  in  the  empty  chairs. 
The  leader  then  gives  the  command 
"Sing,"  and  plays  some  well-known 
air  on  the  pianoforte.  The  un- 
blindfolded  players  sing  it  together 
till  the  leader  says  "  Silence,"  and 
then  each  of  the  blindfolded  players 
is  required  to  name  his  right-hand 
neighbor.  Each  who  does  so  cor- 
rectly changes  places  with  the  one 
whose  name  he  guesses,  who  must 
submit  to  be  blindfolded  in  turn. 
The  unblindfolded  players  then 
stand  in  the  middle  of  the  room 
again,  and  the  game  is  repeated  as 
many  times  as  the  players  please. 

To  make  the  game  a  success,  all 
the  players  must  begin  to  sing  at 
the  word  of  command.  The  voices 
may  be  disguised  at  pleasure.  The 
game  may  be  varied  by  allowing 
each  to  make  whatever  noise  he 
pleases,  instead  of  singing  a  song. 

MY  AUNT'S  GARDEN.  See  RE- 
PEATING  GAMES. 

MY  HOUSE,  YOUR  HOUSE,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons 
sitting  around  a  table,  in  the  middle 
of  which  is  a  circle  about  five  inches 
in  diameter.  The  circle  may  be 
drawn  with  chalk,  or  made  of  pa- 
per. A  slip-noose  is  made  at  one 
end  of  a  cord  about  a  yard  long, 
and  the  other  end  is  tied  to  a  cane. 
One  of  the  players  holds  the  cane, 
and  the  slip-noose  is  laid  around 
the  chalk  circle.  When  he  says 


"  My  House,"  each  of  the  other 
players  must  touch  the  tip  of  his 
forefinger  to  the  table  inside  the 
circle;  and  when  he  says  "  Your 
House,"  each  must  withdraw  his 
finger  and  place  it  on  the  table  in 
front  of  him.  The  commands  "  My 
House,"  "Your  House,"  may  be  re- 
peated as  fast  as  the  speaker  pleases, 
and  in  any  order  he  wishes.  Any 
one  who  does  not  put  his  finger  in 
the  circle  at  the  command  "  My 
House,"  or  who  takes  it  out  except 
at  the  command  "Your  House," 
must  pay  a  forfeit.  When  the  player 
with  the  cane  says  "  Your  House," 
he  is  allowed  to  tighten  the  noose 
quickly,  trying  to  catch  any  fingers 
that  remain  in  the  circle.  If  he 
succeed,  the  person  whose  finger  is 
caught  must  take  his  place,  and  the 
game  goes  on. 

MY  LADY  QUEEN  ANNE,  a  guess- 
ing game  played  by  any  number  of 
persons,  who  sit  in  a  circle.  A  ball 
is  hidden  about  the  dress  of  one  of 
the  players,  and  another,  who  stands 
within  the  circle,  guesses  where  it 
is.  First  the  players  in  the  ring 
sing: 

"  My  Lady  Queen  Anne,  she  sits  in  the  sun, 
As  fair  as  a  lily,  as  brown  as  a  bun. 
The   King  sends  you  three  letters  and  bid* 
you  read  one." 

The  one  in  the  middle  answers: 

"  I  cannot  read  one,  unless  I  read  all. 
So  pray  you, ,  deliver  the  ball. 

If  the  person  guessed  have  the 
ball,  he  changes  places  with  the  one 
in  the  centre,  otherwise  the  game  is 
repeated  till  a  successful  guess  is 
made. 

MY  SHIP,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  some  of  whom 
have  not  taken  part  in  it  before. 
Each  player  is  asked  what  his  ship 
is  laden  with,  and  is  expected  to 
mention  an  article  beginning  with 
the  first  letter  of  either  of  his  names. 
Thus  if  his  name  is  John  Smith,  he 
may  say,  for  instance,  "  Jews-harps," 
"Sunfish,""Jelly,"or"Soup."  Those 
who  have  not  played  before  are  not 


MYTHS 


NEEDLES 


told  of  this  condition,  and  vhenever 
they  mention  something  beginning 
with  the  wrong  letter,  are  told  that 
the  ship  cannot  enter  port  with  such 
a  cargo.  They  are  usually  much 
puzzled  by  observing  that  a  cargo 
proper  for  one  person  is  not  allow- 
able for  another.  This  game  is 
played  under  several  different 
names.  In  one  form,  each  is  asked, 
"  What  will  you  take  to  the  picnic," 
and  if  the  answer  does  not  begin  with 
the  proper  letter,  the  player  is  told 
that  he  will  not  be  allowed  to  go. 

MYTHS,  a  guessing  game  played 
by  any  number  of  people.  One 
player  begins  by  asking  a  question  of 
some  other,  relating  to  an  historical 
or  fabulous  event  he  has  in  mind. 
The  person  addressed  must  reply  in 
such  a  way  that  the  questioner  will 
know  whether  he  has  guessed  it  cor- 
rectly or  not.  If  correctly,  the 


questioner  lets  him  know  by  a 
second  remark,  but  without  giving 
information  to  the  other  players. 
If  incorrectly,  the  questioner  must 
guess  to  what  event  the  player 
thought  he  referred.  If  he  cannot 
do  so,  he  must  tell  the  company 
what  he  had  thought  of,  and  the 
event  thought  of  by  the  questioned 
player  becomes  the  "  myth."  For 
instance,  A  says  "  How  do  you  like 
shoes  ?"  B  answers  "  Made  of  Glass. " 
A.  "  Not  Cinderella."  C.  "  When  I 
want  to  catch  a  train,  they  are  in- 
valuable "(guessing  correctly  that  A 
referred  to  Jack  the  Giant  Killer's 
"shoes  of  swiftness").  A.  "Then 
you  should  enter  for  a  pedestrian 
contest"  (thus  letting  C  know  that 
his  guess  is  correct). 

Whenever  two  players  have 
guessed  correctly,  the  subject  must 
be  told  to  all  the  others. 


NAPOLEON.     See  EUCHRE. 

NECKTIE  PARTY,  a  young  peo- 
ple's entertainment,  at  which  each 
girl  wears  a  colored  apron,  and  pro- 
vides a  necktie  also  of  the  same 
material.  The  neckties  are  placed 
in  a  room  by  themselves,  and  each 
boy,  as  he  enters,  must  choose  one 
and  put  it  on.  The  girl  who  wears 
the  corresponding  apron  is  under 
his  special  charge  for  the  evening. 
He  must  see  that  she  enjoys  her- 
self, take  her  in  to  supper,  and  see 
that  she  reaches  home  in  safety. 
Of  course,  the  same  number  of  boys 
and  girls  should  be  invited. 

NEEDLES,  Experiment  with. 
Having  cut  out  a  piece  of  cork 
somewhat  like  that  in  the  illustra- 
tion, thrust  the  point  of  a  .needle 
through  one  side,  at  A,  and  let  its 
eye  rest  loosely  on  the  other,  at  B. 
Stick  the  point  of  a  second  needle 
into  the  cork  through  the  eye  B  of 
the  first,  and  stick  a  third  by  the 
side  of  the  second.  Hold  the  mid- 
dle of  the  first  needle  in  the  flame 


of  a  candle,  by  means  of  the  cork, 
and  as  it  expands  with  the  heat  it 
will  push  the  needle  in  its  eye  out 


Experiment  with  Needles. 
of  the  perpendicular,  as  will  be  seen 
by    comparing    it  with    the    third 


NEGRO   MINSTRELS 


502 


NEWMARKET 


needle,  which  remains  upright.  On 
taking  the  cork  away  from  the  can- 
dle, the  horizontal  needle  contracts, 
and  the  other  becomes  upright  again. 
NEGRO  MINSTRELS.  In  such  a 
performance,  young  people  some- 
times lose  much  by  omitting  details 
that  at  first  may  seem  obvious  or 
well  known.  In  seating  a  minstrel 
troupe,  do  not  do  it  in  a  straight 
line,  but  in  a  semi-circle  with  the 
ends  towards  the  audience.  Put 
the  funny  men  at  the  ends,  and  in 
the  middle  put  the  "  interrogator," 
or  serious  man,  whose  dignity  is  in- 
tended to  make  the  others  seem  the 
funnier.  Let  the  funny  men  ask 
their  conundrums  of  him,  and  let 
him  do  no  interrupting ;  the  funny 
men  must  do  all  that.  It's  well  for 
the  interrogator  to  repeat  each 
conundrum  very  distinctly.  If 
"  Bones  "  or  "  Sambo,"  asks  in  negro 
dialect,  "  Mr.  Johnsing,  why  am  you 
like  de  mudder  of  General  Jawge 
Washington?"  let  the  interrogator 
repeat  very  distinctly,  "  Why  am  I 
like  the  mother  of  General  George 
Washington?"  Unless  this  is  done, 
the  question  of  the  conundrum  is 
very  apt  to  be  lost  amid  the  laugh- 
ing and  confusion  of  such  a  show. 
In  some  shows,  the  interrogator  re- 
peats the  answer  too. 

Although  the  piano  has  no  place 
in  a  minstrel  show,  there  is  no  se- 
rious objection  to  playing  it  behind 
the  scenes  in  connection  with  the 
music  made  before  them. 

NEWMARKET,  or  STOP,  a  game 
of  cards,  played  by  any  number  of 
persons  with  a  full  pack,  from 
which  the  Eight  of  Diamonds  has 
been  removed,  and  with  four  addi- 
tional cards,  called  the  pool.  The 
pool-cards,  which  are  the  Ace  of 
Spades,  King  of  Hearts,  Queen  of 
Clubs,  and  Knave  of  Diamonds,  are 
laid  face  upward,  by  themselves. 
Before  the  deal,  each  player  places 
counters  agreed  on  on  whichever  of 
the  pool-cards  he  pleases.  Not  all 
the  pool-cards  need  have  counters 
on  them,  and  several  players  may 
place  their  counters  on  the  same 


card.  The  entire  pack  is  dealt,  one 
at  a  time,  including  an  extra  hand, 
which  is  placed  face  upward  where 
all  can  see  it.  The  eldest  hand 
now  leads,  generally  the  lowest  card 
he  holds  of  any  suit  where  he  has 
the  King,  or  if  he  has  no  King,  of 
his  longest  suit,  and  he  declares  the 
card  as  he  leads.  (Ace  ranks  below 
the  Two.)  The  holder  of  the  next 
higher  card  must  then  play  and 
name  it,  then  the  holder  of  the  card 
above  that,  and  so  on  till  no  one 
else  can  play.  He  who  plays  the 
last  card,  which  is  called  a  stop- 
card,  takes  the  trick  and  leads  for 
the  next.  The  stop-cards  are  the 
four  Kings,  because  there  are  none 
higher ;  the  Seven  of  Diamonds,  and 
the  cards  just  below  those  in  the 
extra  hand,  because  the  next  higher 
ones  are  not  in  the  game ;  and  all 
cards  just  below  any  which  have 
been  already  led.  He  who  first  gets 
rid  of  all  his  cards  receives  from 
each  of  the  other  players  a  counter 
for  every  card  remaining  in  that 
phiyer's  hand.  During  the  game, 
whenever  a  card  is  played  corre- 
sponding to  a  pool-card,  he  who 
plays  it  takes  all  the  counters  on  the 
pool-card,  and  any  player  not  getting 
rid  of  a  card  corresponding  to  a 
pool-card  must  place  upon  the 
pool-card,  for  next  hand,  as  many 
counters  as  are  already  upon  it. 

A  card  cannot  be  declared  until 
it  is  shown. 

Only  one  card  can  be  declared  at 
a  time. 

There  is  often  a  doubt  whether  a 
stop-card  has  been  declared  in  time 
to  stop  another  one  declared  appar- 
ently simultaneously.  In  this  case, 
and  in  all  others,  the  dealer  is 
referee  ;  or  the  player  at  his  left,  if 
the  dealer  is  interested  ;  or  the 
player  next  at  the  left,  if  the  ques- 
tion happens  to  concern  the  two 
first  mentioned. 

The  game,  as  above  detailed,  is 
subject  to  the  following  variations: 

Sometimes  the  pool-cards  are  all 
hearts,  and  the  ten  is  added. 

Sometimes  the  eldest  hand  alone 


NEWMARKET 


5°3 


NINE   MEN'S   MORRIS 


puts  counters  on  the  pool-cards,  or 
"garnishes,"  putting  one  counter 
on  the  lowest,  two  on  the  next,  etc. 

Sometimes  the  "  extra  hand  "  is 
dispensed  with.  Beginners  had 
better  do  so. 

Sometimes  the  Seven  of  Dia- 
monds is  an  "  arbitrary"  stop-card, 
that  is,  can  be  played  whenever  its 
holder  pleases,  he  thus  seizing  the 
lead. 

Sometimes  the  Nine  of  Diamonds 
is  also  made  an  arbitrary  stop-card. 
In  this  case,  when  one  arbitrary 
stop-card  is  played,  the  holder  of 
the  other  can  follow  with  it  if  he 
sees  fit.  The  use  of  the  two  arbi- 
trary stop-cards  is  recommended. 

Sometimes  the  choice  of  suit  for 
arbitrary  stop-cards  is  auctioned  off, 
the  dealer  acting  as  auctioneer,  and 
the  eldest  hand  making  first  bid. 

If  no  bids  are  made,  diamonds  re- 
main the  suit.  If  another  suit  is 
bid  for,  diamonds  may  then  be  bid 
for  also.  After  the  auction  : 

(a)  The  successful    bidder  places 
the  counters  he  bids,  in  the  centre 
of  the  table. 

(b)  The  player  first   "out"  takes 
the  aforesaid  counters. 

(c)  If  the  players  adopt  that  form 
of  the  game  in  which  the  pool-cards 
are  all  hearts,  the  other  suit  of  the 
same   color  as  the  one  chosen   by 
auction,  is  entitled,  as  played,  to  the 
counters  on  the  pool-cards. 

The  skill  shown  in  this  game  is 
in  knowing  what  to  lead,  and  in 
remembering  what  has  been  played, 
so  as  to  know  when  any  card  be- 
comes a  stop-card.  The  preferable 
leads  are  from  suits  in  which  the 
leader  hclds  a  stop-card.  When  the 
lead  cannot  be  kept  in  this  way,  aces 
and  the  cards  just  above  those  in  the 
extra  hand  should  be  led.  Arbitrary 
stop-cards  should  not  generally  be 
played  early  in  the  hand. 

History.  Newmarket  is  derived 
from  an  old  form  of  the  game  called 
Pope  Joan,  in  which  the  Nine  of 
Diamonds  was  called  the  Pope,  and 
entitled  the  holder  to  certain  priv- 


ileges. In  the  play  "  A  School  for 
Scandal  "  Sir  Peter  Teazle  speaks 
of  "  playing  Pope  Joan  with  the 
Curate."  Pope  Joan  is  the  heroine 
of  a  legend  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
which  tells  how  a  woman,  dressed 
as  a  man,  became  a  priest  and  was 
finally  elected  Pope.  The  name 
Newmarket  is  probably  from  the 
English  town  of  the  same  name. 

NIGGER  BABY.  See  ROLY  POLY. 

NINE  HOLES.    See  ROLY  POLY. 

NINE  MEN'S  MORRIS,  a  game 
played  by  two  persons,  each  of  whom 
has  nine  pieces,  or  men  on  a  board 
like  that  in  the  illustration. 

None  of  the  pieces,  which  are  of 
two  colors,  are  on  the  board  at  the 
opening  of  the  game.  The  players 
take  turns  in  placing  their  men,  one 
at  a  time,  on  the  places  marked  with 
numbers  in  the  diagram,  and  after- 
ward in  moving  them  from  one 
spot  to  the  next,  in  any  direction, 
along  the  lines.  Each  player's  ob- 
ject, both  in  placing  the  men  and 
in  moving  them,  is  to  form  a  row  of 


Morris-board. 

three  of  his  own  pieces;  and  when 
this  is  done,  he  may  take  from  the 
board  any  hostile  piece  (called 
"  pounding");  but  he  must  not  dis- 
turb a  row  of  three,  if  there  is  any 
other  that  he  can  take.  Usually  he 
who  first  takes  off  all  the  hostile 
pieces  wins,  but  sometimes,  when  a 
player  is  reduced  to  three  men,  he 
loses  the  game.  The  game  is  played 


NITRIC  ACID 


504 


NIVERNAISE 


also  on  a  board  with  diagonal  lines 
at  the  corners,  and  sometimes,  when 
either  player  has  had  all  his  men 
captured  but  three,  he  is  allowed  to 
'•  hop,"  that  is,  to  play  a  man  to  any 
vacant  spot  on  the  board. 

The  player  must  avoid  crowding 
his  men  together,  and  try  to  place 
them  on  the  corners.  He  should 
devote  himself  to  blocking  his  op- 
ponent, as  well  as  to  getting  his  own 
men  into  lines.  When  possible,  it 
should  be  arranged  to  make  more 
than  one  line  in  successive  moves. 
When  by  moving  one  man  back- 
ward and  forward  two  lines  can  be 
alternately  made  and  broken,  the 
player  is  said  to  have  an  "  open 
and  shut." 

Thus,  if  a  player  has  pieces  at  17, 
20,  23,  21,  and  24,  by  moving  that  at 
17  to  18  and  then  back  again,  he  can 
continue  to  make  rows  of  three  till 
his  opponent  can  bring  up  a  piece 
to  block  him. 

History.  Nine  Men's  Morris  was 
played  at  least  five  hundred  years 
ago,  and  the  board  then  in  use  was 
exactly  like  the  one  in  the  illustra- 
tion. In  France,  it  was  played  with 
pawns  or  men,  but  in  England  com- 
monly with  stones.  Shepherds  in 
England  sometimes  cut  the  lines  in 
the  ground  and  make  holes  for  dots. 
Shakespeare,  in  describing  a  stormy 
season,  says: 

"The  Nine  Men's  Morris  is  filled 
up  with  mud."  The  game  was 
called  also  Five-penny  Morris,  and 
Nine-penny  Marl.  The  French  call 
it  Merelles,  which  is  from  a  Greek 
word  meaning  divisions  or  par- 
titions. Morris  may  be  from  the 
same  word,  but  it  is  also  the  name 
of  a  dance,  and  some  think  that  the 
game  was  so  called  from  moving 
the  pieces  backward  and  forward  as 
in  a  dance. 

NITRIC  ACID,  Etching  with, 
Nitric  acid  is  described  in  C.  C.  T. 
To  etch  with  it  on  copper  or  brass, 
warm  the  metal,  and  then  rub  it 
with  a  piece  of  wax  so  that  the 
metal  will  be  covered  with  a  thin 


layer  of  wax.  After  it  has  cooled, 
draw  in  the  wax  the  design  to  be 
etched,  with  the  point  of  a  knife,  a 
needle,  or  any  other  sharp  instru- 
ment, taking  care  to  reach  the  sur- 
face of  the  metal.  Then  cover  the 
metal  with  strong  nitric  acid.  Soon 
bubbles  will  appear  along  the 
scratches  made  by  the  knife.  Let 
the  metal  stand  a  few  minutes 
longer,  and  then  wash  it  in  water 
and  remove  the  wax,  either  by  heat- 
ing and  rubbing,  or  with  turpentine. 
The  design  will  be  found  etched  or 
eaten  into  the  metal  surface.  This 
is  because  Nitric  Acid  does  not  act 
on  wax,  hence  the  wax  layer  protects 
the  metal,  except  where  the  layer 
was  scraped  away  with  the  knife. 

Pour  Nitric  Acid  on  a  bit  of 
"  Dutch  leaf,"  which  is  very  thin 
brass  or  bronze  used  by  sign  painters. 
The  leaf  will  dissolve  in  the  acid. 

Put  a  bit  of  real  gold  leaf  in  each 
of  two  test-tubes  or  bottles,  pouring 
Nitric  Acid  on  one,  and  HYDRO- 
CHLORIC ACID  on  the  other. 
Neither  will  dissolve  the  gold,  but 
if  the  contents  of  the  bottles  be 
mixed,  the  gold  will  dissolve.  This 
mixture  of  acids  is  called  aqua  regia 
(Latin  for  royal  Water),  because  it 
is  the  only  liquid  which  is  able  to 
dissolve  gold. 

NITRIC  OXIDE,  Experiment  with. 
To  make  Nitric  Oxide  gas,  ar- 
range the  apparatus  exactly  as  for 
making  HYDROGEN,  except  that 
copper  clippings  are  put  into  the 
bottle  instead  of  zinc,  and  Nitric 
Acid  poured  into  the  water  instead 
of  sulphuric.  When  a  jarful  of  the 
gas  has  been  collected  over  water, 
remove  the  jar  and  turn  it  mouth 
upward.  The  gas,  being  lighter 
than  air,  will  rise;  but,  though  it  was 
colorless  in  the  jar,  as  soon  as  it 
enters  the  air  outside  it  appears  as  a 
cloud  of  reddish  brown  vapor.  The 
reason  of  this  is  that  it  unites  with 
the  oxygen  in  the  air  to  form  another 
gas  called  Nitric  Peroxide,  whose 
color  is  red. 

NIVERNAISE,  a  SOLITAIRE  game 


NOBLESSE  OBLIGE 


NONSENSE 


of  CARDS  played  with  two  full 
packs.  The  player  lays  the  first  four 
cards  played  in  his  left  hand  in  a 
vertical  line,  and  four  more  on  nis 
right,  and  then  places  six  piles  of 
four  each,  one  pile  at  a  time,  in  a 
row  between.  The  Aces  and  Kings 
in  the  side  rows,  or  on  top  of  the 
piles,  are  now  removed  and  placed 
in  two  rows  below,  Aces  in  one  row, 
Kings  in  another.  Any  Ace  or 
King  thus  uncovered  in  a  pile  is 
placed  in  like  manner.  The  player's 
object  is  to  build  up  families  by 
suits,  downward  from  the  Kings  and 
upward  from  the  Aces.  He  may 
use,  in  building,  the  top  card  of  any 
pile,  or  any  card  in  the  side  rows. 
Vacancies  in  the  side  rows  are  filled 
either  from  the  top  of  the  piles  or 
from  the  pack.  When  all  possible 
cards  have  thus  been  used  in  build- 
ing, four  more  are  placed  on  each 
pile,  and  so  on  till  the  pack  has  been 
used.  The  piles  may  be  shuffled 
and  relaid  till  the  families  are  com- 
pleted, the  number  of  times  the 
player  is  obliged  to  do  so  being  a 
measure  of  his  skill. 

NOBLESSE  OBLIGE,  a  game  of 
CARDS  played  by  three  persons  with 
a  EUCHRE  pack.  The  dealer,  who 
is  determined  by  the  lowest  cut,  lays 
aside  the  four  Aces,  and  then  deals 
the  other  cards  one  by  one,  placing 
the  last,  or  twenty-eighth  card,  face 
upward  on  the  table.  The  dealer, 
if  he  can,  leads  a  card  of  the  same 
suit  as  the  twenty-eighth  card.  If 
he  cannot,  the  lead  passes  to  the 
next,  and  if  the  next  cannot,  to  the 
third  player.  Who  ever  leads  thus 
places  the  twenty-eighth  card  in  front 
of  him  and  counts  it  as  a  trick. 
Play  now  goes  on,  as  in  WHIST,  but 
with  the  following  differences  :  If 
a  player  hold  both  court  cards  and 
plain  cards  in  any  suit,  he  cannot 
win  a  trick  second  or  third  hand  un- 
less a  court  card  has  already  been 
played  in  that  trick.  If  no  court 
card  has  been  played,  he  must  play 
his  lowest  plain  card,  losing  the 
trick.  If  he  hold  only  plain  cards, 


or  only  court  cards,  in  any  suit, 
there  is  no  limitation  on  his  play. 
The  winner  of  the  last  trick  takes 
also  the  four  Aces. 

The  score  is  one  for  each  trick 
won  (including  the  twenty-eighth 
card),  two  for  the  four  Aces,  and 
one  for  each  court  card  held  at  the 
opening  of  the  hand.  The  player 
with  the  highest  score  wins,  each 
hand  being  a  game  by  itself,  or  the 
players  may  agree  on  a  number  of 
points  to  be  played  for. 

RULES  OF  THE   GAME. 

1.  If  there  is  a  misdeal,  the  deal  is 
lost,  and  passes  to  the  next  player 
on  the  left. 

2.  If    a    card   be    exposed,    it  is 
named,  and  the  dealer  takes  posses- 
sion of  it,  placing  it  on  one  side. 
The  exposer  loses  one  point. 

3.  A  revoke,  or  attempt  to  win  a 
trick   where  the  rules  forbid,  loses 
the  offender  all  score   for  honors, 
and  the  tricks  gained,  by  thus  break- 
ing the  rules. 

4.  The  dealer  must  see  all  penal- 
ties enforced. 

5.  Only  the  trick  preceding  the 
one  in  play  may  be  seen. 

Noblesse  Oblige  is  a  French  prov- 
erb, meaning  "  Rank  imposes  obli- 
gation," that  is,  more  is  expected  of 
a  noble  than  of  a  common  citizen. 
The  name  is  given  to  this  game  on 
account  of  the  obligation  not  to 
take  the  trick  which  the  holding  of 
"  nobles  "  (court  cards)  imposes  on  a 
player. 

NONSENSE,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons,  sitting  in  a 
circle,  who  make  a  comical  sentence 
by  each  furnishing  one  part  of 
speech.  One  of  the  players  begins 
by  whispering  to  his  left-hand  neigh- 
bor an  article:  the  latter  whispers 
to  his  left  hand  neighbor  an  adjec- 
tive, and  then  in  turn  the  others 
whisper  in  like  manner  a  noun  sin- 
gulur,  a  verb,  an  adverb,  a  number, 
an  adjective,  and  a  noun  plural. 
Each  in  order  then  tells  the  word 
whispered  to  him,  and  a  sentence  is 


NORSEMAN 


506 


NORSEMAN 


thus  formed;  for  instance,  "  The 
solemn  grasshopper  ate  gleefully 
forty-three  infuriated  lobsters."  The 
parts  of  speech  may  be  varied  to 
suit  the  players. 

They  are  sometimes  printed  on 
cards  of  different  colors,  the  nouns, 
for  instance,  being  blue,  the  adjec- 
tives red,  and  so  on.  These  are 
dealt  to  the  players,  and  then  each 
one  reads  a  card  of  the  proper  color 
at  random.  A  kind  of  SOLITAIRE 
may  be  played  with  these  cards, 
the  player  arranging  them  in  rows, 
backs  upward,  in  the  proper  succes- 
sion of  colors,  and  then  turning 
them  over. 

The  following  are  examples  of 
other  arrangements  of  the  parts  of 
speech.  Article,  adverb,  adjective, 
noun,  adverb,  verb,  article,  noun. 
Adverb,  adjective,  noun-plural, 
verb,  noun-plural,  conjunction,  verb, 
adjective,  adjective,  noun. 

NORSEMAN,  a  game  of  CARDS 
played  by  two  to  ten  persons,  with 
a  full  pack.  Only  a  EUCHRE  pack 
of  32  cards  is  used  in  playing,  the 
remainder,  called  the  "  Low  Pack," 
being  used  only  to  determine  the 
trump.  The  two-handed  game  will 
be  described  first.  The  deal  is  de- 
cided by  cutting,  the  lowest  card 
dealing.  In  both  cutting  and  play- 
ing the  cards  rank  as  in  ECARTE\ 
the  Ace  ranking  between  the  Ten 
and  the  Knave.  The  dealer  gives 
each  player  five  cards,  one  at  a  time, 
and  then  cuts  the  Low  Pack  for  his 
opponent  to  turn  the  trumps,  of 
which  there  are  two,  one  in  a  red 
and  the  other  in  a  black  suit.  The 
top  card  of  those  remaining  on  the 
table  is  turned  foF  the  first  trump, 
and  the  next  one  of  a  different  color 
for  the  other.  Each  of  these  trump 
suits  counts  as  such  only  in  its  own 
color.  Thus,  if  Spades  and  Hearts 
be  the  trumps,  a  Spade  will  take  any 
Club,  but  is  treated  like  a  card  of 
an  ordinary  suit  with  regard  to 
Hearts  and  Diamonds.  When  the 
trumps  are  turned,  each  player  has 
the  privilege  of  discarding  three 


cards  or  less,  and  supplying  their 
places  from  the  stock.  The  elder 
hand  discards  first,  and  if  he  take 
less  than  three,  the  dealer  may  take 
what  he  leaves  in  addition  to  his 
own  three.  Either  or  both  may  re- 
fuse to  discard  at  all.  Both  must 
discard  before  either  take  cards 
from  the  stock.  After  the  discard, 
each  of  the  players  throws  two  dice, 
one  with  red  and  one  with  black 
spots.  The  sum  of  the  spots  on  the 
two  black  and  two  red  dice,  respec- 
tively, determine  two  cards,  one  in 
the  black  and  one  in  the  red  trump 
suit,  which  are  the  highest  trumps 
in  tliose  suits  for  that  hand.  These 
are  called  Rovers,  or  Special  Trumps. 
Thus,  if  one  player  throw  a  red 
five  and  a  black  four,  and  the  other 
a  red  four  and  a  black  six,  the  Nine 
of  the  red  trump  suit  and  the  Ten  of 
the  black  trump  suit  tire  the  Rovers. 
The  Ace  counts  as  either  one  or 
eleven,  and  the  Knave  as  twelve. 
The  King  and  Queen  are  never 
Rovers.  If  the  sum  of  the  spots  in 
either  color  should  be  less  than 
seven,  there  is  of  course  no  Rover 
in  that  color,  since  seven  is  the  low- 
est card  in  the  Euchre  pack.  When 
the  dice  of  one  color  are  Ace  and 
Ace,  or  Ace  and  Two,  the  trumps 
of  that  color  are  degraded  to  t,he 
rank  of  ordinary  cards  for  that 
hand.  When  Spades  are  trumps, 
the  Knave  of  Spades  is  called 
"  Norseman,"  and  will  take  any  card 
in  the  pack.  Norseman  is  the  only 
card  that  is  a  trump  outside  its  own 
color. 

Each  player  now  looks  at  his 
hand,  and  if  either  has  both  Rovers, 
or  Norseman  and  a  Rover,  he  wins 
the  game  at  once,  without  playing 
a  card.  This  is  called  winning  "  by 
hand."  If  Norseman  be  also  a 
Rover,  his  holder  also  wins  by 
hand.  If  no  one  wins  thus,  the 
elder  hand  leads,  and  the  cards  are 
played  as  in  Euchre,  or  any  ordinary 
two-handed  game  of  cards. 

Suit  must  be  followed  if  possible; 
if  not,  a  trump  of  the  same  color  as 


NORSEMAN 


507 


NORSEMAN 


the  card  led  must  be  played.  If 
neither  of  these  things  can  be  done, 
a  card  of  the  other  color  may  be 
thrown  away.  Norseman  and  the 
Rovers  may  be  "  reneged,"  that  is, 
their  holder  is  not  obliged  to  follow 
suit  with  them,  but  may  play  them 
when  he  pleases.  Each  trick  taken 
counts  one,  and  the  same  player 
continues  as  dealer  till  one  of  them 
has  won  the  game,  either  by  making 
five  points,  or  "  by  hand,"  as  de- 
scribed above. 

Four  -  handed  Norseman!  Two 
play  as  partners  against  the  other 
two,  partners  sitting  opposite,  as  in 
WHIST.  Five  cards  are  dealt  to 
each.  The  dealer  and  elder  hand 
throw  the  dice  to  determine  the 
Rovers.  The  players  discard  in 
order,  beginning  with  the  elder 
hand.  He  and  the  next  player  may 
not  discard  more  than  three  apiece  ; 
but  if  they  take  less,  the  others  may 
each  take  what  his  partner  left. 
Thus,  if  the  best  player  takes  two 
cards  and  the  second  none,  the 
third  may  take  four  and  the  fourth 
six.  In  this  way  twelve  cards,  all 
that  remain  in  the  stock,  may  be 
taken.  In  other  respects  the  game 
is  played  like  two-handed  Norse- 
man. 

Three  handed  Norseman^  The 
Low  Pack  is  not  used.  After  deal- 
ing, the  dealer  places  the  stock  be- 
fore the  player  on  his  right,  who  is 
called  Poney,  and  cuts.  Poney 
turns  up  the  top  card  of  those  re- 
maining on  the  table,  as  first  trump, 
and  the  next  of  the  other  color  as 
the  other  trump.  The  intermediate 
cards,  if  there  be  any,  he  takes  into 
his  own  hand,  where  they  are  called 
Reserved  Cards.  Each  player  must 
discard  his  whole  hand,  or  none  at 
all,  and  if  Poney  discard,  he  must 
reckon  the  Reserved  Cards  as  part, 
or  all,  of  the  cards  he  takes  in. 
Should  there  be  more  than  five  Re- 
served Cards,  he  may  return  which 
he  pleases  to  the  stock.  If  Poney 
does  not  wish  to  discard,  he  must 
lay  aside  all  his  Reserved  Cards. 


The  holder  of  a  Rover,  or  Norse- 
man, must  lead  it  at  the  first  op- 
portunity. 

Norseman  as  a  Round  Game. 
Any  number  less  than  ten  may 
play,'  and  five  cards  are  dealt  to 
each  from  the  full  pack.  Each 
player  has  two  dice,  one  with  red 
and  one  with  black  spots.  To  de- 
termine the  dealer,  the  cards  are 
thrown  around,  and  he  to  whom  the 
first  Ace  falls,  deals.  The  trumps 
are  determined  before  dealing,  the 
player  on  the  dealer's  right  cutting 
while  the  dealer  turns  them  up. 
After  the  deal,  each  player  throws  his 
dice,  and  each  one's  dice,  with  those 
of  the  dealer,  determine  the  Rovers 
for  his  own  hand.  Before  playing 
begins,  each  one  in  turn,  beginning 
with  the  eldest  hand,  either  lays  his 
Rovers  face  upward  on  the  table, 
securing  one  for  each,  or  declares 
that  he  has  none.  Rovers  thus  laid 
down  remain  so  till  played.  In 
play,  the  Rover  last  played  is  al- 
ways considered  the  highest.  Thus, 
if  one  player  put  down  the  Ten  of 
Hearts,  it  being  a  Rover,  and  the 
next  the  Three  of  Hearts,  it  being 
also  a  Rover,  the  latter  takes  the 
trick,  unless  some  one  else  plays 
another  Heart,  Rover,  or  Norse- 
man, afterward.  Each  trick  counts 
one  point,  except  the  last,  which 
counts  two.  Whenever  Norseman 
is  played,  its  holder  scores  two  at 
once.  The  first  player  to  score  ten 
wins  the  game.  The  elder  hands 
thus  have  an  advantage,  which  is 
offset  by  that  given  the  younger 
hands  in  allowing  the  later  Rover 
always  to  take  the  earlier.  The 
deal  does  not  pass  to  the  left,  but  is 
determined  anew  each  hand,  as  at 
first. 

Instead  of  turning  trumps  before 
ihe  deal,  there  may  be  no  trumps 
at  all,  in  which  case  the  sum  of  the 
red  spofs,  for  instance,  on  the  dice 
thrown  by  any  player  and  the  dealer 
makes  a  red  card  of  either  suit  in 
that  player's  hand  a  Rover.  In  this 
case,  two  Rovers  of  the  same  color 


NORTHERN   SPELL 


508 


OATS-PEAS-BEANS 


count  only  one  point,  though  they 
must  both  be  laid  on  the  table. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  A  misdeal  loses  the  deal,  and 
one  point  is  deducted  from  the  deal- 
er's score. 

2.  No  hand  can  be  altered  after 
all  have  discarded. 

3.  A  revoke  or  a  neglect  to  play 
a  trump  of  the  same  color,  where  it 
is  possible,  loses  the  offender  one 
point. 

4.  The  dice  must  remain  on  the 
table,  as    thrown,  throughout    the 
hand. 

5.  A  card  played  out  of  turn  can- 
not be  taken  back. 

6.  Any    player    may   count    the 
stock,    or   ask     about    exposed    or 
played    Rovers   (This    rule   applies 
particularly  to  the  Round  Game). 

NORTHERN  SPELL.  See  KNURR 
AND  SPELL. 

NOUGHTS  AND  CROSSES.  See 
TIT-TAT-TO. 

NOVELS.  A  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  with  pencil  and 
paper.  The  players  usually  sit 
around  a  table,  and  after  they  have 
agreed  on  the  title  of  the  novel 
they  are  to  write,  one  of  them  be- 
gins it,  writing  a  given  number  of 
lines.  He  then  folds  over  the  paper 


so  as  to  hide  what  he  has  written, 
and  then  hands  it  to  the  player  on 
his  left,  telling  him  onJy  the  last 
word  he  wrote.  That  player  must 
continue  the  story  as  well  as  he 
can,  and  then  each  in  turn  takes  it 
up,  each  writing  the  same  number 
of  lines  and  each  telling  his  neigh- 
bor the  last  word.  The  last  player 
must  write  an  ending  to  the  story, 
which  is  then  unfolded  and  read 
aloud.  If  it  is  desired,  more  than 
one  story  can  be  written  at  the 
same  time,  each  beginning  and  end- 
ing at  different  players  from  the 
others.  Besides  the  subject  of  the 
novel,  the  names  of  its  hero  and 
heroine  can  also  be  agreed  upon 
beforehand. 

NUMBER  ELEVEN,  a  SOLITAIRE 
game  of  CARDS,  played  with  one  or 
two  full  packs.  The  cards  are  played 
so  as  to  form  two  rows,  six  in  one  and 
and  five  in  the  other.  Any  two  cards 
on  the  table,  the  sum  of  whose  pips 
is  ii,  are  now  laid  aside,  and  their 
places  filled  from  the  pack.  If 
I  King,  Queen,  and  Knave  are  in  one 
row,  or  of  one  suit,  they  also  may 
be  removed.  This  goes  on  till  the 
pack  is  out,  or  there  are  no  cards 
on  the  table  which  can  be  removed. 
If  the  former  is  the  case,  the  player 
has  won. 


0 

OATS  -  PEAS  -  BEANS,  a    game  I  dance    about    a    boy   who    stands 
played  by  any  number  of  children,   within.     As  they  dance  they  sing 
who    join    hands    in  a  circle  and  I 


ley  grows.  Oats,    peas,  beans    and 


You      nor 


nor       no  -  body  knows  how  oats,  peas,  beans  and  bar  -  ley  grows. 


Then  they  stop,  and  letting  go  of 
hands  sing  to  the  same  tune, 

Thus  the  farmer  sows  his  seed, 
Thus  he  stands  to  take  his  ease, 
Stamps  his  foot  and  claps  his  hands, 
And  turns  around  to  view  his  lands. 


While  the  first  line  is  sung,  each 
swings  his  hands  as  in  sowing  seed  ; 
during  the  second,  each  rests  his 
hand  son  his  hips  ;  during  the  third, 
each  stamps  his  foot  and  claps  his 


OBSERVATION 


5°9 


OBSERVATION 


hands  ;  and  in  the  fourth,  each  turns 
around.  Then  joining  hands  again, 
they  circle  about  as  before  and  sing 
to  the  same  tune, 

Waiting  for  a  partner, 
Watting  for  a  partner, 
Open  the  ring  and  take  one  in, 
And  kiss  her  when  you  get  her  in. 

The  circle  then  stops  and  the  boy 
within  selects  a  girl  from  the  play- 
ers, whom  he  kisses,  and  who  must 
then  stand  beside  him  in  the  ring. 
Joining  hands  again,  the  players 
circle  about  them,  saying : 

Now  you're  married  you  must  obey, 
You  must  be  true  to  all  you  say, 
You  must  be  kind,  you  must  be  good, 
And  make  your  husband  chop  the  wood. 

The  boy  now  joins  the  other  play- 
ers in  the  circle,  leaving  the  girl 
alone  within,  and  the  game  begins 
anew,  the  only  difference  being  that 
a  boy  is  chosen  from  the  circle  in- 
stead of  a  girl. 

This  game  is  said  to  be  unknown 
in  Great  Britain,  but  it  is  common 
in  most  of  the  other  countries  of 
Europe.  It  is  mentioned  by  the 
chronicler  Froissart  in  the  I4th  cen- 
tury. In  France,  Spain,  and  Italy, 
there  are  also  verses  telling  how  the 
farmer  reaps,  and  describing  his 
other  labors.  Some  people  think 
the  game  was  originally  played  by 
peasants  in  seed-time,  in  the  belief 
that  it  would  make  the  corn  grow. 

OBSERVATION,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  each  with 
a  pencil  and  paper.  Any  number 
of  articles,  of  any  kind  are  placed 
on  a  table  in  the  centre  of  a  room, 
and  the  players,  forming  in  line, 
march  into  the  room,  around  the 
table,  and  out  again.  Each  then 
writes  on  his  paper  the  names  of  as 
many  of  the  articles  on  the  table  as 
he  can  recollect.  The  longest  list 
is  then  read,  and  the  reader  scores 
for  each  article  as  many  points  as 
the  number  of  players  who  have  not 
its  name  on  their  lists.  As  each  ar- 
ticle is  read,  its  name  is  crossed  off 
by  all  who  have  it,  and,  when  the 
longest  list  has  been  exhausted,  any 
remaining  names  on  other  lists  are 


read  in  like  manner.  When  a  dis- 
pute arises  as  to  whether  any  article 
has  been  sufficiently  or  properly  de- 
scribed, it  may  be  decided  by  a  ma- 
jority vote,  or  by  an  umpire,  not  one 
of  the  players,  especially  chosen  for 
the  purpose. 

Unconscious  Counting,  a  kind  of 
Observation,  in  which  each  player 
tries  to  tell  at  a  single  glance  the 
number  of  dots  on  a  piece  of  paper. 
The  dots,  from  10  to  15  in  number, 
are  made  in  irregular  order,  and  the 
paper  is  then  shown  quickly  to  each 
player  for  so  short  a  time  that  it  is 
impossible  for  him  to  count  them 
one  by  one.  The  best  plan  is  to 
make  large  dots  and  hold  the  paper 
up  for  an  instant  where  all  can  see 
it  at  once.  If  it  is  shown  to  each 
separately,  it  is  hard  to  make  the 
intervals  of  time  exactly  equal,  and 
therefore  strictly  fair  to  all.  He 
who  comes  nearest  to  the  right 
number  scores  a  point;  or  if  the 
nearest  guess  is  made  by  two  or 
more  players,  each  scores  a  point. 
Another  group  of  dots  is  then  made 
and  shown  to  the  players. 

After  this  has  been  repeated  a 
number  of  times  agreed  on  before- 
hand, he  who  has  made  most  points 
is  declared  winner.  The  one  who 
makes  and  shows  the  points  does 
not  take  part  in  the  guessing,  and 
is  chosen  from  among  the  players 
for  each  game.  Another  method 
of  scoring  is  to  give  each  player  the 
difference  between  his  guess  and 
the  real  number  of  dots.  The  one 
who  has  the  fewest  points  at  the 
end  of  the  game  is  then  the  winner. 
To  avoid  the  influence  one  player's 
estimate  might  have  on  the  others, 
each  must  write  his  guess  on  a  piece 
of  paper  before  any  of  the  guesses 
are  announced. 

The  power  of  thus  estimating,  or 
unconsciously  counting  a  number  of 
objects,  is  largely  increased  by  prac- 
tice. An  English  arithmetician 
named  Dase  could  thus  give  the 
number  of  sheep  in  a  flock,  or  of 
books  on  a  shelf,  up  to  thirty,  at  a 


ODD   AND   EVEN 


OLD   STAGER 


single  glance.  Nearly  any  one  is 
able  thus  to  count  three  or  four,  and 
sometimes  more,  and  the  number  is 
easily  extended.  In  practising  un- 
conscious counting,  the  number  of 
dots  should  be  gradually  increased, 
and  arranged  at  first  in  regular  or- 
der, the  arrangement  being  made 
more  and  more  irregular. 

ODD  AND  EVEN,  a  game  played 
by  two  persons,  one  of  whom  holds 
any  number  of  small  objects,  while 
the  other  guesses  whether  that 
number  is  odd  or  even.  If  he  guess 
correctly,  he  wins.  The  objects  are 
usually  such  as  can  be  held  in  the 
closed  hand,  such  as  pennies,  beans, 
or  pebbles,  but  fingers  may  be  held 
up  instead. 

History.  This  amusement  is  very 
old.  The  Romans  called  it  Par 
Jtnpar  (Odd-Even)  and  the  Greeks 
named  it  also  Zuga  4  Azuga  (Yokes 
or  no  Yokes),  for  what  reason  is  un- 
known. The  name  may  be  a  cor- 
ruption, since  the  similar  Sanskrit 
words  yuj  and  ayuj  mean  odd  and 
even. 

OLD  MAID,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  usually  not  more 
than  six,  with  a  pack  of  cards,  from 
which  three  of  the  Queens  have  been 
taken.  The  remaining  Queen,  usu- 
ally the  Queen  of  Hearts,  is  called 
the  Old  Maid.  The  cards  are  dealt 
one  by  one,  and  then  each  one 
throws  on  the  table  all  the  matches 
or  pairs  of  like  cards  that  he  has  in 
his  hand.  Each  then,  beginning  at 
the  dealer's  left,  draws  a  card  from 
the  hand  of  the  player  at  his  right. 
If  the  card  so  drawn  matches  any 
that  he  has,  the  two  are  thrown  on 
the  table;  otherwise  the  turn  passes 
to  the  player  at  his  left.  When  all 
the  cards  have  been  matched  ex- 
cepting the  Old  Maid,  the  player 
holding  that  card  is  said  also  to  be 
the  Old  Maid.  Much  of  the  amuse- 
ment of  the  game  is  caused  by  the 
efforts  of  the  player  who  finds  the 
Old  Maid  in  his  hand  so  to  place 
her  that  she  will  be  drawn  by  his 
neighbor.  Sometimes  the  matches, 


instead  of  being  thrown  out  all  at 
once,  are  played  in  turn,  one  at  a 
time,  so  that,  if  one  player  begins  to 
draw  before  his  neighbor,  he  may 
break  one  of  that  neighbor's  pairs 
in  drawing.  Sometimes,  instead  of 
takingout  three  Queens  at  the  begin- 
ning, a  card  is  drawn  from  the  pack 
at  random  and  laid  aside,  and  at  the 
end  of  the  game  one  of  the  mates 
of  that  card  is  left  in  a  player's 
hand,  the  other  two  having  been 
matched.  This  form  of  the  game 
is  not  so  interesting  as  the  other,  as 
in  it  no  one  knows  what  card  is  Old 
Maid. 

Packs  of  special  Old  Maid  cards 
are  sold  at  toy  stores,  bearing  all 
kinds  of  comic  figures,  including 
one  of  the  Old  Maid.  With  these 
the  game  is  played  in  the  same  way 
as  with  ordinary  playing  cards,  save 
that  no  cards  are  thrown  out  of  the 
oack  at  first,  as  there  is  but  one  Old 
Maid. 

In  Germany  this  game  is  called 
Schivarzer  Peter  (Black  Peter), 
though  it  is  not  like  our  game  of 
that  name.  Instead  of  a  Queen, 
one  of  the  Knaves  is  used,  and  the 
alayer  left  with  it  has  his  face  black- 
ened with  soot. 

OLD  SLEDGE.     See  ALL  FOURS. 

OLD  STAGER,  THE,  a  SOLITAIRE 
game  of  CARDS  played  with  two 
packs.  Three  rows  of  thirteen  cards 
each  are  first  laid  down.  Whenever 
a  King  falls  directly  below  a  card  of 
the  same  suit,  it  may  be  removed  to 
the  adjoining  place  and  the  space 
left  is  filled  with  the  next  card. 
The  Aces,  as  they  come,  are  laid  in 
a  row,  and  families  are  piled  on 
them  in  order,  by  suits,  ending  with 
the  Kings.  For  this  purpose  only, 
the  lowest  row  of  cards  can  be  used, 
except  when  there  is  a  free  space 
below  some  other  card,  when  that 
card  may  be  taken.  Cards  allowable 
to  play  thus  are  called  free  cards. 
Any  free  card  can  also  be  placed  on 
any  other  free  card  just  above  or 
just  below  it  in  value,  following  suit. 
Useless  cards  are  laid  aside  to  form 


OLD   WITCH 


OLIVER   TWIST 


stock,  of  which  the  top  card  can  be 
used  to  build,  or  to  fill  a  space  in 
the  rows.  The  next  card  on  the 
pack  can  also  be  used  for  these  pur- 
poses, except  when  the  vacancy  is 
in  the  top  row,  when  only  the  stock- 
card  may  be  used.  If  the  families 
are  not  formed  by  the  time  the 
pack  is  gone,  the  three  bottom  cards 
of  the  stock  may  be  taken  in  hand 
and  played  as  before. 

OLD  WITCH,  a  game  played  by 
not  more  than  ten  children,  one 
representing  a  mother,  one  a  witch, 
aud  the  others  daughters,  of  whom 
the  eldest  is  often  called  Sue,  and 
the  others  are  named  after  the  days 
of  the  week,  Sunday,  Monday,  Tues- 
day, etc.  The  mother,  going  out, 
charges  her  eldest  daughter  to  take 
care  of  the  rest.  The  witch  then 
calls,  and  steals  one  of  the  children. 
This  is  repeated  till  all  the  children 
are  gone.  The  witch  then  names 
each  child  after  some  eatable  (often 
after  different  kinds  of  pies),  and 
offers  them  to  the  mother  to  eat. 
The  latter  recognizes  her  children 
one  by  one,  and  sends  them  home. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  this 
game,  some  of  which  are  played 
partly  in  verse.  Instead  of  Sue,  a 
servant  is  left  in  charge  in  some 
versions  of  the  game.  The  witch 
gets  the  servant  out  of  the  way  by 
telling  her  that  the  kettle  is  boiling 
over.  On  the  mother's  return,  the 
eldest  daughter,  or  servant,  when 
asked  where  the  stolen  child  is, 
offers  all  kinds  of  excuses,  suggest- 
ing that  he  is  down  cellar  or  under 
the  table.  The  methods  of  playing 
the  game  are  many,  but  its  main 
features  are  the  same  everywhere. 
Sometimes  the  witch  is  named 
"Old  Mother  Cripsy  Crops,"  or 
"  Hipplety  Hop." 

History.  The  game  of  Old  Witch, 
in  various  forms,  is  common  in 
Europe,  and  is  probably  many  cen- 
turies old,  being  a  sort  of  drama 
founded  on  a  fairy  tale.  There  are 
many  German  forms,  of  which  one, 
"  Old  Urschel,"  corresponds  nearly 


to  ours.  In  Sweden  the  mother  is 
called  Lady  Sun.  In  some  countries 
a  hen  and  her  brood  are  substituted 
for  the  mother  and  children.  Some- 
times the  children  represent  pots  of 
honey,  as  in  the  game  of  HONEY- 
POTS. 

OLIVE  OIL,  Experiment  with. 
Pour  a  little  oil  into  a  glass  of  water. 
The  oil  will  float  on  the  surface  of 
water.  Pour  some  into  a  glass  of 
alcohol,  and  the  oil  will  sink.  The 
object  is  now  to  make  such  a  mix- 
ture of  alcohol  and  water  that  the 
oil  will  neither  rise  nor  sink  in  it, 
but  stay  wherever  it  is  placed.  This 
is  done  by  trying  various  propor- 
tions. When  the  right  one  has  been 
obtained  the  oil  will  sink  just  below 
the  surface  and  form  a  perfect 
globe.  By  pouring  more  of  the 
mixture  above  it,  the  globe  of  oil 
is  made  to  float  motionless  in  the 
centre  of  the  fluid.  The  reason  the 
oil  forms  a  globe  is  that  that  is  the 
natural  form  of  any  mass  of  liquid 
when  there  is  nothing  to  pull  it  out 
of  shape. 

OLIVER  TWIST,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  with  a 
pack  of  cards  on  which  are  pict- 
ures representing  the  characters  in 
Charles  Dickens's  story  of  "Oliver 
Twist."  Each  character  is  on  two 
cards,  except  Oliver  Twist  and  the 
Artful  Dodger,  who  have  but  one 
each.  All  the  cards  are  dealt  to  the 
company,  one  by  one,  and  then  the 
holder  of  Oliver  shows  it  to  the 
company  and  returns  it  to  his  hand. 
Each  now  places  on  the  table  all 
the  matches,  or  duplicates,  in  his 
hand,  and  then  each  in  turn,  begin- 
ning at  the  dealer's  left,  draws  a 
card  from  his  right-hand  neighbor 
and  throws  on  the  table  the  match, 
if  any,  that  it  makes  with  a  card  in 
his  own  hand,  as  in  OLD  MAID. 
When  anyone  draws  Oliver,  he 
shows  it  and  calls  "  More,"  where- 
upon each  of  the  others  gives  him  a 
card.  The  holder  of  Oliver  need 
not  match  unless  he  chooses.  The 
holder  of  Artful  Dodger  is  allowed 


ONE  OLD  OX 


OXYGEN 


to  draw  two  cards  at  a  time,  save 
when  he  is  also  the  holder  of  Oliver. 
The  game  goes  on  till  no  cards  are 
left  but  Oliver  and  Artful  Dodger, 
when  the  latter  must  be  thrown  on 
the  table,  and  the  holder  of  Oliver 
wins. 

ONE  OLD  OX.  See  REPEATING 
GAMES. 

ONE,  TWO,  AND  THREE,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  people, 
one  of  whom  leaves  the  room,  while 
the  others  agree  on  three  objects  or 
persons.  These  are  numbered,  and 
the  player  outside  is  then  called  in 
and  asked  what  he  will  do  with  one, 
two,  and  three.  If  he  decides  to  do 
what  is  possible  under  any  circum- 
stances, another  person  takes  his 
place;  but  if  one  or  more  of  his 
wishes  are  impossible,  he  pays  a 
forfeit  for  each  and  goes  out  again. 

For  instance,  the  company  may 
decide  on  the  steeple  of  Trinity 
Church  (one);  the  president  of  the 
United  States  (two);  and  a  goat 
(three).  On  being  called  in,  the 
player  who  left  the  room  says,  "  I 
will  paint  One  sky-blue;  I  will  en- 
close Two  in  a  dry-goods  box  and 
ship  it  to  Australia;  and  I  will  hold 
a  conversation  in  Latin  with  Three". 
The  first  two,  though  absurd,  are 
possible,  but  the  third  is  not,  under 
any  circumstances  whatever,  so  the 
player  pays  one  forfeit  and  leaves 
the  room  again. 

OPERA  CLASS,  Experiment  with 
an.  It  is  an  interesting  experiment 
to  find  the  magnifying  power  of 
an  opera-glass,  which  can  easily  be 
done  as  follows:  Hold  one  tube 
of  the  glass  in  front  of  one  eye  and 
nothing  before  the  other  eye,  so 
that  two  images  of  the  object  looked 
at  will  be  seen  at  once,  one  natural 
size  and  the  other  magnified.  It 
can  then  be  easily  estimated  how 
much  higher  one  is  than  the  other. 
In  ordinary  opera-glasses  the  height 
is  magnified  from  two  and  a  half  to 
three  times.  Field-glasses  some- 
times magnify  as  much  as  seven 
times.  To  tell  the  magnifying 


power  still  more  exactly,  a  tape- 
measure  should  be  looked  at  through 
the  glass  in  the  same  way.  If  one 
foot  on  the  magnified  image  is  as 
long  as  two  feet  eight  inches,  for 
instance,  on  the  natural  image,  the 
glass  magnifies  two  and  two-thirds 
times.  Instead  of  a  tape-measure  a 
brick  wall  may  be  looked  at,  or  any- 
thing having  regular  divisions. 

OTI-DAMA.     See  JACK-STONES. 

OXYGEN,  Experiments  with. 
(Names  and  processes  merely  allud- 
ed to  in  this  article  are  fully  ex- 
plained in  CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS. 
Oxygen  gas  is  described  in  C.  C.  T.) 
To  make  it,  equal  quantities  of  pow- 
dered chlorate  of  potash  and  black 
oxide  of  manganese  are  mixed,  and 
a  glass  phial  about  two  inches  long  is 
one-third  filled  with  the  mixture. 
The  neck  is  closed  with  a  cork, 
through  which  passes  a  tube,  whose 
other  end  is  arranged  to  collect 
the  gas  under  water.  The  bottle  is 
supported  on  its  side  by  two  blocks 
of  wood  so  that  it  can  be  heated  by 
an,  alcohol  lamp  or  Bunsen  burner 
placed  under  it.  Heat  first  the  part 
of  the  mixture  nearest  the  delivery- 
tube.  If  the  gas  is  made  too  rapid- 
ly, remove  the  flame  for  a  moment. 
The  oxygen  can  be  stored  in  a  gas- 
holder, if  desired,  and  kept  for  future 
use.  The  oxygen  made  in  this  way 
comes  from  the  chlorate  of  potash 
(see  Potash,  C.  C.  T.),  and  is  sepa- 
ra.ed  from  the  other  elements  in  that 
substance  by  the  heat  applied  to  it. 
The  only  use  of  the  oxide  of  man- 
ganese is  to  cause  the  gas  to  escape 
slowly  and  regularly,  thus  prevent- 
ing an  explosion;  but  how  it  does 
this  has  not  been  satisfactorily  ex- 
plained. 

Another  way  of  making  oxygen 
is  to  heat  red  oxide  of  meroury  in 
the  apparatus  just  described.  Oxy- 
gen is  a  little  heavier  than  air,  so  if 
the  jar  in  which  it  has  been  collected 
over  water  be  turned  right  side  up 
very  carefully,  the  gas  will  not  es- 
cape if  the  air  is  still;  but  it  is  bet- 
ter to  lay  a  piece  of  glass  over  the 


OXYGEN 


513 


OXYGEN 


mouth  of  the  jar.  The  glass  may 
be  slipped  under  the  jar  before  it  is 
removed  from  the  water,  which  will 
prevent  any  loss  while  it  is  being 
turned  over. 

Experiments.  Light  a  splinter  of 
wood,  and  after  it  has  burned  a  few 
seconds,  blow  out  the  flame,  so  as  to 
leave  the  end  glowing,  and  then 
plunge  it  into  the  oxygen.  It  will 
light  again  with  a  puff,  and  burn 
brightly.  This  is  because  pure  oxy- 
gen feeds  flame  much  better  than 
when  it  is  diluted  with  nitrogen,  as 
in  ordinary  air  (See  Air,  C.  C.  T.). 
For  the  same  reason  any  substance 
will  burn  more  brilliantly  in  oxy- 
gen than  in  air.  Substances  used 
are  best  held  in  the  oxvgen  in  a 
deflagrating  :poon,  but  may  be  in- 
troduced in  any  other  way.  Most 
substances  so  burned  produce  dis- 
agreeable fumes,  which  may  be 


Deflagrating  Spoon  in  Jar. 

kept  from  escaping  by  covering  the 
jar  with  a  piece  of  pasteboard 
through  which  the  handle  of  the 
spoon  passes:  The  things  that  burn 
with  the  prettiest  effects  are:  char- 
coal (a  piece  the  size  of  a  pea ;  light 
it  by  holding  the  spoon  in  a  gas- 
flame  before  putting  it  into  the  oxy- 


gen); sulphur  (observe  the  same 
directions) ;  and  iron.  The  iron 
should  be  in  the  form  of  fine  wire, 
or  a  steel  watch-spring  may  be  used. 
Heat  the  end  of  the  wire  and  then 
dip  it  in  powdered  sulphur,  some 
of  which  will  stick.  Then  light  the 
sulphur,  and  thrust  the  iron  into  the 
oxygen.  The  burning  sulphur  will 
presently  light  the  iron,  which  will 
burn,  sending  out  brilliant  sparks. 

Oxygen  will  not  burn  in  air,  as 
may  be  seen  by  trying  to  light  a  jet 
of  it  from  a  gas-holder.  But  it  will 
burn  in  hydrogen,  as  can  be  shown 
thus,  with  a  little  skill.  Cut  the 
bottom  from  a  bottle  and  hang  it  by 
its  neck  from  a  nail.  Through  the 
cork  pass  a  tube  from  a  gas-holder 
full  of  hydrogen,  and  regulate  the 
flow  so  that  when  the  gas  is  lighted 
at  the  bottom  of  the  bottle  it  will 
burn  there  quietly.  Do  not  light 
the  gas  till  the  air  is  all  driven  from 
the  bottle.  From  another  gas-holder 
pass  a  stream  of  oxygen  through  a 
glass  jet,  and  raise  this  jet  into  the 
bottle.  As  the  jet  passes  through 
the  burning  hydrogen,  the  oxygen 
issuing  from  it  will  take  fire,  and  it 
will  continue  to  burn  in  the  hydro- 
gen within  the  bottle.  The  reason 
of  this  is  that  when  most  things 
burn  t,.ey  unite  with  the  oxygen  of 
the  air;  but  as  oxygen  of  course  can- 
not unite  with  itself,  it  is  necessary 
to  surround  it  with  some  other  gas 
for  which  it  has  a  liking.  Instead  of 
hydrogen,  ordinary  illuminating  gas 
may  be  used,  and  instead  of  a  bottle, 
a  lamp  chimney,  or  anything  of  glass 
that  is  open  at  both  ends.  In  all 
cases  the  upper  end  must  be  tight, 
so  that  the  hydrogen  may  not  escape 
at  the  top. 


P'S   AND   Q'S 


514 


PANTOGRAPH 


P'S  AND  Q'S,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons.  Each  in 
turn  gives  the  name  of  a  historical 
personage,  and  his  left-hand  neigh- 
bor names  the  place  where  that  per- 
sonage has  gone  to  fight.  The  lat- 
ter must  be  either  the  native  place 
of  the  character,  or  the  name  of 
some  battle  in  which  he  took  part, 
and  must  begin  with  no  letter  pre- 
ceding P  and  Q  in  the  alphabet. 
Each  player  warns  the  next  to 
•'  mind  his  P's  and  Q's."  If  this 
rule  is  broken,  the  offender  pays  a 
forfeit,  and  the  next  player  names  a 
place  which  does  not  violate  the 
rule.  For  instance : 

1.  "Julius    Caesar  has    gone    to 
fight  at" — 

2.  "  Pharsalia.    Grant  has  gone  to 
fight  at" — 

3.  "The  Wilderness."    "Sherman 
has  gone  to  fight  at" — 

4.  "  New  Hope  Church." 

This  last  requires  a  forfeit,  since 
its  first  letter,  N  precedes  P  in  the 
alphabet. 

The  fifth  player  supplies  a  proper 
answer;  for  instance,  "Savannah," 
and  the  game  goes  on  till  the  players 
are  tired,  or  a  sufficient  number  of 
forfeits  have  been  collected. 

PAIR  OF  SHOES,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons  with  two 
packs  of  cards,  one  bearing  pictures 
of  men  of  various  trades  or  profes- 
sions, and  the  other  pictures  of 
shoes.  In  both  packs  each  picture  is 
borne  by  two  cards.  At  the  beginn- 
ing of  the  game  the  shoe  cards  are 
in  a  pile  on  the  table,  face  upward. 
Four  of  the  other  cards  are  dealt  to 
each  player,  and  four  on  the  table, 
face  upward.  When  any  player's 
cards  are  gone,  the  dealer  gives  him 
four  more,  and  so  on  till  the  pack  is 
exhausted.  Each  player,  in  turn, 
takes  from  the  table  any  card  which 
he  can  match  from  his  hand,  places 


the  two  cards  by  themselves,  and 
then  takes  the  top  shoe- card.  If  he 
can  match  nothing,  he  places  his 
card  on  the  table  with  the  others, 
not  taking  a  shoe-card.  If  a  player 
have  a  card  with  a  policeman  on  it 
(called  a  police-card)  he  can  either 
take  all  the  cards  on  the  table,  and 
two  shoe-cards,  or  lay  it  on  the  table, 
saying  "  Police,"  when  all  the  players 
must  place  their  cards  on  the  table, 
and  the  holder  of  the  police-card 
may  take  as  many  matches  as  there 
are,  with  a  shoe-card  for  each.  But 
if  he  call  "  Police"  and  any  player 
have  the  other  police  card,  the  latter 
may  take  the  former  and  three  shoe- 
cards.  Each  player  keeps  his  shoe- 
cards  by  themselves,  and  at  the 
chose  of  the  hand  throws  out  all 
those  not  in  pairs.  The  rejected 
ones  are  used  in  the  next  hand,  and 
so  on  till  they  are  all  paired,  when 
the  holder  of  the  most  pairs  of  shoes 
wins.  Any  hand  comes  to  an  end 
when  the  shoe-cards  have  been  all 
taken,  no  matter  whether  the  other 
cards  have  all  been  dealt  or  not. 
PALMISTRY.  See  FORTUNE- 


TELLING. 

PANTOGRAPH, 


an    instrument 


F 


Pantograph. 


PANTOGRAPH 


515 


PANTOMIME 


for  copying  maps  or  drawings,  or 
enlarging  or  reducing  them  in  size. 
A  simple  one  may  be  made  by  fast- 
ening four  pieces  of  wood  together, 
as  shown  in  the  diagram.  They 
can  turn  freely  on  each  other  at  C, 

B,  G,  and  H.     At  A  is  fixed  a  lead- 
pencil,  and  at  C  a  metal  point.     The 
end  F  is  fixed  to  the   table,  so  that 
it  will  turn  freely.     Now,  if  a  map  be 
placed  under  C  and  a  piece  of  blank 
paper  under  A,  and  if   C  be  moved 
along   the  lines   of  the  map,  A  will 
draw  a  similar  map  twice  as  large. 
If  the  pencil  be  placed  at  C  and  the 
metal  tracer  at  A,  the  map  will  be 
reduced    in   size   one   half.      These 
proportions    may    be     altered     by 
changing  the  positions  of  the  points 
G  and  H  where   the  pieces  of  wood 
are  hinged  together,  so   long  as  the 
opposite  sides  of   the  figure  C,    G, 
H,  B,  are  always  kept  equal. 

All  parts  of  the  pantograph  should 
be  supported  at  the  same  distance 
from  the  table,  so  that  the  motion 
may  be  even.  The  best  way  is  to 
form  the  hinges  at  G,  H,  and  B  by 
screwing  in  ordinary  screw-eyes  from 
below,  and  to  put  in  a  fourth  close 
by  the  pencil  A,  or  a  sharpened 
screw  with  two  nuts,  as  L,  may  be 
used.  The  tracer  C  may  be  a  steel 
nail  of  such  a  length  as  just  to  clear 
the  table  when  the  machine  rests 
on  the  screw-eyes,  and  the  end  F 
turns  on  a  steel  nail  in  a  small  block 
of  wood  screwed  to  the  table.  The 
heads  of  these  screws  must  be  sunk 
in  the  block  so  that  they  do  not  pre- 
vent the  stick  from  turning,  or  the 
block  may  be  of  the  shape  shown  at 
K,  with  the  fastening  screws  at  the 
sides.  If  the  pieces  of  wood  be 
marked  off  in  inches  and  fractions 
of  an  inch,  it  will  be  easy  to  vary  the 
size  of  the  drawing.  This  can  be 
done  by  bearing  in  mind  that  the 
line  drawn  by  the  point  A  is  always 
as  much  larger  than  that  drawn  by 

C,  as  the  line  A  B  is  larger  than  C 
H.     Hence  if  the  drawing  at  A  is  to 
be  made  four  times  as  large  as  that 
at  C,  the  hinge  must  be  moved  half 


way  up  to  C.  Since  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  diamond  must  be  kept 
equal,  G  must  also  be  moved  half 
way  down  to  B. 

A  simpler  pantograph  than  this, 
though  it  is  not  nearly  so  exact,  can 
be  made  as  follows  :  Take  an  elas- 
tic band  from  one  eighth  to  one 
quarter  of  an  inch  wide  and  cut  it 
open,  so  as  to  make  a  single  straight 
piece.  Stick  a  pin  through  each 
end,  and  drive  one  of  these  pins  into 
the  table.  Between  the  pins  tie  the 
elastic  band  tightly  around  a  lead- 
pencil,  as  near  the  point  as  possible. 
If  the  free  pin  be  now  moved  over 
the  lines  of  any  figure  with  the  right 
hand,  the  pencil  will  trace  the  same 
figure  on  a  reduced  scale.  The 
elastic  must  always  be  straight  from 
pin  to  pin.  It  will  be  necessary  to 
press  lightly  on  the  pencil  with  the 
left  hand,  to  make  it  mark  distinct- 
ly, but  care  must  be  taken  that  it  is 
allowed  to  follow  its  own  course. 
The  drawing  is  always  reduced, 
never  enlarged,  by  this  kind  of  pan- 
tograph. The  scale  depends  on  the 
position  of  the  pencil ;  if  it  is  half- 
way between  the  pins,  the  drawing 
will  be  reduced  to  one  half  the  orig- 
inal size  ;  if  it  is  at  one  fourth  the 
distance  from  the  fixed  to  the  free 
pin,  the  drawing  will  be  one  fourth 
the  original  size,  and  so  on. 

PANTOMIME,  acting  without 
speech.  An  entire  play  may  be  given 
in  pantomime,  or  charades  may  be 
acted  in  it.  In  any  case,  the  plot  must 
be  simple  and  the  incidents  such  as 
to  be  easily  understood  by  the  specta- 
tors without  the  aid  of  words.  Pan- 
tomimes generally  depend  for  their 
effect  largely  on  stage  machinery, 
by  whose  aid  strange  or  comical 
transformations  take  place.  Many 
of  these  can  be  arranged  only  on  a 
large  stage,  but  others  are  more  sim- 
ple. For  instance,  objects  can  be 
made  to  disappear  suddenly  from  the 
stage  by  fastening  thread  to  themand 
jerking  them  to  one  side;  and  a  ta- 
ble is  easily  provided  with  one  or 
more  holes  in  the  top  through  which 


PAPER  BANDS 


PAPER  BANDS 


an  unseen  performer  takes  away  ar- 
ticles or  supplies  their  places  with 
others.  Similar  devices  of  many 
kinds  may  be  arranged,  and  any  one 
practised  in  sleight-of-hand  tricks 
can  introduce  many  variations. 

In  acting  a  pantomime,  certain 
gestures  and  expressions  are  almost 
always  used  to  express  the  same 
passions  or  feelings ;  thus,  Anger 
is  represented  by  scowling  fiercely 
and  clenching  the  fists ;  Hate,  by 
turning  away  the  head  and  making 
a  motion  as  if  pushing  some  one 
away  with  the  palm;  Love,  by  press- 
ing the  hands  over  the  heart,  with 
or  without  kneeling;  Sorrow,  by 
weeping  or  wringing  the  hands,  and 
so  on.  Pointing  with  the  finger  is 
a  gesture  often  used,  and  a  ques- 
tion is  denoted  by  raising  the  eye- 
brows. In  comic  pantomime, boards, 
or  pieces  of  pasteboard,  with  words 
printed  on  them  in  large  letters, 
are  sometimes  displayed  where  an 
idea  cannot  be  conveyed  by  signs. 
Noises  are  often  introduced,  such 
as  the  barking  of  dogs,  whistling, 
or  crowing. 

The  custom  of  "  mummers  "  or 
maskers,  persons  dressed  in  odd 
costumes  parad  ing  about  the  streets, 
which  is  still  kept  up  in  some  places 
in  this  country  on  Fourth  of  July 
or  New  Year's  Day,  and  in  Europe 
at  the  Carnival,  was  a  sort  of  pan- 
tomime. The  illustration  shows 
some  ancient  English  maskers. 


PAPER  BANDS,  Experiments 
with.  Take  three  strips  of  paper, 
each  about  an  inch  wide  and  six 
inches  long,  and  make  them  into 
bands  by  pasting  the  ends  together. 


Paper  Bands. 

In  pasting  the  first  bring  the  ends 
together  squarely  to  make  an  ordi- 
nary ring,  as  at  i  in  the  illustration; 
with  the  second,  give  one  end  a 


English  Maskers. 

twist  before  pasting  it  to  the  other,  i  two  twists,  as  at  3.    Cut  each  band 
as  at  2 ;  and  with  the  third,  give  it  1  in  two  lengthwise  along  the  dotted 


PARLOR   RACE 


PATCH  ESI 


line.  From  the  first  will  be  obtained 
two  separate  rings  as  at  i' ;  from 
the  second,  a  single  ring  of  half  the 
width  and  twice  the  diameter,  as  at 
2' ;  and  from  the  third,  two  rings 
linked  together,  as  at  3'. 

PARALLELS.  See  PROVERBS. 

PARLOR  RACE,  a  game  played 
by  four  to  eight  persons,  with  52 
cards,  each  bearing  the  name  of  a 
race-horse.  Each  name  is  on  four 
cards,  so  that  there  are  thirteen 
horses  in  all.  The  horses  are  num- 
bered from  i  to  13.  There  are 
three  ways  of  playing  the  game, 
called  respectively  the  Flat  Race, 
the  Hurdle  Race  and  the  Scrub 
Race. 

Flat  Race.  Enough  of  the  cards 
numbered  13  are  thrown  out  to 
make  each  player's  number  the 
same,  and  the  remainder  are  then 
divided  equally.  Each  names  his 
favorite  racer,  which  should  be  the 
one  of  which  he  has  most  in  his 
hand.  The  eldest  hand  leads  a 
card,  calling  out  its  number,  and 
the  next  player  puts  down  any  card 
he  pleases,  adding  its  number  to  that 
of  the  previous  card,  and  calling  out 
the  sum.  Each  in  turn  does  the 
same,  until  some  one  plays  a  card 
which  makes  the  sum  31.  This 
card  is  called  the  winner  of  the  heat, 
and  its  holder  leads  for  the  next 
heat.  Every  player  must  win  if 
he  can.  If  a  player  have  no  card 
that  will  make  the  sum  31  or  less, 
he  must  say  "  I  pass,"  and  the  next 
in  order  must  play.  If  all  the  play- 
ers pass,  it  is  a  "  dead  heat."  When 
the  cards  are  out,  they  are  dealt 
again,  and  the  game  goes  on  till 
some  racer  has  won  four  heats. 
The  player  who  named  it  as  his 
favorite  wins  the  game.  It  makes  no 
difference  whether  a  player's  favor- 
ite wins  in  his  own  hand  or  in  that 
of  some  one  else.  Often  a  player 
is  obliged  to  win  a  heat  with  an- 
other's favorite.  By  watching  the 
cards  as  they  fall,  it  is  possible  for 
a  player  to  guess  in  whose  hands 
his  favorites  are,  and  to  play  in  such 


a  manner  that  they  will  be  obliged 
to  win. 

Hurdle  Race.  The  sum  of  the 
cards  played  may  be  as  large  as  33, 
but  no  card  which  makes  it  either 
29  or  30  must  be  played.  The 
number  31  is  called  the  Hurdle, 
and  a  racer  making  the  sum  31  is 
said  to  "  stumble  on  the  Hurdle," 
and  is  not  allowed  to  win  the  heat. 
When  the  sum  is  28  or  less,  any  racer 
making  it  either  32  or  33  "  leaps 
the  Hurdle"  and  wins  the  heat. 
When  a  horse  stumbles,  the  next 
player  counts  from  the  number 
from  which  the  stumbler  started. 
No  player  is  allowed  to  pass  to 
avoid  stumbling.  In  other  respects 
the  Hurdle  Race  is  like  the  Flat 
Race. 

Scrub  Race.  All  the  cards  are 
dealt.  The  leader  lays  down  a  card, 
and  those  like  it  must  be  played  at 
once.  If  any  player  has  more  of 
them  than  any  other  player,  he 
takes  the  trick  but  if  each  have  one, 
or  if  two  have  two  a  piece,  the  trick 
belongs  to  no  one.  This  is  entirely 
a  game  of  chance. 

PATCHESI,  or  PARCHESI.  A 
game  played  on  a  board  like  the 


one  in  the  illustration,  by  two,  three, 
or  four    persons,    each  with   four 


PATCHESI 


PATCHWORK   STORY 


pieces,  or  men,  and  one  die.  The 
players  sit  around  the  board,  and 
each  places  his  men  in  the  circle 
at  his  right.  Thus,  the  player  who 
sits  at  A  places  his  men  in  B,  and 
so  with  the  others.  In  the  beginning 
The  players  throw  their  dice,  with- 
outtaking  turns,  until  some  one  has 
thrown  a  five.  That  player  enters 
one  of  his  men  on  the  colored  space 
at  the  left  of  his  circle  ;  for  in- 
stance, if  it  be  A,  he  enters  his 
man  at  C.  The  players  then  take 
turns  in  throwing,  beginning  at  his 
left  hand.  Each  makes  one  throw 
at  a  time,  but  no  one  can  play  till  he 
throws  a  five,  when  he  enters  one 
man,  like  the  first  player.  When 
his  next  turn  comes,  he  moves  his 
man  forward  a  number  of  spaces 
equal  to  the  number  he  throws 
with  his  die.  If  he  throw  another 
five,  he  may  enter  another  man, 
or  move  the  one  on  the  board  for- 
ward five  spaces,  as  he  pleases. 
Each  player  moves  his  meji  around 
the  board,  going  from  right  to 
left,  till  they  reach  the  red  path 
directly  in  front  of  him  (called  his 
gravel  path),  and  then  up  this  path 
into  Home.  (A's  gravel  path  is 
indicated  by  the  letter  G).  • 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

I.  If  a  player  throw  a  six,  he  plays 
twelve,  and  must  throw  again.     A 
second  six  gives  him  the  same  privi- 
lege; but   if  he  throw  six  a  third 
time   in   the   same   turn,   he    must 
place  his  foremost  man  in  his  circle 
to  be  entered  again  as  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  game. 

II.  If  a  player  can  move  any  of 
his  men  into  a  space  already  occu- 
pied by  a  single  man  belonging  to 
an  enemy,  he  may  do  so,  and  take 
that    man    up,  placing  him  in    the 
circle  where   he   began   the   game, 
where  he  must  be  entered  as  before. 

III.  No  man   can    be   taken  up 
when    he    is    on   a   colored    space 
(called  a  safety  point)  ;  and  as  only 
one  man  at  a  time  can  occupy  such 
a  point,  a  player  loses  his  turn   if 


the  only  moves  he  can  make  bring 
him  into  occupied  safety  points. 
[As  the  space  on  which  a  player 
enters  his  men  is  a  safety  point,  he 
cannot  enter  if  it  is  occupied  either 
|  by  an  enemy's  man  or  one  of  his 
own.] 

IV.  Two   of  the   same   player's 
men  in  one  space  form  a  blockade, 
which  neither  he  nor  any  one  else 
may  pass,  and  neither  of  the  men  in 
a  blockade  can  be  taken  up. 

V.  More  than  two  men  cannot  be 
placed  on  the  same  space. 

VI.  When   a   player   is   on    his 
gravel-path  he  cannot  move  if  he 
throw  a  number  larger  than  is  nec- 
essary just  to  take  him  home.    [For 
instance,  if  he  is  on  the  fifth  space 
from  the  end,  he  cannot  play  a  six, 
and  if  he  is  on  the  last  space,  he 
can  play  only  an  ace.] 

The  game  of  Patches!  resem- 
bles Russian  BACKGAMMON,  from 
which  it  differs  by  requiring  always 
the  same  number  to  enter,  by  al- 
lowing not  more  than  two  men  on 
one  point,  by  giving  a  separate 
space  to  each  player  when  he 
throws  off  his  men,  and  by  the  use 
of  safety  points  and  blockades. 
Some  of  these  differences  make  it 
more  complicated,  but  the  fact  that 
each  player  has  only  four  men  tends 
to  simplify  it. 

History.     This  game,  which  is  of 

I  Hindoo  origin,  is  called  in  India 
Pachisi.  It  is  widely  played  in 

i  Asia,  in  some  countries  with  flat 
tamarind  seeds  instead  of  dice. 

I      The  Spanish  explorers  found  at 

i  the  court  of  Montezuma,  the  Aztec 
ruler  of  Mexico,  a  similar  game, 
called  Patolli,  played  like  Back- 
gammon, but  on  a  cross-shaped 
table.  Marked  beans  supplied  the 
place  of  dice.  Some  people  think 
the  game  had  been  brought  to 
Mexico  from  Asia. 

PATCHWORK  STORY,  a  story 
made  up  of  words  and  sentences 
cut  from  newspapers  and  pasted 
on  a  sheet  of  blank  paper.  Several 
persons  may  join  in  the  amusement, 


PATERNAL 


519 


PEANUT   BUM 


one  of  whom  superintends  it,  and 
pastes  the  words  on  the  paper, 
while  the  others  look  over  news- 
papers for  suitable  words  and  sen- 
tences, and  cut  them  out.  Each 
word,  or  combination  of  words, 
should  be  cut  out  cleanly  and  care- 
fully. The  paster  makes  a  line  of 
mucilage  on  the  paper  before  him, 
and  then,  taking  up  the  word  or 
letter  he  wants  with  a  pin  or  the 
point  of  a  sharp  knife,  presses  it 
into  place.  By  using  care,  even 
separate  letters  may  thus  be  com- 
bined into  a  word,  which  looks  as  if 
it  had  been  printed  as  it  stands. 
An  amusing  effect  is  produced  by 
inserting  sensational  headings,  or 
cuttings  from  advertisements,  at  in- 
tervals in  the  story.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  have  the  paper  look 
neat,  and  each  sentence  should  be- 
gin with  a  capital,  as  in  writing. 
Punctuation  marks  may  be  filled  in 
with  a  pen  and  ink,  or  cut  from  a 
newspaper,  like  the  letters. 

The  plot  of  the  story  may  be 
decided  on  beforehand,  and  then 
newspapers  may  be  searched  for 
suitable  words  and  sentences;  but 
a  better  way  is  first  to  cut  out  all 
sorts  of  word  combinations,  and 
then  fit  them  together  to  make  the 
story,  searching  only  for  a  word  or 
words  now  and  then  to  make  the 
connections.  In  this  way  a  very 
laughable  tale  may  be  put  together. 
Instead  of  a  story,  a  patchwork  let- 
ter may  be  written  to  some  absent 
friend,  even  the  address  being  made 
in  the  same  way  and  pasted  on  the 
envelope. 

PATERNAL, a  SOLITAIRE  game  of 
CARDS,  played  with  a  full  pack. 
The  four  Aces  are  first  placed  in  a 
row,  and  then  the  other  cards  are 
laid,  as  they  come,  in  piles  of  three, 
spreading  each  pile  a  little,  so  that 
all  the  cards  in  it  can  be  seen.  The 
suits  are  to  be  completed  by  placing 
all  the  cards  in  order  on  the  Aces. 
For  this  purpose  only  the  top  card 
of  a  pile  can  be  taken,  except  that, 
once  during  the  game,  a  card  may 


be  drawn  from  the  interior  of  a 
pile — but  this  privilege  should  gen- 
erally be  reserved  till  the  end.  In 
addition,  any  top  card  of  a  pile  may 
be  placed  on  any  other  top  card  of 
the  same  suit  just  above  or  just  be- 
low it  in  rank,  thus  freeing  the  one 
beneath.  The  piles  may  be  twice 
taken  up,  shuffled  together,  and  re- 
laid.  Sometimes,  instead  of  allow- 
ing the  player  to  re-lay  the  cards 
and  to  draw  one,  he  is  given  the 
privilege  of  taking  a  King  from  the 
top  of  any  pile,  to  form  the  bottom 
card  of  a  new  pile. 

Skill  must  be  used  in  changing 
about  the  top  cards  so  as  best  to 
aid  the  completion  of  the  suit  piles. 

Trios,  a  variation  of  Paternal. 
The  Aces  are  not  laid  down  at  first, 
but  put  down  with  the  rest  of  the 
cards  in  the  piles  as  they  come. 
The  last  two  piles  contain  only  two 
cards  each.  The  Aces  are  put  out 
as  they  are  freed  by  changing  the 
top  cards  and  the  rest  of  the  suits 
placed  on  them  in  order,  as  before. 
Top  cards  may  be  placed  on  other 
top  cards  of  the  next  higher  rank 
only,  but  without  regard  to  suit.  A 
face  card  may  also  be  placed  on  a 
similar  face  card. 

No  pile  may  contain  more  than 
three  cards  at  any  time  during  the 
game,  and  there  is  no  drawing  nor 
relaying. 

PATIENCE,  GAMES  OF.  See 
SOLITAIRE. 

PEANUT  BUM,  a  scramble  for 
peanuts,  in  which  any  number  of 
persons  may  take  part.  A  bag  of 
peanuts,  containing  at  least  a  bushel, 
is  emptied  in  the  middle  of  a  large 
room  with  a  bare  floor.  The  con- 
testants stand  around  in  a  ring,  and, 
at  a  signal,  rush  forward.  The  object 
of  each  is  to  get  the  most  peanuts, 
and  to  prevent  the  others  from  get- 
ting any,  if  possible,  by  pushing  and 
pulling. 

History.  The  Peanut  Bum  was 
once  a  common  sport  at  Yale  Col- 
lege, but  is  now  discontinued.  Early 
Jn  the  college  term  one  was  held  at 


PEANUT  SPREE 


520 


PEANUT  SPREE 


each  of  the  Freshmen  society  halls, 
the  carpets  being  taken  up  and 
everything  prepared  for  the  event. 
Only  Freshmen  and  Sophomores 
took  part,  the  members  of  the  two 
upper  classes  looking  on.  The 
Freshmen  were  expected  to  pro- 
vide the  peanuts,  but  the  Sopho- 
mores, being  better  organized,  and 
having  the  advantage  of  experience, 
generally  succeeded  in  carrying 
away  most  of  them.  Many  quarts 
of  the  nuts  were  trampled  under 
foot  in  the  struggle,  and  the  bag 
containing  them  was  torn  into  pieces, 
which  were  borne  away  as  trophies. 
The  sport  seems  to  have  begun 
about  1865.  In  1880  the  college 
authorities  abolished  the  Freshmen 
societies,  and  since  that  time  no 
Peanut  Bums  have  taken  place. 

PEANUT  SPREE,  an  entertain- 
ment in  which  various  feats  are 
performed  with  peanuts,  the  win- 
ners receiving  prizes.  Any  number 
of  persons  may  take  part,  but  from 
six  to  ten  is  best.  A  leader  is  chosen, 
who  arranges  the  programme  of 
events,  calls  the  names  of  those  who 
are  to  take  part,  takes  down  their 
records  with  pencil  and  paper,  an- 
nounces the  winner,  and  decides 
disputed  points.  Several  quarts  of 
peanuts  are  then  spread  on  a  table 
in  the  middle  of  the  room.  A  list 
of  events  is  given  below,  and  others 
may  be  devised  to  suit  the  fancy  of 
players  or  the  leader. 

1.  A  dish  of  any  kind  is  filled  with 
peanuts,  and    each   player   guesses 
now   many   it   contains.      He   who 
comes  nearest  to  the  right  number 
wins  a  prize. 

2.  He  who  can  hold  the  greatest 
number    of   peanuts   in   one   hand, 
without  the  assistance  of  the  other 
in  placing  them  there,  wins  a  prize. 

3.  A   peanut   is  suspended   by  a 
thread,  and  on  the  floor  is  placed  a 
vase  whose  neck  is  just  large  enough 
to  receive  it.     Each  player,  holding 
the  thread  so  that  the  peanut  is  a 
foot  or  more  above  the  vase,  tries  to 
drop  it  in.    The  one  who  succeeds 


wins  a  prize.     If  no  one  succeeds  at 
the  first  trial,  each  has  another,  and 


Peanut  Spree,  No.  3. 

so  on.  If  two  or  more  succeed, 
they  try  again,  holding  the  peanut 
higher,  until  only  one  is  able  to  do 
it. 

4.  Each  person  is  given  five  pea- 
nuts, and  at  a  signal  all   begin  to 
shell  them.     He  who  finishes  first 
wins  a  prize.     The  inner  skins  must 
be  carefully  removed,  and  no  nut 
must   be  split  into  more  than  the 
two  pieces  into   which  it  naturally 
divides.     If  a  nut   be   broken,   the 
player  may  take  another  to  replace 
it. 

5.  Five  peanuts  are  placed  on  a 
chair  at  one  end  of  the  room.     Each 
player  in  turn  must  take  them  one 
by    one    and    place    them     on     a 
chair  at  the  opposite  end  of  the 
room,  returning  them  in   like  man- 
ner.    The  one  that  does  this  most 
quickly    wins    the    prize.     Throw- 
ing the   peanuts  is  allowed,  but   if 
one  so  thrown  does  not  remain  in 
the  chair,  the  player  loses  his  chance 
for  the  prize. 

6.  A  large  pin  is  stuck  upright  in 
the  floor,  and  each  player  in  turn 
pitches  five  peanuts  at  it,  one   by 
one.    He  who  succeeds  in  making 


PEANUT   SPREE 


521 


PEA-SHOOTER 


a    peanut   remain   nearest  the   pin 
wins  the  prize. 

7.  Each  shells  a  number  of  pea- 
nuts,  and    he    who   can   catch   the 
greatest  number  in   his  mouth,   in 
succession,  after  throwing  them  in- 
to the  air,  wins  a  prize. 

8.  A  player  is  chosen  by  lot   to 
stand  at  one  end  of  the  room  with 
open    mouth,    while    each    of    the 
others  try  to  pitch  five  peanuts  into 
it,  one  at  a  time.     He  who  is  most 
successful   wins  a  prize.     The  one 
into    whose    mouth    the    nuts    are 
thrown  may  be  the  player  making 
the  worst  record  in  the  event  just 
preceding. 

9.  Peanuts  are  strewed  over  the 
floor  of  the  room  about  a  foot  apart, 
and  he  who  takes  the  least  time  to 
go  from  one  end  to  the  other  and 
back,  without  treading  on  a  peanut, 
wins  the  prize. 

Other  events  may  also  be  intro- 
duced, in  which  peanuts  play  no 
part.  For  instance : 

10.  A   finger-ring    is    suspended 
from   a  chandelier.     He  who    can 
walk  up  to  it  and,  without  pausing, 
stick  a  pencil  or  penholder  through 
it,  wins  a  prize. 

u.  A  row  of  chairs  is  placed  in 
the  middle  of  the  room,  and  he  who 
can  go  in  the  least  time  from  one 
end  to  the  other,  passing  to  the 
right  of  one  chair  and  the  left  of 
the  next,  without  touching  a  chair 
wins  a  prize. 

12.  A   passage   is   selected    from 
some  book  not  familiar  to  any  of 
the  company,  and  he  who  can  read 
it  correctly,   upside   down,   in    the 
least  time,  wins  the  prize. 

13.  He  who  reads  a  similar  pas- 
sage at  the  greatest  distance  wins  a 
prize.     The   book  may  be  propped 
upright  on  a  table,  and  each  player 
in  turn  advances    toward   it  till  he 
can    read    the     passage,   which     he 
whispers  to  the  leader,  to  make  sure 
that  he  has  done  so  correctly.     His 
distance    from    the    book   is   then 
measured. 

The  prizes,  which  equal  the  events 


in  number,  should  be  wrapped  up 
in  packages,  so  that  it  is  impossible 
to  tell  what  they  are,  and  placed 
by  themselves.  Each  prize-winner 
chooses  his  own  prize  and  opens  it 
immediately.  One  or  two  of  the 
prizes  should  be  useful  or  valuable 
articles,  and  the  others  ridiculous, 
or  merely  blanks.  It  increases  the 
fun  if  the  packages  be  marked 
with  laughable  titles  or  mock  direc- 
tions to  the  opener.  Sometimes  a 
prize  is  given  to  the  person  who 
gains  most  prizes  during  the  enter- 
tainment. 

PEA-SHOOTER.  A  tin  tube  two 
or  three  feet  long  is  commonly  used, 
and  a  supply  of  peas  is  usually 
kept  in  the  mouth.  Instead  of  peas, 


Pea-shooter. 

little  wads  of  paper  or  lumps  of  putty 
may  be  used,  and  the  toy  is  then 
sometimes  called  a  Putty  Blower. 
For  shooting  at  a  target  little  darts 
may  be  used,  whence  the  toy  is  often 
known  as  Pulf  and  Dart.  The 


Darts. 


darts  may  be  bought  at  toy  shops 
or  made  from  bits  of  stick  consider- 
ably smaller  than  the  tube,  and  about 
two  inches  long.  A  wad  of  yarn  or 
worsted,  like  the  bottom  of  a  short 
tassel,  is  fastened  to  one  end,  by 
winding  with  linen  thread,  and  a 
small  steel  nail  is  fixed  in  the  other 
end,  so  that  the  dart  will  stick  in  the 
target.  Great  care  must  be  used  to 
shoot  these  darts  only  at  a  target,  as 
some  one  might  be  hurt  by  them. 
In  shooting,  the  aim  should  be  quick, 
and  as  there  can  be  no  sighting, 
since  the  tube  is  held  in  the  mouth, 


PEASE    PORRIDGE 


522 


PEG-TOP 


the  "  point  of  aim  "  for  different  dis- 
tances must  be  ascertained,  exactly 
as  in  ARCHERY.  The  natives  of 
Borneo  use  tubes  ten  or  twelve  feet 
long  as  weapons,  blowing  through 
them  poisoned  darts.  For  the  toy, 
a  tube  about  three  feet  long  will  do. 
PEASE  PORRIDGE,  a  game  play- 
ed by  two  persons,  who  sit  opposite 
each  other  and  strike  each  other's 
hands,  keeping  time  to  the  following 
verse : 

"  Pease  porridge  hot. 
Pease  porridge  cold. 
Pease  porridge  in  the  pot 
Nine  days  old." 

The  movement  of  the  hands  varies. 
A  common  method  is  as  follows : 
For  the  first,  second,  and  fourth 
lines,  each  player  slaps  his  knees  with 
both  hands ;  then  each  slaps  the 
other's  right  hand  with  his  own, 
palm  to  palm  ;  and  then  the  same  is 
done  with  the  left  hands.  For  the 
third  line  the  order  is,  slap  the  knees, 
both  hands  at  once,  the  one  player's 
right  to  the  other's  left,  right  hands, 
and  left  hands. 

PEDRO  SANCHO.  See  ALL 
FOURS. 

PEEL-AWAY,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons  on  a  field 
divided  into  three  parts  by  two 
parallel  lines,  generally  from  100  to 
300  feet  apart.  The  two  outer  parts 
of  the  field  are  called  goals,  as  is 
shown  below.  Sometimes  the  field 


GOAL. 


GOAL. 


has  side  lines  (dotted  in  the  figure,) 
beyond  which  no  player  may  go,  but 
often  the  field  is  unbounded  at  the 
sides.  At  the  beginning,  one  ol 
the  players  stands  in  the  middle  ol 
the  field  facing  the  others  who 
are  in  one  of  the  goals.  He  cries 
"  Pom,  pom,  peel-away,  come  away 
I'll  get  you  away,"  and  they  must 
then  run  toward  the  other  goal. 


As  they  do  so,  he  tries  to  touch  as 
nany  as  possible,  while  they  are  be- 
tween the  goal-lines.  All  touched 
must  join  him  in  the  centre  of  the 
leld.  They  all  shout  "  Pom,  pom, 
jeel-away"  together,  and  the  other 
players  then  run  back  across  the 
ield  to  the  goal  where  they  were  at 
first,  the  ones  caughtaiding  in  trying 
to  touch  them.  The  game  goes  on 
till  all  have  been  touched,  the  last 
one  touched  being  the  winner.  The 
one  touched  first  stands  in  the 
middle  of  the  field  to  begin  the  next 
^ame.  The  game  is  played  best  on 
the  ice  by  skaters.  Instead  of  the 
shout  given  above,  the  single  word, 
"  peel-away"  is  often  used. 

This  game  is  called  in  England 
King  Caesar,  or  sometimes  Rushing 
Bases.  The  player  who  fust  stands 
in  the  middle  of  the  field  is  called 
the  King,  and  he  must  clap  each 
one  he  catches  three  times  on  the 
head,  saying  each  time,  "  I  crown 
thee  King  Caesar."  A  player  is 
allowed  to  return  to  the  same  goal 
If  he  hops  out  of  it ;  but  if  he  put 
down  both  feet,  he  must  run  to  the 
opposite  one.  Unless  a  player  is 
properly  crowned,  he  may  return  to 
his  goal,  and  when  the  Kings 
greatly  outnumber  the  others,  they 
may  run  in  and  try  to  pull  the  latter 
over  the  base-line. 

PEG-TOP,  or  PEG  IN  THE  RING, 
a  game  played  by  any  number  of 
persons,  each  of  whom  has  a  com- 
mon wooden  TOP  with  an  iron  point, 
or  peg.  A  circle  about  a  yard  in 
diameter  is  drawn  on  the  ground 
with  a  stick,  or  on  a  pavement  with 
chalk  or  charcoal,  but  bare  ground 
is  best.  Any  one  who  wishes  begins 
by  spinning  his  top  in  the  circle, 
and  the  others  follow  in  o  der,  try- 
ing at  the  same  time  to  split  one  of 
the  tops  in  the  ring.  If  any  player 
fail  to  cast  his  top  into  the  ring,  or 
to  set  it  spinning,  or  if  it  remains  in 
the  circle  after  it  stops  spinning,  he 
must  let  it  stay  for  the  others  to 
throw  or  "  peg"  at;  but  if  it  spin  or 
roll  out,  or  is  knocked  out  by  any 


PENCIL   SKETCHES 


523 


PENDULUMS 


other  top,  the  owner  may  take  it 
up,  and  play  as  before,  in  his  turn. 
Each  player  thus  tries  to  split  one 
of  the  tops  without  driving  any 
from  the  ring,  but  this  is  usually 
very  difficult.  The  tops  used  are 
best  made  of  hard  wood  like  box- 
wood, and  should  have  long  pegs, 
as  they  are  then  more  apt  to  spin 
out  of  the  ring.  If  a  top  that 
"sleeps,"  or  spins  in  one  place,  is 
used,  it  generally  stays  in  the  ring 
and  becomes  a  mark  for  the  other 
players.  In  spinning,  the  cord 
should  be  wound  several  times 
around  the  peg,  as  well  as  the  top, 
and  the  string  should  have  a  button 
at  the  end.  Skilful  plavers  are 
able  so  to  cast  their  tops  as  to  hit 
any  spot  they  wish.  As  the  game 
is  sometimes  played,  any  one  that 
knocks  a  top  out  of  the  circle  is 
allowed  to  keep  it. 

PENCIL  SKETCHES,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
each  with  pencil  and  paper.  Each 
player  first  draws  the  head  of  a  man, 
woman,  or  animal,  and  then  folds 
down  the  top  of  the  paper  so  as  to 
hide  all  the  drawing  except  a  very 
little  at  the  bottom.  Each  then 
passes  his  paper  to  his  left-hand 
neighbor,  who  adds  a  body  to  the 
head,  folding  and  passing  as  before. 
The  feet  and  legs  are  next  drawn, 
and  then  the  papers  are  unfolded 
and  shown  to  the  company.  The 
sketches  are  often  very  amusing. 

PENDULUM,  a  lawn  game  played 
with  rings  and  a  pendulum.  The 
rings,  which  are  8  inches  in  diam- 
eter, are  not  more  than  six  in  num- 
ber, and  each  has  a  different  color 
and  a  different  value.  They  are 
fitted  with  prongs  several  inches 
long,  so  that  they  can  be  made  to 
stand  upright  in  the  ground.  The 
pendulum  is  a  heavy  ball  suspended 
by  a  rope  eight  feet  long  from  a 
ring  sliding  on  a  wire  between  two 
posts  eight  feet  high  and  six  feet 
apart.  The  rings  are  placed  in  line 
between  the  posts,  and  the  object  of 
each  player,  after  choosing  a  ring, 


is  to  swing  the  pendulum  so  as  to 
catch  it  and  pull  it  from  the  ground. 
If  successful,  he  scores  the  number 
marked  on  the  ring,  and  has  an- 
other turn  until  he  fails.  A  line 
may  be  made  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  rings,  and  anv  ring  carried 


Pendulum. 

over  it  may  score  double  its  number. 
If  a  player  hits  a  ring  he  did  not 
choose,  it  is  accounted  a  miss.  The 
game  may  be  played  by  any  num- 
ber of  persons,  each  for  himself,  or 
divided  into  opposing  parties.  The 
winning  score  is  fixed  upon  before- 
hand, or  the  game  may  be  played 
for  a  certain  length  of  time,  at  the 
end  of  which  the  person  or  side 
with  the  highest  score  wins. 

PENDULUMS,  Experiments  with. 
The  best  pendulums  for  these  ex- 
periments are  made  of  the  bobs 
used  by  carpenters  for  their  plumb- 
lines,  which  can  be  bought  at  any 
hardware  store.  Or  any  small  heavy 
object  can  be  used,  if  it  is  easily 
fastened  to  a  string.  Suspend  the 
pendulum  bobs  by  twine  of  different 
lengths  to  screw-eyes  fastened  in 
the  upper  part  of  a  door-casing. 
One  should  be  made  so  that  it  can 
be  lengthened  or  shortened  at  will, 
by  passing  the  twine  through  the 
screw-eye,  and  holding  it  in  the 
hand,  or  winding  it  loosely  about  a 
tack  driven  in  the  side  of  the  door- 
way. By  pulling  on  this  string  the 
pendulum  will  be  shortened. 


PETER   CODDLE'S   TRIP 


524 


PHOSPHORUS 


EXPERIMENTS. 

1.  Set  all  the  pendulums  swing- 
ing.    The  longer  they  are,  the  slow- 
er they  will  swing. 

2.  Make   one  of  the   pendulums 
swing  an  inch  or  so,  and  then  make 
it  swing  two  or  three  feet.     It  will 
take  just  as  much  time  to  make  the 
short  swing  as  the  long  one. 

3.  Count   the   number  of  swings 
any  of  the  pendulums  makes  in  a 
minute,  and  then  arrange  the  ad- 
justable one  so  that  it  makes  twice 
the  number.     It  will  be  just  quarter 
the  length  of  the  first. 

4.  Take  down  all  the  pendulums 
but   one.      Set   this   swinging,  and 
then,  when  it  is  at  its  lowest  point, 
strike  it  sidewise.     It  will  keep  on 
swinging,  but  in  a  different   direc- 
tion.     Strike  it  when  it  is  at  one 
end  of  its  swing,  and  it  will  then 
move  in  a  circle. 

5.  Make  a   heavy  pendulum    by 
suspending  a  chair  with  stout  twine. 
Tie  a  fine  piece  of  sewing-silk  to 
the  chair.     Try  to  swing  the  chair 
by  giving  a  single  pull  on  the  silk 
and   it  will    break ;  but  it   may  be 
made  to  swing  by  a  series  of  gentle 
pulls  given  at  equal  intervals.     To 
know  at  what  interval  to  give  the 
pulls,  hang  the  movable  pendulum 
so  that  its  bob  is  at  the  middle  of 
the  chair,  and  then  swing  it.     Give 
the  silk  a  slight  pull  at  each  swing 
of  this  pendulum. 

See  also  DOUBLE  PENDULUM. 

PETER  CODDLE'S  TRIP  TO 
NEW  YORK,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons.  The  story  of  a 
countryman's  trip  to  the  city  is 
printed  in 'a  little  book,  with  blanks 
left  for  many  of  the  words.  Words 
to  fill  these  blanks  are  printed  on 
small  cards,  one  on  each  card.  One 
of  the  company  is  appointed  to  read 
the  story,  and  the  cards  are  distrib- 
uted equally  among  the  others. 
When  the  reader  comes  to  the  first 
blank,  the  player  on  his  left  reads 
his  first  card  to  fill  it,  and  the  other 
blanks  are  filled  in  the  same  way  by 
the  other  players,  in  order.  The 


players  should  listen  carefully  for 
the  blanks,  and  read  the  cards  quick- 
ly, so  that  the  story  may  be  as 
smooth  as  possible. 

There  are  a  multitude  of  games 
of  this  kind,  and  a  new  one  can  be 
made  by  any  ingenious  person. 
Among  those  to  be  bought  at  toy 
stores  are,  "  Jotham  Podd's  Trip  to 
Paris,"  *'  Japhet  Jenkins,"  "  Travels 
of  Sam  Slick,"  and  "  An  Excursion 
to  Coney  Island." 

PHIAL  BAROMETER.     See    HY- 

GROSCOPE. 

PHIAL  OF  THE  FOUR  ELE- 
MENTS. See  MIXTURE  OF  LIQUIDS. 

PHILOPENA.  See  FLOWER  AND 
FRUIT  SPORTS. 

PHOSPHORUS,  Experiments  with. 
Phosphorus  is  described  in  C.  C.  T. 
In  experimenting  with  it,  great  care 
is  necessary,  because  it  takes  fire  on 
exposure  to  the  air.  It  must  be 
kept,  handled,  and  cut  under  water. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1.  Cover  a  piece  of  phosphorus 
the  size  of  a  pin- head  with  a  tea- 
spoonful  of    lamp-black  (see  CAR- 
BON, Exp.  3),  which  has  been  heated 
and   allowed   to  cool.      The  phos- 
phorus will  melt  and    finally  take 
fire,  owing  to  contact  with  oxygen 
absorbed  from  the  air  by  the  lamp- 
black. 

2.  Dissolve  a  bit  of  phosphorus 
in  bisulphide  of  carbon,  and  wet  a 
piece  of   unglazed  paper  with    the 
liquid.      The  paper  should  not  be 
held  on  the  hand,  but  on  the  end  of 
a  wire.     Take  it  into  a  dark  room, 
and  as  it  dries  it  will  shine  beauti- 
fully and  finally  take  fire.     Letters 
or  designs   can  be  marked  on  the 
paper  with  a  brush  dipped  in    the 
liquid,  but  the  brush  must  be  put 
into  water  as  soon  as  it  is  used. 

3.  Phosphorus  Torpedo.     Cover  a 
bit  of  phosphorus,  the  size  of  a  pin- 
head,   with    powdered   chlorate   of 
potash,  and  twist   it  up   in  a  bit  of 
tissue-paper.     On  being  struck  with 
a  hammer,  it  will  explode. 

4.  To  make  Red  Phosphorus.  Heat 


PHOTOGRAPH   WHIST 


525 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


a  small  bit  of  phosphorus  in  a  test- 
tube  or  bottle  with  a  very  little 
iodine.  The  phosphorus  will  turn 
red,  and  will  be  found  to  have  al- 
most none  of  the  properties  of  com- 
mon phosphorus,  being  odorless, 
not  giving  off  light  in  the  dark,  and 
not  being  easily  lighted  by  rubbing. 

5.  Place  a  piece   of  phosphorus 
under  hot  water.     It  will  melt.  Now 
bring  a  current  of  oxygen  into  con- 
tact with  it  and  it  will  burn  under 
water. 

6.  Put  a  crystal  of  iodine   on  a 
slice    of    phosphorus.      They    will 
take  fire  at  once. 

7.  The  Phosphorus  Sun.     Place  a 
bit  of  phosphorus  the  size  of  a  pea 
on  a  piece  of  chalk   about  an    inch 
square,  having  its  top   hollowed  a 
little.     Fill  with  oxygen  a  fish-globe 
about  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  invert 
it  over  the  phosphorus,  first  lighting 
the   latter   with   a   hot  wire.     The 
phosphorus  will  burn  in  the  oxygen 
with  great  brilliancy. 

8.  Place  in  a  bottle  a  tablespoonful 
of  ether  and  a  piece  of  phosphorus 
twice  the  size  of  a  pea.     Let  it  stand 
several  days,  shaking  it  occasionally. 
The  resulting  liquid  will  make  the 
hands  or  face  shine   in   the   dark 
when  they  are  rubbed  with  it.     If  a 
little  be  poured  on  a  lump  of  sugar, 
which  is  then  thrown  into  hot  water, 
the  phosphorus   and  ether  will*  rise 
to  the  surface  and  take  fire. 

Put  a  bit  of  phosphorus  into  a  flask 
containing  a  little  water,  and  then 
boil  the  water;  the  phosphorus  will 
burn  with  great  brilliancy. 

PHOTOGRAPH  WHIST,  a  game 
played  by  four  persons,  with  any 
number  of  old  card-size  photographs, 
which  are  dealt  as  in  whist.  Each 
plays  one  in  turn,  and  the  ugliest 
photograph  takes  the  trick.  If 
there  is  doubt,  a  fifth  person  should 
be  chosen  as  umpire,  to  decide. 
This  game  is  productive  of  a  good 
deal  of  amusement  for  a  few  min- 
utes, but  care  should  be  taken,  in 
selecting  the  photographs,  that  no 
one's  feelings  are  likely  to  be 


wounded.  It  is  best  played  at  home 
with  photographs  from  an  old  album. 
PHOTOGRAPHY.  If adouble con- 
vex lens  (C.  C.  T.,LENS),  such  as  that 
in  an  ordinary  magnifying  glass,  be 
held  at  the  proper  distance  between 
any,object  and  a  white  screen  or  wall, 
an  image  of  the  object  will  be  thrown 
on  the  wall.  Thus,  if  such  a  lens  be 
held  near  a  wall  having  a  window 
opposite  it,  and  moved  backward 
and  forward,  a  position  will  be  found 
where  the  lens  throws  on  the  wall  a 
distinct  picture  of  the  window,  up- 
side down.  In  photography,  such  a 
picture  is  thrown  by  a  lens  on  a  sur- 
face covered  with  some  substance 
very  sensitive  to  light.  Light 
changes  the  color  of  the  substance, 
so  that  the  whole  picture  is  printed 
on  the  prepared  surface.  The  effect 
of  the  light,  however,  is  not  visible 
till  the  picture  is  washed  in  another 
chemical,  called  a  "developer."  It 
is  then  washed  ,  in  a  third  fluid  to 
"fix"  it,  or  make  it  permanent.  If 
the  lights  and  shadows  are  arranged 
in  the  picture  as  they  are  in  nature, 
it  is  said  to  be  a  "positive";  but  gener- 
ally the  chemical  used  is  turned 
black  by  light,  so  that  the  lights  and 
shadows  are  reversed.  Such  a  pict- 
ure is  called  a  "  negative"  and  to 
make  a  positive  from  it,  it  is  fixed 
over  a  sheet  of  chemically  prepared 
paper.  The  light  shines  through  the 
negative,  blackening  those  parts  of 
the  paper  most  that  are  most  ex- 
posed, that  is  those  that  are  light  in 
the  negative;  hence  the  lights  and 
shadows  are  reversed  again  on  the 
paper,  and  appear  in  their  proper 

•places.  This  is  called  "  printing." 
The  ordinary  instruments  and 
processes  used  in  photography  will 
now  be  described. 

Camera.    The  photographic  cam- 
era is  a  box  with  a  lens  at  one  end 

i  for  throwing  an  image  of  the  object 

!  whose  picture  is  to  be  taken.  The 
image  is  formed  at  the  back  of  the 

I  box,  on  a  piece  of  ground  glass, 
which  can  be  adjusted  at  the  proper 

i  distance  from  the  lens.    The  most 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


526 


important  part  of  the  instrument 
is  the  lens.  Cameras  can  be  bought 
as  low  as  two  dollars,  but  the  lenses 
of  such  cameras  are  poor  and  will 
not  make  a  clear  image.  Experts 
advise  the  beginner  to  pay  at  least 
ten  dollars  for  his  camera.  Modern 
cameras  are  made  in  many  different 


Camera. 


styles,  and  fitted  with  many  patent 
devices,  which  it  is  impossible  to 
describe  here.  The  best  cameras 
have  what  is  called  the  "  single 
swing,"  by  which  the  ground  glass 
can  be  tilted  forward  or  backward, 
so  that  parts  of  a  landscape  at  differ- 
ent distances  may  all  be  brought  to 
a  distinct  focus.  The  best  cameras 
have  also  a  shifting  front,  by  which 
the  lens  can  be  raised  or  lowered, 
thus  bringing  more  or  less  of  sky  or 
foreground  into  the  picture.  These 
and  other  arrangements  are  useful 
but  not  essential. 

Lens,  A  good  lens  must  have 
depth  of  focus,  that  is,  it  must  clearly 
define  both  distant  and  near  objects; 
a  good  field,  that  is,  it  must  take  in 
many  objects  at  once;  and  it  must 
be  fairly  rapid  in  its  action.  It 
should  be  provided  with  "  stops," 
that  is,  covers  with  holes  of  various 
sizes,  so  that  more  or  less  light  may 


be  admitted  to  the  plate.  For  in- 
stantaneous pictures  very  expensive 
lenses  are  needed. 

Focussing -c lot k.  This  is  to  cover 
the  operator's  head  when  he  is  ad- 
justing the  camera,  to  keep  out  the 
light.  It  should  be  about  a  yard 
square,  of  any  material  that  is  per- 
fectly opaque.  It  may  be  made  of 
water  proof  cloth,  so  as  to  protect 
the  camera  in  case  of  rain. 

Focussing-glass.  This  is  a  little 
magnifying  glass  used  to  examine 
the  image  on  the  ground  glass  to 
see  if  it  is  perfectly  distinct. 

Plate-holder.    This  is  a  device  for 


keeping  the  sensitive  plate  from  the 
light  till  it  is  ready  to  be  used.  It 
is  then  fixed  on  the  back  of  the  cam- 
era, in  place  of  the  ground  glass, 
being  so  arranged  that  when  a  slide 
is  withdrawn  the  sensitive  surface 
of  the  plate  receives  the  image. 

Dark  Room,  For  handling  the 
plates  before  and  after  taking  the 
picture,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a 
room  or  closet  into  which  no  light 
can  possibly  penetrate.  The  door 
must  be  tight  and  there  should  be 
no  windows.  A  large  closet  will 
answer  all  purposes,  but  many  ama- 
teur photographers  have  rooms 
specially  built  for  this  purpose.  The 
closet  should  be  as  large  as  possible, 
to  avoid  discomfort  from  heat  and 
bad  air.  It  may  be  ventilated  by 
means  of  crooked  tin  tubes,  painted 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


527 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


black  on  the  inside,  fastened  to  a 
hole  in  the  outer  wall.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  the  faintest 
glimmer  of  outside  light  may  spoil 
tne  plates.  To  enable  the  worker 
to  see,  a  "  ruby  lantern"  must  be 
used.  This  is  a  lantern  covered 


Lantern  for  Dark  Room. 

with  ruby-red  glass,  the  light  from 
which  does  not  affect  the  plates. 
Many  kinds  are  in  the  market,  one 
of  which  is  shown  in  the  illustration. 
Instead  of  it,  a  lamp  with  a  close 
shade  of  red  tissue  paper  may  be 
used,  but  the  lantern  is  best.  In  this 
room  must  be  placed  all  arrange- 
ments for  developing  and  fixing  the 
negatives,  as  described  below.  These 
include  shelves,  a  sink,  running 
water,  and  three  shallow  trays  of 
iron,  glass,  or  rubber,  for  immersing 
the  plates  or  prints.  The  same 
chemical  should  always  be  used  in 
the  same  tray.  The  illustration 


Rubber  Tray. 

shows  a  hard  rubber  tray,  which  may 
be   bought    of    .dealers   in    photo- 


graphic supplies.  The  sink  may  be 
made  of  a  large  baking-pan  having 
a  pipe  soldered  to  the  bottom  to 
carry  off  the  water  to  a  pail  below. 
Running  water  may  be  obtained  by 
putting  a  faucet  in  an  ordinary 
wooden  pail,  which  stands  on  a  shelf 
above  the  sink.  Over  the  faucet  is 
slipped  a  rubber  tube  long  enough 
to  reach  to  the  sink.  For  preparing 
the  proper  solutions,  four  "gradu- 
ates" or  measuring-glasses,  are  need- 
ed, one  each  of  eight,  four,  and  two 
ounces,  marked  with  drams  and  one 
to  measure  minims,  and  for  weigh- 
ing chemicals  a  pair  of  scales  is 
necessary. 

Plates.  Formerly  every  photog- 
rapher prepared  his  own  plates,  but 
now  they  are  generally  bought  ready 
for  use.  There  are  many  kinds, 
some  for  landscape,  some  for  instan- 
taneous pictures,  some  for  transpar- 
encies, and  so  on.  All  come  in  dif- 
ferent sizes,  and  are  packed  by  the 
dozen  in  paper  boxes.  The  face,  or 
sensitive  side,  of  the  plate  can  always 
be  told  from  the  back  by  its  duller 
lustre.  In  preparing  to  take  a  pict- 
ure, the  first  thing  is  to  fill  the  plate- 
holder,  which  must  be  done  in  the 
dark  room,  the  face  of  each  plate 
being  carefully  brushed  with  a  broad 
soft  camel's-hair  brush  to  remove 
dust.  Each  plate  should  be  held  at 
the  corner  only.  Plate-holders 
generally  hold  two  plates,  and  these 
should  be  put  in  back  to  back,  so  as 
to  face  outward.  It  requires  prac- 
tice to  do  this  without  touching  the 
sensitive  side  of  the  plates,  especi- 
ally as  the  light  in  the  dark  room  is 
very  dim. 

Taking  the  Picture.  Place  the 
camera  so  that  the  lens  points  to- 
ward the  object  or  view  to  be  taken, 
and  then,  throwing  the  focussing- 
cloth  over  the  head,  move  the  rear 
part  of  the  camera  forward  or  back- 
ward till  the  image  on  the  ground 
glass  is  distinct.  It  often  requires 
practice  to  see  any  image  at  all, 
at  first,  but  by  moving  the  eye  back- 
ward and  forward,  it  can  be  made  to 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


528 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


appear.  Before  the  final  focussing, 
the  camera  should  be  moved  so  that 
just  the  objects  desired  appear  on 
the  ground  glass.  To  include  more 
of  the  upper  part  of  the  landscape, 
the  sliding  front  may  be  raised.  If 
this  throws  some  of  the  lower  ob- 
jects off  the  glass,  the  camera  should 
be  moved  farther  back.  The  focus  is 
now  made  perfectly  distinct  for 
some  one  object  in  the  middle  fore- 
ground, the  operator  viewing  its 
image  carefully  with  the  focussing- 
glass.  The  images  of  more  distant 
and  nearer  objects  will  probably 
now  be  a  little  blurred.  To  remedy 
this,  one  of  the  "  stops"  must  be  put 
on  the  lens.  The  largest  should  be 
tried  first,  and  then  a  smaller  one, 
till  all  parts  of  the  picture  are  equally 
distinct.  No  smaller  one  than  ab- 
solutely necessary  should  be  used, 
as  the  smaller  the  stop,  the  less  light 
falls  on  the  plate.  If  there  is  an  ob- 
ject in  the  very  near  foreground,  it 
will  be  necessary  to  use  the  swing- 
back  to  make  its  image  distinct. 

The  cap  must  now  be  placed  over 
the  lens,  the  ground  glass  removed, 
and  the  plate-holder  put  in  its  place, 
the  focussing-cloth  being  thrown 
over  it  as  it  is  taken  from  the  box 
where  it  is  kept,  and  remaining  over 
it  till  it  is  returned  to  the  box. 
This  is  necessary  that  light  may  not 
reach  the  plate  through  some  crack 
in  the  holder.  The  slide  is  with- 
drawn, and  then  the  light  is  admitted 
to  the  plate  by  removing  the  cap 
from  the  lens,  taking  care  not  to 
shake  the  camera  in  so  doing. 
When  the  exposure  is  finished,  the 
lens  is  recapped,  the  slide  returned, 
and  the  plate-holder  replaced  in  its 
box. 

For  the  time  of  exposure,  no  rules 
can  be  given.  It  must  be  deter- 
mined in  every  case  by  experience, 
as  it  varies  with  the  light,  the  lens, 
the  plate,  the  stop  used,  and  the 
kind  of  picture.  The  time  may 
thus  vary  from  almost  nothing,  with 
a-  very  sensitive  plate  and  bright 
light,  to  10,  15,  or  20  seconds  with 


poor  light.  In  general  a  hazy  or 
yellow  light  requires  a  longer  time 
than  clear  weather,  and  the  hours 
near  noon  less  time  than  late  after- 
noon. Spring  foliage  requires  less 
time  than  the  same  in  summer,  and 
a  sea  view  than  a  landscape.  After 
the  photographer  has  had  experience 
he  will  judge  of  the  time  required 
by  comparing  the  kind  of  view,  the 
light,  and  the  other  conditions,  with 
those  of  some  previous  picture  he 
has  taken.  A  second  or  two  more 
or  less  is  not  fatal  to  success,  but 
over-exposure  is  easier  to  remedy 
than  under-exposure.  The  be- 
ginner should  make  several  expos- 
ures of  the  same  view,  and  note 
which  one  turns  out  best.  The 
plate-holder  should  be  marked  after 
each  exposure  with  the  time,  stop 
used,  and  other  data  to  be  remem- 
bered. 

Developing.  This  process  requires 
great  care,  and  must  be  carried  on 
in  the  dark  room.  There  are  many 
developing  fluids,  each  of  which  has 
its  advocates.  The  following  direc- 
tions show  how  to  make  one  of  the 
best.  The  solution  is  made  in  two 
parts,  which  are  mixed  as  they  are 
needed.  Each  may  be  held  in  a 
twelve-ounce  bottle.  The  following 
chemicals  are  needed : 

Sulphite  of  soda,  crystals,  I  Ib. 

Carbonate  of  potash,  granulated,  " 
Carbonate  of  soda,  "  " 

Pyrogallic  acid,  4  oz. 

Sulphuric      "  I  "' 

Bromide  of  potash,  I  " 

Solution  I.  Dissolve  two  ounces, 
by  weight,  of  sulphite  of  soda  in 
eight  measured  ounces  of  soft 
water,  add  slowly  half  a  dram  of 
sulphuric  acid,  and  then  240  grains 
of  pyrogallic  acid.  Pour  in  enough 
water  to  make  eight  ounces  of  mix- 
ture. In  warm  weather  fifteen  grains 
of  bromide  of  potassium  may  be 
added  to  prevent  too  rapid  working. 
This  solution  is  labelled  "  Pyro." 
It  must  be  used  only  so  long  as  it  is 
perfectly  clear. 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


529 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


Solution  2.  Dissolve  one  ounce 
each  of  carbonate  of  potash  and 
soda  in  five  ounces  of  water.  Add 
enough  water  to  make  eight  ounces. 

Each  solution  should  be  poured 
into  its  bottle  through  a  wad  of 
clean  cotton  placed  in  a  funnel. 

When  the  developing  solution  is 
needed,  the  two  solutions  are  mixed 
and  diluted,  in  the  proportion  of 
one  part  of  each  to  two  parts  of 
water. 

To  develop  the  plate,  lay  it  in 
one  of  the  trays,  face  upward,  and 
pour  the  solution  over  it  with  a 
sweeping  motion.  Then  move  the 
tray  so  that  it  will  be  washed  evenly, 
gently  breaking  all  air-bubbles  with 
the  finger-tip.  The  picture  will 
shortly  begin  to  appear  on  the  plate, 
the  very  light  parts  first  (which  of 
course  are  black  in  the  negative). 
If  the  plate  is  under-exposed,  the 
details  of  the  picture  will  refuse  to 
appear;  if  over-exposed,  the  whole 
picture  will  appear  suddenly.  The 
negative  should  be  examined  by 
holding  it  up  to  the  light  from  time 
to  time,  and  as  soon  as  the  details 
are  distinct  enough,  the  plate  is 
thoroughly  washed  with  a  stream  of 
clear  water  from  the  rubber  tube. 
If  it  is  known  beforehand  that  a 
plate  is  over-exposed,  only  half  the  ' 
ordinary  quantity  of  the  second  so- 1 
lution  is  used,  and  a  few  drops  of  a ' 
solution  of  bromide  of  potash  are  I 
added  (50  grains  to  the  ounce  of; 
water).  The  bromide  makes  the 
process  slower,  the  second  solution 
hastens  it;  so  by  varying  the  propor- 
tions, a  developer  may  be  made  to 
suit  a  plate  more  or  less  over-ex- 
posed. 

Fixing.  Two  solutions  are  needed 
for  fixing:  one  composed  of  one  part 
of  alum  to  ten  of  water,  the  other 
of  one  part  of  hyposulphite  of  soda 
(called  "  hypo  "  for  short)  to  five  of 
water.  The  trays  for  fixing  should 
be  about  two  inches  deep,  and 
enough  solution  is  placed  in  each  to 
cover  a  plate.  When  the  negative 
has  been  washed,  after  developing,  \ 


it  is  placed  in  the  alum  solution  for 
four  or  five  minutes,  washed  again, 
and  then  in  the  "hypo"  solution 
till  no  whiteness  is  seen  on  the  plate, 
looked  at  from  the  back.  This 
should  take  not  more  than  ten  min- 
utes; the  "  hypo  "  should  be  renewed 
if  it  works  slowly.  Fixing  may  be 
carried  on  in  a  weak  light,  and  after 
it  is  finished  the  plates  may  be  ex- 
posed to  strong  light  without  injury. 
If  the  fixing  is  not  thoroughly  done, 
however,  the  negative  will  not  last. 
After  fixing,  the  plates  are  placed  in 
a  large  pail  of  water,  for  several 
hours,  the  water  being  changed 
every  twenty  or  thirty  minutes,  and 
they  are  then  allowed  to  dry,  with- 
out being  heated. 

Varnishing.  This  is  not  necessary 
unless  the  plates  are  to  be  preserved 
a  long  time.  Prepared  varnish  (to 
be  bought  of  a  dealer  in  photo- 
graphic supplies)  is  poured  on  the 
plate,  which  is  lowered  first  at  one 
end  and  then  at  the  other,  so  that 
the  varnish  flows  evenly  over  the 
surface.  The  surplus  is  drained 
into  the  bottle  from  one  corner,  the 
plate  being  rocked  to  and  fro  to 
prevent  drying  in  ridges. 

Printing.  Paper  all  ready  for 
printing  may  be  bought,  or  it  may 
be  prepared  by  soaking  albumenized 
paper  in  a  bath  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
composed  as  follows: 

Water,  64  ounces. 

Nitrate  of  silver,  8       " 

Ammonia  nitrate,        2      " 
Magnesia,       "  I  ounce. 

Ammonia,   one   drop   to   each 
ounce  of  solution. 

This  solution  is  used  over  and 
over  again,  adding  nitrate  of  silver 
and  ammonia  from  time  to  time. 
The  condition  of  the  solution  may 
be  tested  by  putting  enough  shot 
into  a  glass  tube  closed  at  one  end  to 
float  it  upright  in  a  bottle  of  the 
liquid.  Make  a  scratch  on  the  tube 
at  the  level  of  the  liquid.  As  the 
latter  gets  weaker  the  tube  will  sink 
lower,  and  enough  nitrate  of  silver 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


53° 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


must  be  added  to  float  the  tube  at 
the  same  level. 

The  silver  solution  is  poured  into 
a  glass  tray,  or  one  of  shellacked 
wood,  and  the  sheets  of  paper  floated 
on  it,  albumen  side  down.  One 
corner  should  touch  the  surface  first, 
and  the  rest  of  the  sheet  be  lowered 
evenly,  so  that  no  air-bubbles  may 
get  under  it.  Light  bits  of  wood 
are  laid  on  the  paper  to  keep  the 
corners  down.  The  paper  should 
be  floated  from  one  minute  and  a 
quarter  to  two  minutes  (longest  in 
winter),  and  then  pressed  between 
blotting  papers  and  hung  up  to  dry 
in  the  dark.  Before  printing,  the 
paper,  whether  ready-prepared  or 
home  made,  must  be  exposed  for 
from  fifteen  to  thirty  minutes  to  the 
vapor  of  ammonia,  longest  in  cold 
weather.  This  is  done  most  con- 
veniently by  hanging  the  sheet  over 
twine  in  a  box,  in  the  bottom  of 
which  is  a  tray  of  strong  ammonia 
water. 


Printing-frame. 

For  printing,  a  frame  like  that 
shown  in  the  illustration  is  usually 
used.  The  negative  is  placed  in  it 
film  up,  and  on  it  is  laid  the  sensi- 
tive paper,  film  down.  The  two  are 
secured  by  the  springs  pressing 
against  the  back  of  the  frame,  and 
then  exposed  to  sunlight.  The  pro- 
cess must  be  watched  carefully,  by 
opening  the  back  of  one  side  of  the 
frame  to  see  how  far  it  has  pro- 
gressed. The  print  should  be  much 


darker  than  the  finished  picture  is 
to  be.  After  printing,  the  pictures 
must  be  washed  in  clear  water, 
which  is  changed  thrice,  letting 
them  remain  each  time  about  ten 
minutes. 

Toning.  This  process  changes  the 
color  of  the  print  from  reddish 
brown  to  brownish  black.  A  stock 
solution  should  first  be  made  by 
dissolving  15  grains  of  chloride  of 
gold  and  sodium  in  15  ounces  of 
water.  To  make  a  toning  bath  for 
twenty  prints,  add  three  ounces  of 
this  to  10  ounces  of  water  in  which 
have  been  dissolved  a  pinch  of 
cooking-soda  and  a  pinch  of  com- 
mon salt.  The  bath  must  be  kept 
slightly  alkaline,  and  should  be 
tested  with  litmus  paper  (see  TEST 
PAPERS).  If  it  does  not  turn  red 
litmus  paper  blue,  more  soda  should 
be  added.  The  prints  are  to  be 
toned,  about  a  dozen  at  a  time,  by 
laying  them  one  by  one  face  down- 
ward into  a  tray  partially  filled  with 
the  bath.  It  should  be  seen  that 
they  do  not  stick  together.  The 
bath  should  be  kept  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  70°,  which  in  a  cold 
room  may  be  done  by  setting  the 
tray  on  a  hot-water  bottle.  In  ten 
or  fifteen  minutes  the  red  color  of 
the  prints  will  turn  to  a  purplish  or 
brownish  black.  If  the  process  is 
kept  up  too  long  they  will  become 
slate  colored. 

If  the  prepared  silver  paper  be 
used,  the  following  recipe  gives 
better  results :  Add  to  the  gold  so- 
lution a  solution  of  cooking  soda, 
drop  by  drop,  till  it  turns  red  litmus 
paper  blue.  Add  10  grains  of  ace- 
tate of  soda  and  18  ounces  of  water. 

Fixing  the  Prints.  Soak  them 
fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  in  a 
bath  formed  by  dissolving  in  one 
gallon  of  water  a  pound  of  hyposul- 
phite of  soda  and  a  tablespoonful 
each  of  cooking- soda  and  common 
salt.  The  part  used  should  be 
thrown  away.  After  fixing,  the 
prints  should  be  soaked  three  or 
four  minutes  in  strong  salt  and 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


PHOTOGRAPHY 


water.  They  should  then  be  thor- 
oughly washed,  the  water  being 
changed  eight  or  ten  times. 

Blue  Prints.  These  are  made  on 
blue  or  cyanotype  paper  (Greek, 
fyanfls,b\ue).  The  process  of  print- 
ing is  as  already  described,  the  paper, 
as  manufactured,  being  all  ready  to 
put  into  the  printing-frame  with  the 
negative.  No  toning  and  fixing  is 
necessary,  the  print  requiring  only 
to  be  washed  in  pure  water  till  the 
drippings  cease  to  be  yellowish. 

Hydrochloric  acid  makes  the  color 
bluer,  and  sulphuric  acid  renders  it 
greenish.  A  few  drops  of  either  are 
sufficient.  Ammonia  turns  the  color 
to  purple  and  makes  it  lighter. 

The  ease  of  blue  printing  has 
made  it  popular  with  amateurs,  and 
many  use  it  for  taking  ''proofs" 
even  when  they  desire  to  print  after- 
ward in  the  regular  way. 

Bromide  Prints.  Bromide  of  silver- 
paper  is  very  sensitive,  and  is  used 
where  quickness  is  sought  and  for 
enlargements.  The  paper  is  so  sen- 
sitive that  thin  negatives  are  best 
printed  by  the  light  of  a  kerosene 
lamp.  To  enlarge  a  picture,  the 
negative  should  be  fixed  in  a  hole 
in  the  wall  in  front  of  a  HELIOSTAT, 
and  a  lens  so  placed  that  a  sharp 
enlarged  image  of  the  negative  is 
thrown  on  the  sensitive  paper,  which 
is  supported  on  an  upright  board. 
No  light  should  enter  the  room  ex- 
cept that  which  comes  through  the 
lens. 

The  print  does  not  show  at  first, 
but  requires  to  be  developed,  so 
that  it  cannot  be  told  directly  when 
the  printing  is  finished,  as  with  an 
ordinary  photograph.  The  photog- 
rapher must  learn  the  proper  time 
for  exposure  in  various  cases  by  ex- 
perience, as  in  taking  the  picture. 

Bromide  prints  are  developed  and 
fixed  as  follows :   The  developer  i 
made    by   mixing    three   solutions, 
which  are  kept   on   hand   separate- 

Sohition  i.  One  pound  of  oxalate 
of  potash  to  three  pints  of  hot  water 


Add  sulphuric  acid  till  it  turns  blue 
•itmus  paper  red. 

Solution  2.  One  pound  of  proto- 
sulphate  of  iron  to  one  quart  of  hot 
water.  Add  one-half  dram  of  sul- 
phuric acid. 

Sohition  3.  One  dram  of  bromide 
of  potassium  to  one  quart  of  water. 

Just  before  developing,  mix  six 
ounces  of  No.  i  and  one  ounce  of 
No.  2,  and  use  cold.  No.  3  is  used 
to  restrain  the  action  in  over-expos- 
ure, but  too  much  of  it  spoils  the 
print.  The  developer,  when  mixed, 
should  be  of  a  clear  dark  red.  If 
turbid,  it  is  unfit  for  use.  The  image 
appears  slowly.  When  it  is  done, 
wash  the  print  several  times  in  a 
solution  of  one  ounce  of  citric  acid 
in  a  quart  of  water,  then  rinse  in 
pure  water,  and  finally  f  x  in  a  solu- 
tion of  three  ounces  of  "hypo"  to 
a  pint  of  water.  Fixing  takes  about 
ten  minutes.  Wash  the  pi int,  place 
it  in  the  alum  bath,  and  then  wash 
again.  Dry  by  hanging  on  a  line, 
not  between  blotters.  Bromide 
prints  last  much  longer  than  ordi- 
nary ones.  They  may  be  used  for 
book  illustrations,  without  mount- 
ing, by  soaking  in  five  ounces  of 
glycerine  mixed  with  twenty-five 
ounces  of  water. 

Mounting.  Before  mounting,  the 
print  should  be  trimmed  to  the  de- 
sired shape,  which  is  generally  done 
by  laying  on  it  a  glass  or  metal  form 
and  cutting  around  the  edge.  A 
knife  may  be  used,  but  specially 
made  cutters,  formed  of  a  small 
wheel,  are  preferable.  The  print 
should  be  laid,  when  cutting,  on  a 
piece  of  glass  covered  with  paper. 
Glass  alone  dulls  the  cutter,  and 
wood  is  too  soft. 

The  prints  are  secured  to  the 
cardboard  mounting  with  paste, 
whicli  must  be  very  smooth  and  free 
from  lumps.  All  air-bubbles  must 
be  pressed  out  from  between  the 
print  and  the  card,  and  no  more 
paste  used  than  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary. 

Burnishing.     After  mounting,  the 


PIANO 


532 


PIANO 


pictures  may  be  passed  through  a 
burnisher,  like  that  shown  in  the 
picture.  The  photograph  should 
not  be  perfectly  dry,  and  should 
have  its  face  rubbed  with  fine  scrap- 
ings of  castile  soap. 

Taking  Portraits  Indoors.  The 
sitter  should  be  placed  obliquely 
near  one  window  in  the  room,  the 
light  being  shut  out  from  all  others 
by  white  muslin  or  paper  shades. 
If  the  shadows  are  too  strong,  light 
should  be  reflected  from  the  oppo- 
site side  from  a  sheet  hung  over 
a  clothes-liorse.  The  background 
should  be  plain  and  simple. 

Hints  on  Landscapes.  A  land- 
scape should  not  DC  photographed 
from  the  shadow  side,  as  it  appears 
too  sombre.  The  best  time  for 
taking  landscape  views  is  in  the 
morning  or  early  afternoon,  but  late 
afternoon  is  the  best  time  for  cloud 
effects.  When  a  body  of  water 
appears  in  the  picture,  a  point  of 
view  should  be  chosen  where  the 
water  will  not  appear  as  a  sheet  of 
white.  Distant  views  are  best  taken 
when  the  air  is  clear  and  free  from 
haze  or  smoke,  though  a  partially 
cloudy  sky  gives  an  excellent  light. 

Flash-Light.  Places  which  are 
always  too  dark  to  photograph  by 
sunlight  may  be  taken  by  flash- 
light. Magnesium  "cartridges  "  to 
produce  this  light  may  be  bought 
of  dealers  in  photographic  material. 
In  using  them,  focus  must  first  be 
made  with  the  aid  of  lamp  or  gas- 
light. The  lens  is  then  capped,  the 
slide  drawn,  all  lights  put  out,  the 
lens  uncapped,  and  then  the  car- 
tridge is  lighted,  making  a  sudden, 
short,  and  brilliant  light, which  takes 
the  picture.  The  lens  is  then  re- 
capped and  the  plate  removed. 

PIANO,  Experiments  with  a,  The 
Piano  is  described  in  C.  C.  T.  The 
following  experiments  can  be  per- 
formed by  any  one  who  understands 
the  elements  of  music. 

I.  Place  sheets  of  music  on  the 
wires.  The  notes  will  now  have  a  rat- 
tling sound,  and  a  tune  on  the  piano 


will  sound  somewhat  as  if  played  on 
the  banjo. 

2.  Press   down    very   gently    the 
keys  belonging  to  any  desired  chord, 
so  as  to  make  little  or  no  sound, 
and  hold  them  down,  while  some 
one  brushes  the  wires  gently  with 
some  light  object,  such  as  a  feather 
or  a   straw.      The    chord    will    be 
heard   very   softly,  as  if  played  far 
away.     By  changing  the  notes,  being 
careful  to  press  them  down  so  gently 
as  to  makeno  noise,  while  the  feather 
still  sweeps   the   wires,   the   player 
may  modulate,  or  even  play  a  very 
slow  piece  of  music.     The  reason  is, 
that     ordinarily    a    damper    rests 
against  each  wire,  which   is  raised 
when     the     corresponding    key    is 
pressed;  hence   the   feather    causes 
only  those  wires  to  sound  which  are 
undampened.      The  wires  must  be 
lightly  brushed,  as  otherwise  all   of 
them  might  sound,  in  spite  of  the 
dampers. 

3.  Press  down  one  key,  gently,  as 
before,  and  then  strike  the  one  an 
octave   below    it,    very    hard,    not 
holding  it  down.     When  the  sound 
has  been  sufficiently  dampened,  the 
pressed-down    key   will     be    heard 
sounding    clearly.     The    reason    is, 
that  the  note  struck  is  composed  of 
several  notes,  being  in  fact  a  chord, 
and  these  cause  the  corresponding 
wires  to  vibrate  in  sympathy.     The 
other  notes  which   will   vibrate   in 
like  manner  are  the  fifth  above  the 
octave,  the  second  octave,  and  the 
third  and  fifth  above  that.     These 
are   called   overtones.       Thus,  if  a 
C  in  the  lower  part  of  the  piano  be 
struck,  any  or  all  of  the  following 
notes  will  sound,  if  their  keys   be 
first  pressed  down  and  held  down. 


Note  struck. 
PICKADILL. 

GEESE,  III. 


Keys  pressed  down. 

See    Fox     AND 


PIGEON   FLYING 


533 


PIQUET 


PIGEON    FLYING, 

pigeon    is   described    in 


The    carrier 
C.    C.    T. 

These  birds  are  sometimes  matched 
one  against  another,  just  like 
horses  or  boats,  so  that  Pigeon 
Flying  has  become  a  sport.  The 
birds  are  carried  away  long  dis- 
iances  from  their  homes  in  baskets, 
released  at  the  same  time  and 
place,  and  the  one  that  reaches  its 
roost  soonest  wins  the  race.  The 
quickest  times  and  longest  flights 
made  by  pigeons  in  contests  of  this 
kind  are  given  in  the  Appendix. 

PILLOWS  AND  KEYS,  or  PILLOW 
AND  KEY,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  boys  and  girls.  All  sit  in 
a  circle,  and  a  boy  taking  a  cushion 
or  pillow,  lays  it  at  the  feet  of  any 
girl  he  chooses  and  kneels  on  it. 
The  girl  must  kiss  him,  and  then, 
taking  the  cushion,  places  it  in  like 
manner  before  any  boy,  while  the 
first-named  boy  takes  her  seat. 
Sometimes  a  rhyme  is  repeated  by 
the  kneeling  player,  for  instance  ' 

"  Had  I  as  many  eyes  as  stars  in  the  skies, 

And  were  I  as  old  as  Adam, 
I'd  fall  on  my  knees,  and  kiss  whom  I  please, 

Your  humble  servant,  madam." 

This  game  is  said  to  be  derived 


from  an  old  dance  called  the  "  Cush- 
ion Dance." 

PIN  DRAWINGS,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  with 
pencil  and  paper.  Sheets  of  paper, 
one  for  each  player,  are  laid  in  a 
pile,  and  five  pins  are  held  about 
three  feet  above  them,  between  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  leader, 
who  drops  them  on  the  paper.  At 
the  spot  where  each  of  the  pin- 
heads  lies,  another  pin  is  then 
driven  through  all  the  thicknesses 
of  paper,  so  that  pin-holes  are  made 
in  each,  in  the  same  positions. 
Each  player  must  now  draw  on  his 
paper  a  human  figure,  so  that  one 
pin-hole  is  included  in  the  outline 
of  the  head,  and  one  in  that  of  each 
hand  and  foot.  Animals  or  birds 
may  be  drawn  instead,  varying  the 
number  of  pin-holes  and  the  re- 
quirements of  the  game  to  suit  the 
players.  At  the  close  of  the  draw- 
ing, each  player  should  write  under 
each  picture  the  name  of  the  one 
he  supposes  to  have  been  the  ar- 
tist. Sometimes  grains  of  rice  are 
dropped  on  the  paper  instead  of 
pins,  to  show  where  the  head, 
hands,  and  feet  of  the  figure  must 


Pin  Drawings. 


be  made.  The  illustration  shows 
the  spots  where  the  pins  or  rice  are 
supposed  to  have  fallen,  and  three 
different  figures  drawn  from  these 
spots. 

PINOCLE,     See  BEZIQUE. 

PIQUET,  a  game  of  CARDS  played 
by  two  persons  with  a  EUCHRE 
pack.  The  players  cut  for  deal,  and 
highest  deals,  Ace  being  high  in 
cutting,  as  in  playing,  and  the  other 
cards  ranking  as  in  WHIST.  The 
dealer  gives  twelve  cards  to  each 


player,  two  at  a  time,  and  places 
the  stock  where  both  can  reach  it. 
If  the  hand  of  either  player  contains 
no  face  card,  it  is  called  carte 
blanche  (white  card),  and  he  scores 
10  at  once.  He  must  deal  the 
cards  on  the  table  quickly,  one  by 
one,  and  then  take  them  up  ngain 
that  his  opponent  may  see  he  has 
no  face  card.  The  non-dealer  may 
now  discard  five  cards,  or  less,  sup- 
plying their  places  by  an  equal  num- 
ber from  the  top  of  the  stock.  He 


PIQUET 


534 


PIQUET 


must  discard  at  least  one.  If  he 
discards  less  than  five,  he  must  tell 
how  many,  and  may  then  look  at 
those  of  the  upper  five  cards  of  the 
stock  that  he  did  not  take.  Thus, 
if  he  discard  two,  he  takes  two  from 
the  stock,  and  may  look  at  the  next 
three.  The  dealer  need  not  discard 
at  all,  unless  he  wishes ;  but  he  is 
entitled  to  ail  the  cards  that  are 
left  in  the  stock,  or  as  many  of 
them  as  he  wants,  and  discards  as 
many  as  he  takes.  He  must  take 
his  cards  from  the  top  of  the  stock 
as  they  come,  even  if  they  have  al- 
ready been  looked  at.  In  every 
case  the  discard  must  be  decided 
on  and  made  before  any  cards  in 
the  stock  are  taken  up. 

Discarding  is  followed  by  what  is 
named  "calling  and  showing,"  in 
which  the  players  see  which  has  the 
highest  of  certain  groups  of  cards. 
These  groups  are  of  three  kinds: 
I.  Points;  2.  Sequences;  3.  Quat- 
orzes  and  Trios. 

Point  is  won  by  the  player  who 
has  the  greatest  number  of  spots  in 
any  one  suit,  reckoning  Ace  as  u, 
and  face  cards  each  as  10.  He  who 
wins  Point  scores  one  for  each  card 
in  the  suit. 

Sequences  (Latin,  sequens,  follow- 
ing) are  three  or  more  cards  of  the 
same  suit  in  regular  order.  They 
rank  :  first,  according  to  the  number 
of  cards,  and  second,  according  to 
the  highest  card  in  the  sequence. 
Thus,  a  sequence  of  five  cards  is 
always  higher  than  one  of  four;  but 
of  two  sequences  of  four, — King, 
Queen,  Knave,  Ten,  for  instance,  is 
higher  than  Queen,  Knave,  Ten, 
Nine.  Sequences  count  one  for 
each  card,  and  10  points  more  if 
there  are  five  or  more  cards;  thus, 
a  sequence  of  three  counts  3,  but 
one  of  seven  counts  17.  The  holder 
of  the  highest  sequence  scores  for 
all  the  sequences  he  holds,  but  the 
other  scores  for  none  of  his.  The 
sequences  are  often  given  French 
names,  being  called  respectively 


tierce,  quart,  quint,  sixieme,  sep- 
tieme,  and  huitieme,  according  as 
they  consist  of  three,  four,  five,  six, 
seven,  or  eight  cards.  A  sequence 
whose  highest  card  is  Knave  or 
King,  for  instance,  is  called  a  "se- 
quence to  a  Knave"  or  "  to  a  King;" 
thus,  a  Queen,  Knave,  and  Ten  of 
the  same  suit  form  a  "tierce  to  a 
Queen."  If  Ace  is  the  highest  card, 
it  is  a  sequence  major  (Latin,  ma- 
jor, greater,  because  it  is  greater 
than  any  other  sequence  of  the 
same  number  of  cards). 

Quatorzes  and  Trios  are  four  cards 
or  three  cards  of  a  kind,  higher  than 
a  Nine-spot,  and  are  called  simply 
four  Queens,  three  Aces,  or  whatever 
they  may  be.  The  value  depends 
on  that  of  the  cards  that  form  the 
group,  but  any  Quatorze  is  higher 
than  any  Trio.  A  Quatorze  counts 
14,  and  hence  its  name,  which  is  the 
French  for  fourteen.  A  Trio  counts 
3.  The  holder  of  the  highest  Oua- 
torze  (or  Trio,  if  there  be  no  Qua- 
torze) scores  for  all  his  Quatorzes 
and  Trios,  but  the  other  player 
scores  for  none  of  his. 

The  scoring  of  all  these  groups 
proceeds  as  follows:  The  non-dealer 
calls  the  amount  of  his  Point  (the 
sum  of  the  spots  of  his  highest  suit, 
as  explained  above).  If  the  other 
have  nothing  greater,  he  says 
"  Good,"  and  the  winner  shows 
all  the  cards  of  his  winning  suit; 
but  if  the  other  has  the  same,  he 
says  "  Equal,"  and  neither  scores;  if 
he  has  a  suit  that  will  beat  it,  he 
says  "Not  good."  If  he  says 
"  Equal,"  or  "  Not  good,"  he  neither 
shows  his  own  cards  nor  scores  till 
his  opponent  has  led  the  first  card, 
as  shown  below.  The  sequences 
are  then  taken  up  in  like  manner, 
the  elder  hand  telling  what  his  high- 
est is,  and  the  other  replying  "Good," 
"  Equal,"  or  "  Not  good,"  as  before. 
Lastly  the  Quatorzes  and  Trios  are 
considered  together. 

Playing  now  begins,  the  eldest 
hand  leading  first,  and  the  winner  of 


PIQUET 


535 


each  trick  leading  for  the  next,  as 
in  most  card  games.  Suit  must  be 
followed  if  possible,  otherwise  any 
card  may  be  played.  Any  one  that 
leads  a  "counting  card"  (Ace,  King, 
Queen,  Knave,  or  Ten)  scores  one, 
whether  he  takes  the  trick  or  not ; 
and  he  who  takes  a  trick  with  a 
counting-card  likewise  scores  one. 
He  who  takes  the  last  trick  scores  an 
additional  one  (thus  he  scores  two 
if  he  takes  it  with  a  counting-card). 
The  player  that  takes  the  majority 
of  tricks  scores  10  for  cards.  If  he 
take  every  trick  (called  winning  a 
Capot),  he  scores  40.  If  each  takes 
six  tricks,  neither  scores  for  cards. 

If  a  player  score  30  in  hand 
and  play  before  his  opponent  scores 
anything,  he  wins  Pique,  and  scores 
an  extra  30.  If  he  score  30  in 
hand  alone  before  his  opponent 
scores,  he  wins  Repique,  and  scores 
an  additional  60.  Carte  Blanche 
counts  toward  a  Pique  or  Repique, 
but  a  Capot  does  not. 

The  game  is  100.  It  is  customary 
not  to  write  down  the  score  till  the 
end  of  the  hand.  Before  that  time, 
each  player,  as  he  wins  a  point,  adds 
it  mentally  to  his  previous  score  for 
that  hand  only,  and  announces  the 
total  aloud.  But  as  the  whole  score 
nears  ico,  it  is  necessary  to  remem- 
ber what  it  is,  as  the  game  ceases  as 
soon  as  either  player's  score  reaches 
that  amount. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  al- 
though the  dealer  does  not  show  and 
score  his  winning  groups  till  the 
first  card  is  led,  they  are  looked 
upon  as  if  they  had  been  recorded 
in  their  proper  place,  in  counting 
for  Pique  and  Repique.  Thus,  if 
the  elder  hand  scores  30  by  his 
Sequences  and  Quatorzes,  while  his 
Point  is  "  not  good,"  he  does  not 
repique  the  dealer,  whose  score  is 
regarded  as  being  made  in  its  proper 
place,  though  he  is  not  obliged  to 
show  his  winning  suit  till  later. 

In  playing  Piquet  the  chief  things 
for  the  beginner  to  note  are : 


1.  That  the  discarded  cards  and 
the  ones  shown  by  his  opponent,  to- 
gether with  those  in  his  own  hand, 
give   him   the     means    of    making 
a  good     estimate    of   his   enemy's 
strength. 

2.  That   in    discarding,   all   of  a 
long  suit  should  usually  be  kept  to 
make  Point. 

3.  That  as   the  elder  hand   leads 
and  there  is  no  trump,  he  can  play 
a  bolder  game   than   his  opponent, 
and    need   not  keep  small  cards  to 
guard  a  King  or  Queen,  as  his  oppo- 
nent should.     An  experienced  play- 
er will  often   omit  to  call   his  best 
groups,  preferring  to   lose,  for  the 
time  being,  rather  than  give  his  op- 
ponent valuable  information.     The 
learner  is  advised   to  play  through 
carefully  the  following  sample  hand. 

A  deals. 


** 


*** 


*    * 


o  o 


A's  hand  is  : 


** 

*    * 


00 


V 


0  O 
00 
0^0 

o   o 


V 

O     0 
O     0 


PIQUET 


536 


PIQUET 


B  discards : 


* 

*** 
*** 


*** 

*     * 

•!•    4- 


9     9 


0     0 


(He  keeps  his  longest  suit,  Spades, 
for  Point,  and  discards  the  small 
cards  of  the  other  suits,  as  by  so 
doing  he  breaks  up  no  sequence, 
Quatorze,  or  Trio.  He  does  not 
keep  the  Eight  of  Diamonds  as  a 
guard  to  his  King,  since  he  has  the 
lead.) 

B  draws : 


*** 

*  * 

**+ 


9~9l 
99 
9V9 
9  9 


A  discards : 


B  (calling  his  Point)  says  "Forty- 
one." 

A  (seeing  he  has  47  in  Diamonds) 
replies  "  Not  good." 

B  says  "  A  Tierce  Major." 

A  says  "  Good  "  (since  he  has  no 
higher  sequence),  and  B  shows 


and  says  "  3  "  (scoring). 

B  says  "  Four  Kings." 

A  says  "  Good." 

B  (who  need  not  show  them  un- 
less A  demands  it)  says  "  17,  and 
three  Queens  make  20." 


B  plays 


and  says  "21." 


A  now  shows  his  Point : 


say  ing  "5." 


A  plays 


B  plays 


A  plays 
B  plays 
A  plays 
B  plays 
A  plays 
B  plays 
A  plays 


°^o 

0<>0 

0  0 

o0o 

%« 
0  0 

0  O 

O  0 

0  0 

A        A 

*A* 

A'  A 

+      A 


.     (ist  trick.) 
,  saying  "  22." 
.    (2d  trick.) 
,  saying  "  23." 
.     (3d  trick.) 
,  saying  "24." 
,     (4th  trick.) 
,  saying  "  25." 

,  saying  "6."     (5th 
trick). 

A  (who  has  thus  gained  the  lead) 


99 

99 
99 
9*9 


plays 


B  plays 


,  saying  "  7. 


.    (6th  trick.) 


PIQUET 


537 


PIQUET 


B  plays 


,  saying  "8." 


.     (7th  trick.) 


,  say  ing  "9." 


,  saying  "  26."  (8th 
trick.) 


B  (leading  again)   plays 
saying  "27." 

.     (gth  trick.) 


A  plays 
B  plays 
A  plays 
B  plays 
A  plays 
B  plays 


O    0 
O     0 


0     O 
O^O 


*    * 


,  saying  "28." 

.     (loth  trick.) 

saying  "  29." 

* 

.     (iithtrick.) 
(which   does   not 


count,  as  it  is  not  a  "counting  card.") 


A  plays 


0<>0 

0<>0 
O     O 


,  and  B,  counting 


one  for  last  trick,  says  "  30." 

B  has  taken  the  majority  of  tricks, 
SO  he  has  "cards,"  which  counts  10, 


and  his  score  stands  40  to  A's  9  for 
the  hand. 

In  playing,  where  a  person  sees 
that  he  is  sure  to  take  tricks  with 
more  than  one  card  in  a  suit,  he 
generally  lays  them  down  all  at  once 
to  save  time.  So,  in  the  above  game, 
beginning  after  the  first  trick,  B 

\fwr\   is 

might  put  down  his 


and 


together  saying  "  24," 


for  the  Knave  has  just  been  played, 
and  they  are  therefore  the  three 
highest  cards  in  the  suit. 

Three-handed  Piquet.  The  dealer 
gives  each  player  eight  cards.  The 
eldest  hand  can  take  four  cards,  the 
next  player  two,  with  any  left  by  the 
first,  and  the  third  as  many  as  re- 
main. Points,  etc.,  to  be  "good," 
must  be  in  excess  of  those  held  by 
each  of  the  other  players,  but  they 
score  as  in  two  handed  Piquet.  A 
Pique  usually  scores  20  extra  points, 
a  Repique  40,  and  a  Capot  30,  but 
there  are  several  other  modes  of 
scoring  these  chances. 

Other  Kinds  of  Piquet.  Several 
varieties  of  the  game,  differing  from 
the  standard  Piquet  in  some  minor 
particulars,  are  played  in  Europe. 
For  instance,  in  Portland  Club 
Piquet,  introduced  in  1873,  the 
Point  is  not  always  estimated  simply 
by  counting  one  for  every  card  held 
in  it ;  but  if  its  pips  happen  to 
amount  to  34,  44,  54,  or  64,  the 
Point  counts  as  3,  4,  5,  or  6  points 
respectively.  In  these  cases  the 
Point  scores  one  less  than  it  ordi- 
narily would. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

i.  If  there  be  a  misdeal,  or  the 
dealer  expose  one  of  his  opponent's 
cards,  he  must  deal  again ;  but  if 
only  one  card  be  dealt  wrongly  (as 
when  one  player  has  thirteen  and 
the  other  eleven,  or  when  one  has 


PIQUET  5. 

thirteen  and  there  are  only  seven  in 
the  stock)  the  non-dealer  may  let 
the  deal  stand,  if  he  choose,  and  the 
numbers  shall  be  corrected  in  dis- 
carding. 

2.  If  the  elder  hand  have  Carte 
Blanche,    he  must  announce   it  at 
once,  but  need  not  show  it  till  after 
the  discard.     If  the  dealer  have  it, 
he  need    neither  declare   nor  show 
it   till   his   opponent   has     discard- 
ed. 

3.  After  a  player  has  touched  the 
stock  he  cannot   alter   his   discard 
unless  there  has  been  a  misdeal,  or 
the  other  player  wrongly  announces 
the   number  of  cards  he  takes,  or 
fails  to  announce  it. 

4.  If    a    player  take  more  cards 
from  the  stock  than  he  ought,  he 
must   play   the   hand  through,  but 
only  his  opponent  may  score.     If  he 
take  less  than  his  due,  his  opponent 
may  reckon,  as  tricks  won,  all  cards 
that  cannot  be  played  to. 

5.  The   elder   hand    may  look  at 
any  cards  that  he  declines  to  take 
from  the  stock.      The  dealer  may 
look  at  what   he  leaves,   after  the 
other  has  led  a  card  ;  but  if  he  does 
so,  his  opponent  may  also  look. 

6.  A  player  may  examine  his  own 
discard  at  any  time. 

6.  If  a  player  call  a  lower  group 
than  the  highest  he  holds,  he  must 
abide  by  his  call ;  but  if  he  call  a 
group  he  does  not  hold  he  must 
correct  his  mistake. 

8.  When  the  elder  hand  has  led, 
or  the  younger  played  to  it,  neither 
can  reckon  anything  that  has  been 
omitted. 

9.  A   player  may  at  any  time  re- 
quire his  opponent  to  show  him  all 
unplayed  cards   that   have  already 
been  shown    in  reckoning,  or   may 
ask  for  any  information  about  such 
cards. 

10.  A  card  once  played  cannot  be 
taken  up  unless  it  has  been  led  out 
of  turn  and  the  adversary  has  not 
played  to  it,  or  unless  it  is  a  revoke. 
In  the  latter  case  all   cards   played 
after  the  revoke  are  taken  again  into 


the  player's  hands  and  played  over 
again. 

n.  Both  players'  tricks  may  be 
examined  by  either  at  any  time. 

12.  Errors  in  adding  or  marking 
the  score  may  be  made  right  at  any 
time  during  the  game. 

Imperial,  a  kind  of  Piquet,  in  which 
a  trump  is  turned.  The  King  isthe 
highest  card  in  the  pack,  and  the 
Ace  ranks  between  the  Knave  and 
the  Ten.  The  face-cards,  the  Ace, 
and  the  Seven,  are  called  Honors. 
There  is  no  discarding.  The  top 
card  of  the  stock  is  turned  for  trump, 
and  this  trump-card  is  treated  as 
part  of  each  player's  hand  in  reck- 
oning Point  and  groups  of  cards. 
Of  the  Piquet  groups,  the  only  ones 
that  count  in  Imperial  are  quarts- 
major  and  groups  of  four  Honors, 
both  of  which  are  called  Imperials. 
Each  player  scores  for  whatever 
Imperials  he  has,  but  Point  is  scored 
only  by  the  holder  of  the  highest, 
as  in  Piquet.  The  elder  hand  first 
shows  and  scores  his  Imperials,  and 
then  calls  his  Point.  Before  reply- 
ing to  the  call,  the  younger  shows 
and  scores  his  Imperials,  and  then 
says  "  Good  "  or  "  Not  good  "  to 
the  call  of  Point.  If  good,  the 
elder  shows  and  scores  it ;  if  not, 
the  younger  waits  till  after  the 
lead  before  doing  so.  as  in  Piquet. 
If  either  have  Carte  Blanche,  only 
that  and  Imperials  are  scored; 
there  is  no  Point,  and  the  hand  is 
not  played.  In  playing,  only 
Honors  are  scored  for,  and  alwavs 
by  him  who  takes  the  trick  contain- 
ing them. 

In  scoring,'  an  Honor  turned  up 
counts  the  dealer  one;  Carte  Blanche 
scores  12;  an  Imperial  scores  6; 
Point  scores  i.  Each  Honor 
won  in  play  counts  one.  Each 
trick  taken  more  than  six  counts 
one.  When  a  player's  score  is  six, 
no  matter  how  gained,  he  is  said  to 
have  scored  an  Imperial.  When,  in 
the  course  of  a  hand,  either  player's 
score  amounts  to  that  of  one  or 
more  Imperials,  his  opponent's  score 


PIQUET 


539 


PLANETS 


is  reduced  to  the  next  lowest  whole 
number  of  Imperials,  called  "  taking 
down."  Thus,  suppose  A  has  4 
points  and  B  3  ;  if  B  make  3  more, 
all  A's  afe  taken  away,  and  the 
score  is  I  Imperial  to  nothing  in 
B's  favor.  Similarly,  if  A  have  25 
points  and  B  4,  and  B  gain  2,  the 
score  is  A.  4  Imperials;  B,  I  Imperial. 
But  if  each  player  has  one  or  more 
Imperials  in  hand,  neither  takes 
down  his  score.  The  number  of 
Imperials  that  shall  win  the  game 
is  decided  on  beforehand.  It  is 
usually  about  six  (36  points). 

In  playing,  the  most  noticeable 
difference  from  Piquet  is  due  to  the 
trump.  Trumps  should  be  led  if 
the  hand  is  strong  in  them  (that  is, 
if  there  are  four  or  more).  If  a 
plaver  is  forced  to  trump,  he  should 
do  so  with  a  low  Honor,  to  score  it. 
If  a  player  think,  from  the  score, 
that  he  can  make  an  Imperial,  and 
that  his  adversary  cannot,  he  should 
try  to  force  the  hitter  to  make  neces- 
sary points  before  the  Imperial  is 
scored,  that  it  may  take  them  down. 
This  is  called  "playing  to  the 
score." 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  If   the  dealer  turn  the  wrong 
card,  or   more   than   one   card,   for 
trump,  he  must  show  his  hand  to 
his  opponent,  who,  without  looking 
at  his  own  hand,  may  either  require 
the  right  card  to  be  turned,  or  call 
for  a  new  deal. 

2.  If  a  player  look  at  any  of  the 
stock  cards,  his  adversary  may  call 
for  a  fresh  deal,  if  he  have  not  seen 
his   own   cards.      If  he   have   seen 
them,  he  may  call  on  the  offender 
once  during  the  hand  to  lead  some 
particular  suit. 

3.  All  Imperials  must  be  shown 
before   they  can   be  scored.      If  a 
player  do  not  show  his  Imperials  at 
the  proper  time,  as  described  above, 
he  cannot  score  them. 

In  other  essential  points,  the 
laws  of  Imperial  are  the  same  as 
those  of  ordinary  Piquet. 


History.      Piquet   is  one   of  the 

oldest  of  the  card  games  still  played. 

It    is    generally    supposed   that    it 

originated  in  France,  where  it  was 

also  called  Cent  (Hundred),  though 

the  same  game  under  the  name  of 

Cientos  was  early  known   in   Spain. 

It  was  called  Sant  (corrupted  from 

Cent)  in  England  till  the  middle  of 

the  seventeenth  century,  when  the 

French  name  of  Piquet  was  adopted. 

What  is  now   called   the    Point    in 

Piquet  was  known  in  old  times  in 

France  as  Ronfle,  and  some  writers 

think  that  the  game  was  developed 

from  the  old  Italian  Ronfa.    Others 

think  that  it  may  have  been  derived 

from  the  Saxon  game  of  Schwerter 

Karte  (Sword  Cards),  which  would 

i  account  for  the  name,  the   French 

j  Pique  (pike)   as  a  suit  mark  being 

the   same   as  the   Spanish   Espada 

j  (Sword).     Some  French  writers  say 

|  that   Piquet  was  so  named  after  a 

i  man  who    invented    it;  others   say 

that  it  was  named  from   the  Pique, 

one  of  its  features,  but  without  ex- 

i  plaining  the  latter ;  while  still  others 

i  suggest  that  the   name  means  "  Le 

\jeu  piquant"  (The  exriting  game). 

The  word    is  also  written  Picquet, 

and  in  English  Picket. 

PITCH.     See  ALL  FOURS. 

PITCHETTE.     See  GROMMETS. 

PLANETS.  Observations  on.     The 

planets  are  described  in  C.  C.  T.  in 

the   article   UNIVERSE.      The  only 

ones   about   which    anything   more 

can  be  seen  with  an  opera  glass  than 

j  with  the  naked   eye  are  Venus  and 

j  Jupiter.     Planets  constantly  change 

position  in  the  heavens,  so  that  no 

directions  can  be  given   for  finding 

them  to  one  who  has   not  studied 

astronomy.       The    best    way    is   to 

wait  until  one  of  them  is  morning 

or  evening  star,  which  can  be  seen 

by  any  almanac. 

Venus.  It  can  be  seen  through  an 
opera-glass  that  Venus  has  phases 
like  the  moon,  changing  from  a  thin 
crescent  to  a  full  disk,  and  then  back 
again  to  a  crescent;  but  instead  of 
being  repeated  every  month,  as  with 


PLANK 


540 


POETICAL  BUTTERFLY 


the  moon,  these  changes  take  nearly 
nineteen  months.  When  Venus  is 
full  she  is  nearly  eight  times  as  far 
away  from  the  earth  as  when  she  is 
new,  so  her  apparent  changes  of 
size  and  shape  are  quite  apparent. 

Jupiter.  This  planet  has.  four 
moons,  which  are  invisible  to  the 
naked  eye,  but  can  be  seen  through 
an  opera-glass.  They  always  appear 
in  a  straight  line,  and  change  posi- 
tion very  rapidly.  If  they  are  looked 
at  two  nights  in  succession,  this 
change  of  position  enables  the  ob- 
server to  tell  them  from  stars,  which 
they  resemble. 

PLANK,  a  game  played  by  two  to 
four  persons,  with  12  cards  and  24 
counters.  Each  of  the  cards  bears 
three  squares,  arranged  as  in  the 
figure,  and  colored  red,  white,  and 
blue,  the  order  of  the  colors  vary- 
ing on  different  cards. 


flanit-caru. 

The  counters  are  divided  into 
four  sets,  marked  respectively  with 
the  letters  A,  B,  C,  and  D,  and  in 
each  set  there  are  two  red,  two 
blue,  and  two  white  counters.  The 
cards  are  divided  equally  among 
the  players,  and  each  is  given  a  set 
of  counters.  The  player  at  the 
dealer's  left  lays  down  a  card  face 
upward,  and  places  a  counter  on  a 
square  of  the  same  color.  The 
player  at  his  left  may  place  a 
counter  on  the  same  card,  or  lay 
another  card  close  by  its  side,  plac- 
ing a  counter  on  the  second  card, 
and  the  other  players  in  turn  have 
the  same  choice.  When  the  cards 
and  counters  have  all  been  played, 
each  may  move  one  of  his  counters 
to  a  vacant  space  of  the  same  color. 


He  who  first  gets  three  of  his  count- 
ers, red,  white,  and  blue,  in  a  row, 
either  lengthwise  or  across  the 
cards,  wins  the  game.  No  counter 
may  be  placed  on  a  square  of  a  dif- 
ferent color. 

PLANTING,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons,  in  which 
each  in  order  tells  what  he  has 
planted  and  what  came  up.  The 
articles  planted  may  be  objects  or 
persons  of  any  kind,  but  they  must 
come  up  as  plants  or  trees,  having 
some  punning  connection  with  the 
thing  planted.  Thus,  one  player 
may  say:  "  I  planted  Shakespeare, 
and  Sweet  William  came  up;"  an- 
other. "  I  planted  a  pack  of  cards, 
and  W(h)istaria  came  up." 

PLATINUM,  Experiments  with.  i. 
Heat  a  bit  of  platinum  wire  red-hot 
in  the  flame  of  a  Bunsen  burner. 
Turn  off  the  gas,  and  turn  it  on 
a^ain  at  once.  The  wire  will 
remain  red-hot,  though  it  does 
not  light  the  gas  again.  The 
reason  is,  that  platinum  con- 
denses gases  on  its  surface, 
and  the  mixed  gas  and  air 
of  the  burner  being  thus  con- 
densed, unite  and  give  out 
enough  heat  to  keep  the  wire 
red-hot,  though  not  enough 
to  light  the  gas  again. 
2.  Cut  a  star,  or  any  other  figure, 
from  a  piece  of  platinum,  and  suspend 
it  by  a  platinum  wire  in  a  wine-glass 
by  fastening  the  wire  to  a  nail  laid 
across  the  top  of  the  glass.  Put  a 
little  alcohol  into  the  glass,  about  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  from  the  object, 
light  it,  and  when  the  platinum  is 
red-hot,  smother  the  flame  by  plac- 
ing a  piece  of  paper  or  card-board 
on  the  top  of  the  glass.  By  lifting 
the  cover  now  and  then  to  let  air 
into  the  glass,  the  platinum  figure 
will  remain  red-hot  and  throw  out 
a  bright  light,  until  all  the  alcohol 
is  exhausted.  The  effect  is  very 
beautiful  in  a  dark  room. 

POETICAL  BUTTERFLY,  THE.  A 
game  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons, one  of  whom,  called  the  But- 


POETS 


54i 


POLO 


terfly,  names  the  others  after  trees, 
flowers,  birds,  or  insects.  The  But- 
terfly pretends  to  fly  from  one  to 
another,  asking  each  for  his  story, 
and  then  commenting  on  it  as  he 
pleases.  Each  of  the  players,  when 
thus  addressed,  must  give  some 
quotation,  or  mention  some  tale  or 
legend,  about  the  tree,  flower,  bird, 
or  insect  he  represents.  Thus,  the 
Apple-tree  may  allude  to  the  story 
of  William  Tell,  and  the  Robin  to 
that  of  Cock  Robin,  while  the  Black- 
bird may  quote : 

"  Four  and  twenty  blackbirds 
Baked  in  a  pie." 

POETS,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  with  pencils 
and  paper.  Each  writes  on  a  slip 
of  paper  the  name  of  some  well- 
known  author,  and  on  another  slip 
a  quotation  from  his  works.  The 
names  are  then  placed  in  one  pile, 
and  the  quotations  in  another,  and 
each  player  draws  a  slip  from  each 
pile.  Each,  in  order,  then  reads  his 
slips  aloud,  and  declares  whether 
or  not  the  quotation  drawn  is  from 
the  writings  of  the  author.  If  not, 
he  is  required  to  give  a  quotation 
from  the  writings  of  the  author 
whose  name  is  on  his  slip,  and  to 
name  the  author  of  the  quotation 
on  the  other  slip.  If  he  makes  any 
mistake  he  must  pay  a  forfeit.  An- 
other way  of  playing  the  game, 
which  makes  it  entirely  one  of 
chance,  is  simply  to  exact  a  forfeit 
from  those  players  who  draw  slips 
on  which  the  names  and  quotations 
do  not  correspond.  This  game  is 
called  in  Germany  Dichter  Er- 
r ashen  (Guessing  Poets). 

POLISH  CHECKERS  or 
DRAUGHTS.  See  CHECKERS. 

POKER,  Experiment  with.  Heat 
a  poker  red  hot,  and  then  look 
along  its  side  at  an  object  ten  or 
twelve  feet  distant.  If  the  poker  is 
held  correctly,  three  images  of  the 
object  will  be  seen  close  to  the  sur- 
face, one  of  which  is  upside  down. 
These  images  are  caused  by  reflection 
from  the  heated  air  close  to  the 


poker.  A  similar  reflection  from 
the  air  close  to  the  hot  sand  of  a 
desert  is  called  Mirage  (a  French 
word  meaning  reflection). 

POLO,  the  game  of  HOCKEY 
played  on  horseback  or  roller  skates. 
In  the  horseback  game,  called 
Equestrian  Polo,  the  players  ride  on 
ponies  not  more  than  14  hands 
i  inch  in  height,  usually  Mexican 
Mustangs.  The  sticks,  or  mallets, 
are  from  49  to  52  inches  long,  with 
heads  of  willow-wood  and  flexible 
handles  covered  with  buckskin.  The 
balls  are  made  of  light  wood.  The 
grounds  are  about  750  yards  long 
and  500  feet  wide,  and  have  at  each 
end  two  goal-posts,  24  feet  apart. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  game  the 
leaders  toss  for  goals,  and  the  play- 
ers on  each  side  take  position  in 
front  of  their  goal  behind  a  line 
drawn  about  12  yards  from  it.  The 
ball  is  thrown  into  the  centre  of  the 
field  by  the  umpire,  and  the  game 
begins.  Sometimes  the  game  is 
opened  by  "  charging,'"  in  which 
case  the  players  stand  only  a  few 
feet  from  the  ball,  and  rush  upon  it 
at  the  word  "  play ;"  but  as  this  is 
hard  on  the  horses,  it  is  usually 
omitted,  except  in  the  opening  game 
of  a  match.  The  object  of  the  game, 
as  in  similar  ones,  is  to  strike  the 
ball  between  the  opposing  goal-posts, 
called  winning  a  goal.  A  match 
game  usually  consists  of  three  in- 
nings of  twenty  minutes  each,  with 
two  minute  intervals  for  rest,  and 
the  side  making  the  most  goals  in 
the  sixty  minutes  of  play  wins  the 
game.  In  case  of  a  tie,  the  game  is 
continued  till  one  party  makes  an- 
other goal. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

The  following  are  the  rules  of  the 
Westchester  Polo  Club : 

1.  The  grounds  to  be  about  750 
feet  long   by  500  feet  wide,  with  a 
ten-inch  guard  from  end  to  end  on 
the  sides  only. 

2.  The  height  of  the  ponies  must 
not  exceed  14  hands  i  inch. 


POLO 


542 


PDLO 


3.  The  balls  to  be  of  wood,  with 
no  other  covering  than  paint,  and 
about  3   inches   in   diameter.     The 
mallets  to  be  such  as  are  approved 
by  the  Steward. 

4.  The  goal-posts  to  be  24  feet 
apart,  and  light  enough  to  break  if 
collided  with. 

5.  Match    games    between   pairs 
shall  be  for  periods  of  30  minutes, 
time  between  goals  included,  unless 
otherwise  specified. 

6.  Match  games  between  teams  of 
four  shall   be  three   periods  of  20 
minutes  each,  actual  play,  time  be- 
tween goals  and  delays  not  counted, 
with  10  minutes  between  the  periods 
for  rest,  unless  otherwise  specified. 

7.  Each  team  to  choose  an  um- 
pire, and,  if  necessary,  the  two  um- 
pires to  appoint  a  referee,  whose  de- 
cision shall  be  final. 

8.  Each  team  sliall  have  a  substi- 
tute   in   readiness  to  play   when  a 
match  is  on. 

9.  There  shall   be  a  captain  for 
each   team,   who     shall    have     the 
direction  of  positions  and  plays  of 
his  men. 

10.  No  captain  shall  allow  a  mem- 
ber of  his  team   to   appear   in  the 
game   otherwise   than  in  the  Club 
uniform. 

11.  No  person — players,  umpires, 
and  referee  excepted — shall,  under 
any  circumstances,  be  allowed  upon 
the  ground  during  the  progress  of 
the  game. 

12.  It  is  forbidden  to  touch  an  ad- 
versary, his  pony,  or  his  mallet,  with 
the  hand  or  mallet  during  play,  or 
to  strike  the  ball  when  dismounted. 

13.  The   game   to  begin  with   a 
charge,  the  contestants  taking  their 
positions    behind     the     chalk-line, 
which  is  to  be  30  feet  from  the  goal- 
posts.    When   the  signal  to  charge 
has  been  given  by  the  referee,  the 
first  and  second  players  must  keep 
to  the  left  of   the   ball   until  it  has 
been  touched. 

14.  In   case   of  an  accident  to  a 
player  or   pony,    or   for   any   other 
reasonable  cause,  the  referee  may 


stop  the  game,  and  the  time  so  lost 
shall  not  be  counted.  When  the 
game  is  resumed,  the  ball  shall  be 
thrown  between  the  players,  who 
shall  be  lined  up  at  the  point  at 
winch  the  ball  stopped.  But  if  the 
game  is  stopped  on  account  of  a 
foul,  the  ball  is  to  be  thrown  in  at 
the  place  at  which  the  foul  occurred. 

15.  When   the   limit  of  time  has 
expired,  the  game  must  continue  un- 
til the  ball  goes  out  of  bounds,  and 
such  over-time  shall  not  be  counted. 

16.  In  case  of  an  equal  number  of 
goals  having  been  made  at  the  end 
of  the  third  period,  the  game  to  be 
continued  until  one  side  makes  the 
winning  goal. 

17.  When  the   ball  goes   out    of 
bounds    at    the  sides,    it   must   be 
thrown  in  from  the  place  at  which  it 
went  out,  by  the  referee,  or  by  ar,  im- 
partial person,  between  the  two  sides, 
which   shall   be   drawn    up   in   line 
facing  each  other.     When  the  ball 
goes  out  at  the  ends,  the   side  de- 
fending that  goal    is   entitled  to  a 
knock-out  from  the  point  at  which 
it  crossed  the  line.     When  the  play- 
er having  the  knock-out  causes  un- 
necessary   delay,   the   umpire    m;iy 
throw  a  ball   on   the  field  and  call 
plays.      No    opponent    shall   come 
within  50  feet  of  a  player  having  the. 
knock-out,  until  the  ball  has  been 
hit. 

1 8.  A  player  requiring  a   mallet 
during  the   game,  must  ride  to  the 
end  or  side  line.     It   must   not  be 
brought  on  the  field  to  him. 

19.  Foul   riding   is    careless   and 
dangerous  horsemanship,  and  lack 
of  consideration    for  the   safety  of 
others.     A   player   in  possession  of 
the  ball  has  the   right   of   way,  and 
no   one   shall  cross  him  unless  at 
such  a  distance  as  to  avoid  all  possi- 
bility of  a  collision. 

20.  The  referee  may  suspend   a 
player  for  the  match  for  foul  riding, 
or  he  may  award  the  opposing  side 
a  half  goal. 

Polo    on    Roller   Skates,    or  Rink 
Polo,  a  game  played  by  opposing 


POLO 


543 


POLO 


teams  of  five  players  in  a  rink  or 
other  large  hall.  The  ball  is  of  rub- 
ber, and  the  sticks,  which  are  curved 
at  the  end,  are  about  five  feet 
long  and  one  inch  in  diameter.  The 
goals,  set  ten  feet  from  the  ends  of 
the  rink,  are  cages  six  feet  wide, 
three  feet  deep,  and  three  feet 
high,  and  to  count  as  a  goal,  the 
ball  must  be  struck  into  the  cage 
and  remain  there. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  To  start  the  game,  the  ball  is 
placed  in  the  middle  of  a  straight 
line  joining  the  centres  of  the  goals, 
and  at  the  whistle  of  the  referee  is 
charged  upon    by   a  player  on  each 
side,  who   shall    start,  without   aid, 
from  a  point  on  aline  with  his  goal 
and  1 8  inches  to  the  left  of  it. 

2.  The  side  scoring  most  goals  in 
a  half  hour's  play  wins  the  game. 

3.  To   count   as  a  goal,  the  ball 
must  remain  in  the  cage.     It  must 
not  be  removed  thence  by  any  per- 
son  but  the  referee.      Should   any 
player   touch  the   ball  in  the  cage 
either  with  his  person  or  stick,  or 
anything  else  that  indicates  his  in- 
tention to  remove  the  ball,  the  ref- 
eree  shall  decide    a   goal  for   the 
other  side. 

If  a  ball  go  out  of  bounds,  the  ref- 
eree shall  blow  his  whistle  to  call 
game,  and  place  the  ball  at  a  point 
opposite  where  it  went  out,  at  least 
four  feet  from  the  rail.  In  recom- 
mencing play,  the  players  who  do  so 
must  stand  in  position  to  knock 
the  ball  up  or  down,  not  across,  the 
rink  with  their  backs  toward  the 
sides,  the  ball  to  be  midway  between 
two  players. 

5.  Game   shall  be   called   by  the 
referee  whenever  a  foul  occurs,  or 
whenever  one  is  claimed,  unless  the 

.  referee  is  satisfied  that  no  just  claim 
exists.  Upon  claim  of  foul,  if  game 
is  to  be  renewed,  the  ball  must  be 
placed  where  the  foul  occurred. 

6.  It  shall  be  deemed  a  foul:    i. 
If  any  player  stop  or  strike  the  ball 
when   any   part   of    his    person   is 


touching  the  surface.  2.  If  any 
player  catch  or  bat  the  ball  with  his 
hands  or  arm.  3.  If  any  player 
(save  the  goal-tend,  who  may  do  so) 
kick  the  ball  with  his  foot  .or  skate, 
though  he  may  stop  the  ball  with 
either.  4.  If  any  player  strike  down 
the  stick  of  his  opponent,  or  if  any 
player  trip  or  strike  another  inten- 
tionally with  stick,  hand,  or  skate. 

5.  If  any  player  throw  his  stick  in 
the  pathway  of  a  player  or  at  a  ball. 

6.  If  a  player  raise  his  stick  above 
his  hip  in   striking  a  ball.     But  in 
case  the  ball  is  in  the  air,  above  the 
hip,  he  can  raise   his  stick  to  stop 
it. 

7.  Any  act   by  any  player  that  is 
manifestly  intended   as  an  interfer- 
ence with  another  may  be  declared 
a  foul    by    the  referee,    upon  com- 
plaint of  the  captain  of  the  offended 
side. 

8.  Three  fouls  (other  than  when 
the  ball  leaves  the  bounds)  made  by 
either  side   during  a  contest  for  a 
goal,  shall  constitute  a  goal  for  the 
opposite  side. 

9.  If  the  referee  decide  that  a  foul 
made  by  the  goal-tend  prevented  a 
goal,  one  shall  be  adjudged  for  the 
opposite  team. 

10.  All  games  shall  be  played  on 
rink    skates    with    plain   boxwood 
revolving  rollers,  without  the  use  of 
additional  appliances  to  hinder  the 
free  running  of  such    rollers.     Any 
woods,  rubber,  or  any  other  material 
attached     in    any    manner    to  any 
skate,   shoe,  or  boot,  is  positively 
prohibited. 

11.  The  ball  must  not  be  struck 
hard,  but  may  only  be  "  nursed"  or 
" coached." 

12.  No  person,  except  the  players 
and  referee,  shall  be  allowed  on  any 
part  of  the  surface  during  a  game. 

13.  If  the  rusher,  whose  place  it 
is  to  charge  upon  the  ball  to  start 
the  game,  tries  to  start  before  the 
whistle  is  blown,  or  does  not  start 
from  the  designated  spot,  the  ref- 
eree must  warn  him  once;    and  if 
he   persists,   the    referee    has    the 


POLO 


544 


POLO 


authority  to  call  for  a  new  rusher 
to  start  the  game. 


Parlor  Polo  Board. 

Parlor  Polo,  a  game  founded  on 
Polo,  played  by  two  persons  on  a 
board  like  that  in  the  illustration. 
The  squares  are  colored  alternately 
white  and  blue,  except  those  occu- 
pied by  men  at  the  beginning  of  the 
game,  which  are  red.  Each  player 
has  six  pieces  or  men,  like  CHECK- 
ERS, called  Goal  Tend,  Cover  Point, 
two  Rushers,  and  two  Half  Backs, 
whose  positions  at  the  opening  of 
the  game  are  shown  in  the  figure.  A 
small  figure  of  a  polo  player  on 
horseback,  called  the  Ball,  is  placed 
in  the  middle  of  the  board.  Each 
player  sits  behind  his  own  goal,  and 
each  plays  in  turn,  throwing  two 
dice  to  determine  his  moves.  The 
colored  squares  alone  are  used. 
Any  man  may  be  moved  a  number 
of  colored  squares  equal  to  the  sum 
of  the  numbers  thrown,  diagonally 
in  any  direction,  either  in  a  straight 
or  zig-zag  line,  provided  he  does 
not  pass  over  any  other  man  in  so 
doing,  nor  retrace  his  steps  in  the 
same  move.  The  Rushers  must 
move  first,  and  the  Goal  Tend  must 
not  leave  the  goal;  but  aside  from 
this  the  men  are  all  alike.  When  a 
man  moves  exactly  into  the  square 
occupied  by  the  Ball,  he  is  said  to 
"have  the  Ball,"  and  it  is  placed  on 


him.  He  can  now  take  the  Ball 
with  him  in  his  moves  (called 
"  carrying  "  it),  or  he  may  "  throw  " 
it,  that  is,  move  the  Ball  like  a 
man.  The  thrown  Ball  can  pass 
over  the  heads  of  as  many  men  as 
necessary,  but  it  can  be  thrown 
only  in  a  straight  line.  A  player 
may  take  the  number  on  one  of  his 
dice  as  a  move,  with  or  without  the 
ball,  and  the  other  as  a  "  throw,"  but 
he  can  divide  them  in  no  other  way. 
Thus,  if  he  throw  six-three,  he  can 
move  up  six  squares  and  throw  the 
Ball  three,  or  vice  -versa,  but  he  can- 
not, for  instance,  move  seven  squares 
and  throw  two.  He  wins  who  first 
plays  the  Ball,  either  by  throwing 
or  carrying  it  to  one  of  the  squares 
in  the  opposite  goal.  The  Ball 
should  usually  be  carried  as  far  as 
possible,  and  then  thrown  over  the 
heads  of  the  opponent's  men. 

History.  Polo  has  been  traced 
back  as  far  as  the  8th  century,  when 
it  was  played  in  Persia  and  called 
Chitgdn,  the  name  of  the  long- 
handled  mallet  used  in  the  game. 
There  is  a  story  that  Darius  sent 
Alexander  a  ball  and  Chugdn,  as  an 
insulting  hint  that  he  was  more  fit 
to  play  polo  than  to  go  to  war.  It 
is  undoubtedly  the  equestrian  game 
called  "Tennis"  in  the  Arabian 
Nights.  The  Byzantine  Greeks 
played  it  with  a  stick  somewhat 
like  a  LACROSSE  stick,  having  at  the 
end  a  network  of  gut  strings.  The 
game  was  played  both  on  foot  and 
on  horseback.  The  foot  game  (our 
Hockey)  was  carried  to  France 
under  the  name  of  Chicane  (prob- 
ably a  corruption  of  Chugdn)  and 
f rom  th is  we  get  our  word  chicanery, 
meaning  trickery,  from  the  tricks 
employed  in  the  game.  Equestrian 
Polo  was  introduced  into  England 
by  some  cavalry  officers  about  1865, 
and  the  first  game  was  played  near 
Folkestone.  There  are  now  many 
Polo  clubs  in  Great  Britain  and  sev- 
eral in  the  United  States.  The  first 
club  in  this  country  was  the  West- 
chester,  which  played  on  the 


POOL 


545 


PORTRAITS 


Grounds  at  Fifth  Avenue  and  noth 
treet,  New  York  City,  still  known 
as  the  Polo  Grounds,  though  they 
are  not  now  used  for  the  purpose, 
the  club  having  removed  its  head- 
quarters to  Newport,  Rhode  Island, 
where  frequent  matches  are  played 
every  summer.  A  kind  of  Polo  has 
long  been  played  by  the  Indians  of 
Arizona,  who  use  any  kind  of  a 
stick  they  wish,  and  strike  to  and 
fro  any  object,  as  a  stone  or  piece 
of  wood.  There  are  no  sides,  each 
player  acting  for  himself. 
POOL.  See  BILLIARDS. 
POPE  JOAN.  See  NEWMARKET. 
POP-GUN,  a  toy  gun  worked  by 
compressed  air.  The  simplest  kind 
is  the  Potato  Pop-gun,  which  is 
made  as  follows :  Fit  loosely  to  a 
piece  of  goose-quill  about  three 
inches  long,  cut  off  squarely  at  the 
ends,  a  wooden  piston  or  ramrod. 
Cut  a  raw  potato  into 
slices  about  as  thick  as 
a  silver  dollar,  and  press 
each  end  of  the  quill  on  a 
slice,  so  that  both  ends 
will  be  plugged  with  little 
pellets  of  potato(^).  Ifone 
of  these  be  now  pushed  in 
with  the  piston  (s),  the 
other  will  fly  out  with  a 
popping  noise.  The  air 
within  is  first  compressed 
and  then,  expanding,  drives 
out  the  bit  of  potato  before 
it.  The  remaining  piece  is 
now  pushed  forward  to 
the  end  of  the  quill,  the 
vacant  end  pressed  again 
on  a  slice  of  potato,  and 
the  gun  is  ready  to  be 
fired  once  more. 

A  larger  gun  can  be 
made  of  a  tube  of  brass  or 
glass,  with  a  piston  made 
Pop-gun,  g  winding  twine  around 
the  end  of  a  stick  till  it  will  ex- 
actly fit  the  bore.  A  cork  is  inserted 
at  one  end  of  the  tube  and  driven 
out  by  suddenly  pushing  the  piston 
in  at  the  other.  Pop-guns  of  all 
kinds  are  sold  at  toy  shops.  In  one 


kind  the  piston  is  in  the  middle, 
and  there  is  a  cork  at  each  end,  so 
that  it  can  be  fired  either  by  pulling 
or  by  pushing  the  piston.  In  an- 
other, a  piece  of  paper  fastened 
tightly  over  one  end  is  broken  by 
the  force  of  the  compressed  air. 

POROSITY,  Experiment  on.  Por- 
ous substances  are  those  which  are 
filled  with  minute  holes,  or  pores. 
Half  fill  a  glass  with  boiling  water, 
and  lay  over  the  top  a  piece  of 
pasteboard,  over  which  invert  an 
empty  dry  glass.  The  moist  vapor 
arising  from  the  water  will  soon  be 
seen  also  in  the  upper  glass,  having 
passed  through  the  pasteboard.  In 
this  way  many  kinds  of  substances 
may  be  tried:  wood,  cloth,  India- 
rubber,  glass,  etc.,  and  it  will  be 
found  that  some  of  them  are  porous 
enough  to  let  water  vapor  through 
them,  while  others  are  not. 

PORTRAITS,  a  game  played  with 
pen,  ink,  and  paper  by  any  number 


Autograph  Portrait. 

of  persons.     Each  writes  his  name 
on  a  slip  of  paper,  with  as  many 


PORTRAITS 


546 


POTATO  RACE 


flourishes,  and  as  much  ink,  as  pos 
sible.  Each  then  folds  his  paper 
once,  the  fold  running  lengthwise 
through  the  middle  of  the  name, 
and  passes  it  to  the  right.  The 
person  who  receives  it  presses  his 
A  finger  on  the  fold  at  A, 
then  draws  it  from  B  to 
B  C,  from  B  to  E,  and  from 
C  to  D.  He  thus  makes 
c  a  series  of  blots  within, 
and  when  the  paper  is 


unfolded,  a  rude  and  comical  resem- 
blance to  a  human  figure  will  be 
found.  This  is  supposed  to  be  the 
portrait  of  him  whose  name  was 
written  on  the  paper.  As  a  general 
thing,  the  more  ink  used  in  writing, 
the  more  amusing  will  be  the  por- 
trait. 

The  picture  shows  an  "autograph 
portrait"  thus  taken.  The  game 
is  sometimes  called  "  Smudge- 
ography. " 

PORTRAITS  AND  SENTIMENTS, 
a  game  played  by  any  number  of 
persons,  who  sit  in  a  row.  Each 
whispers  to  his  right-hand  neighbor 
the  name  of  some  person,  and  to  his 
left  hand  neighbor  some  sentiment, 
original  or  quoted,  supposed  to  be 
written  under  the  portrait  of  that 
person.  Each  then  announces  aloud 
whose  portrait  has  been  presented 
to  him,  and  what  is  inscribed  under 
it.  For  instance,  a  player  may  be 
given  the  portrait  of  Bluebeard 
with  the  inscription:  "He  was  an 
indulgent  husband,  and  an  estima- 
ble gentleman."  The  names  chosen 
may  be  those  of  the  players,  or 
those  of  famous  characters,  real  or 
fictitious,  ancient  or  modern. 

POTASSIUM,  Experiments  with. 
Potassium  is  described  in  C.  C.  T. 
i.  Throw  a  piece  of  potassium  on 
water  as  described  in  C.  C.  T. 

2.  Throw  a  piece  on  a  large  sheet 
of  blotting-paper  which  has  been 
wet  with  red  litmus  water  (see  TEST- 
PAPERS).  The  potassium  will  run 
about  the  paper,  leaving  a  blue 
track  caused  by  the  formation  of 
potash  (see  C.  C.  T.) 


3.  In   a   block   of    ice  about   six 
inches  square,  bore  a  hole  half  an 
inch  wide  and  two  inches  deep,  en- 
larging the  bottom  of  the  hole  to 
form    a    cavity.      Drop    into    it   a 
piece  of  potassium  the  size  of  a  pea. 
It  will  take  fire  and  burn  beautifully. 
The  experiment  should  be  tried  in 
a  warm,  dark  room. 

4.  To  Fire  a  L 'annon  with  an  Icicle. 
Load  a  toy  cannon,  and  on  the  gun 
powder    on    the    touch-hole    put  a 
piece  of  potassium  as  big  as  a  pin- 
head.     When  this  is  touched  with  a 
piece  of  ice  it  will  blaze  up,  setting 
fire  to  the  powder. 

POTATO  RACE,  a  running  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons. 
A  circle  about  forty  feet  in  di- 
ameter is  marked  out  as  a  race- 
course, and  across  it  at  any  point  is 
marked  a  straight  line  A  B  ten  feet 


Course  for  Potato  Race. 

long,  half  outside  the  ring  and  half 
inside.  On  this  line  spots  are 
marked  at  intervals  of  six  inches. 
Each  contestant  must  take  a  potato 
from  a  basket  placed  near  the  ring 
at  C,  opposite  the  line,  and  running 
around  the  circle  place  it  on  the 
first  spot  on  the  line.  As  he  goes 
on  past  the  basket  he  takes  another 
potato,  which  he  places  on  the  sec- 
ond spot,  and  so  on  till  ten  minutes 
have  passed.  After  placing  each 
potato  the  runner  must  return  to 
the  ring  without  stepping  over  the 
line,  and  each  potato  must  be  placed 
exactly  on  its  proper  spot.  Three 


POUND    PARTY 


547 


PREFERENCE 


judges  are  appointed,  one  of  whom 
stands  at  the  potato  basket,  one  at 
the  line,  and  one  in  the  middle  of  the 
circle  to  call  out  the  runners'  names 
in  order  and  keep  the  time. 

Any  runner  who  takes  more  than 
one  potato,  or  fails  to  take  any,  who 
skips  a  spot,  or  does  not  place  his 
potato  properly,  is  declared  out  of 
the  race  at  once.  Instead  of  pota- 
toes, apples,  or  any  small  objects 
can  be  used.  The  course  and  line 
may  be  marked  with  lime  or  flour 
on  grass,  and  the  spots  for  the  pota- 
toes with  dark  earth,  or  by  short 
cross-lines. 

POUND  PARTY,  an  entertainment 
to  which  each  guest  is  required  to 
bring  something  weighing  exactly  a 
pound.  These  may  be  eatables, 
toys,  useful  articles,  or  whatever 
the  giver  pleases.  Each  package  is 
numbered  and  laid  aside  as  it  is  re- 
ceived. When  the  guests  are  ready 
for  the  distribution  of  the  parcels, 
numbered  cards,  or  slips  of  paper, 
are  passed  around  and  each  draws 
one.  Some  one  then  takes  the 
packages  one  by  one,  calling  its 
number  aloud;  the  holder  of  the 
corresponding  number  becomes  its 
owner,  and  must  open  it  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  company. 

PREDICAMENTS.  See  CROSS 
QUESTIONS. 

PREFERENCE,  or  SWEDISH 
WHIST,  a  game  of  CARDS,  played 
with  a  full  pack,  generally  by  four 
persons,  but  sometimes  by  five  or  six. 
The  four-handed  game  will  be  de- 
scribed first.  The  pack  being  placed 
face  downward  on  the  table,  each 
player  draws  a  card  from  it.  The 
holders  of  the  highest  two  play  to- 
gether as  partners,  the  other  two 
playing  against  them.  The  one  who 
draws  the  lowest  card  is  allowed  to 
select  his  place  at  the  table,  and  deals 
first.  Ace  is  considered  the  lowest 
card  in  thus  drawing,  but  in  playing 
the  cards  rank  as  in  WHIST.  The 
game  resembles  ordinary  Whist,  but 
differs  in  the  following  points:  The 
trump  is  determined  by  bidding 


thus  :  the  eldest  hand  names  the 
suit  he  prefers,  and  then  the  others, 
in  order,  to  the  left;  but  eacli  must 
name  a  suit  higher  in  rank  than  the 
preceding  player,  or  say  "  I  pass." 
Hearts  ranks  as  the  highest  suit,  and 
after  it,  in  order.  Diamonds,  Spades, 
and  Clubs.  The  highest  suit  bid  is 
taken  for  trump,  unless  some  one 
bids  "  Preference,"  or  says  "  I  Pre- 
fer," when  the  game  must  be  played 
without  any  trump.  Preference  is 
higher  than  any  other  bid,  and  as 
soon  as  it  is  bid,  play  begins  at 
once. 

In  practice,  the  bids  of  Clubs  and 
Spades  are  now  used  as  an  invitation 
to  the  player's  partner  to  demand 
Preference,  Spades  being  the 
stronger  invitation.  If  all  pass,  the 
party  may  agree  to  play  "  Millissi- 
mo,"  the  object  then  being  to  avoid 
taking  tricks.  Honors  and  tricks  are 
scored  as  in  Whist,  but  the  score  is 
multiplied  by  3,  if  Clubs  are  trumps  ; 
by  4,  if  Spades  ;  by  5,  if  Diamonds  ; 
by  6,  if  Hearts ;  and  by  8,  if  Prefer- 
ence or  Millissimo  has  been  played. 
In  the  case  of  Millissimo,  not  those 
who  take  the  tricks,  but  their  oppo- 
nents, score.  In  addition,  a  Little 
Slam  (12  tricks)  counts  10  points,  a 
Grand  Slam  (13  tricks)  counts  20; 
the  first  game  in  a  rubber  counts  10, 
and  the  second  (if  won  immediately 
after  the  first),  20.  All  these  points 
remain  the  same,  no  matter  what 
the  trump  is. 

A  game  ends  when  one  party  has 
made  20  points  in  tricks  alone.  A 
rubber  ends  when  two  consecutive 
games  have  been  won  by  the  same 
side.  After  the  first  rubber,  the 
dealer  and  the  player  at  his  left 
keep  their  seats,  and  the  others 
change.  After  the  second,  the 
player  opposite  the  dealer  changes 
with  the  one  who  has  not  played 
with  the  dealer.  This  series  of 
three  rubbers  constitutes  what  is 
called  a  "  complete  game."  Each 
player  keeps  his  own  score,  credit- 
ing himself  with  all  points  made  by 
himself  and  each  of  his  partnersj 


PRISM 


548 


PRISM 


and  after  the  thiid  rubber,  he  who 
has  most  points  is  declared  winner. 
As  the  end  of  the  "  small  game  "  is 
determined  by  the  points  made  by 
tricks  alone,  it  is  convenient  to 
score  rhem  by  themselves. 

When  five  play,  one  always  stays 
out  of  the  game,  he  who  drew  the 
highest  card  staying  out  of  the  first 
rubber,  the  next  to  the  highest  out 
of  the  second,  and  so  on.  Each,  on 
entering  the  game,  sits  opposite  the 
player  who  drew  the  lowest  card. 
When  six  play,  two  stay  out  in  like 
manner. 

PRISM,  Experiments  with  a,  The 
prisms  used  to  separated  white  light 
into  its  different  colors  (see  Light 
in  C.  C.  T.)  are  three-sided.  Such 
prisms  are  sometimes  used  also  for 
ornaments  on  chandeliers  or  lamps. 
Larger  ones  are  somewhat  expen- 
sive, but  a  good  prism  can  be  made 
by  fastening  three  squares  of  glass 
on  a  glass  bottom,  and  filling  with 
water  the  three -sided  vessel  so 
formed.  The  joints  are  made  water- 
tight with  putty. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

i.  Look  through  a  prism  at  the 
edge  of  any  bright  object,  or  at  a 
sheet  of  white  paper  pasted  on  black 


Experiment  2. 

paper.  It  will  appear  colored,  in 
narrow  stripes  of  red,  yellow,  and 
blue. 


2.  Hold  a  prism  P  (see  illustra- 
tion), in  a  beam  of  sunlight  admitted 
through  a  hole  S,  into   the  room. 
If  possible,  shut  out  all  light  from 
the  room  except  the  one  beam.   This 
may  be  done  by  closing  the  shutters 
at  all  windows  but  one,  and  covering 
that  with  sheets  of  thick  wrapping- 
paper,  in   one  of    which    is   cut  a 
small  hole  to  admit  the  beam.    The 
spot  of   light   made   by   the   beam 
on  the  wall  or  floor  will  show  seven 
colors,  which  will  be  farther  apart 
the  larger  the   prism.     The  colors 
violet,  indigo,  blue,  green,   yellow, 
orange,  and  red  are  denoted  in  the 
picture  at  I  H  by  their  initial  letters. 

3.  Take  a  bit  of  red  sewing-silk, 
and  hold  it  in  each  one  of  the  colors. 
If  the  room   is  perfectly  dark,  the 
silk  will  appear  black,  or  almost  so, 
in  each  of  them  except  the  red.     In 
like  manner,  yellow  silk  will  appear 
black  in  each  color  except  the  yel- 
low.    This  is  because  each  piece  of 
silk  is  able  to  reflect  only  its  own 
color. 

4.  Look  through  a  prism  at  the 
flame  of  an  alcohol  lamp  in  which 
salt  has  been  dissolved.     It  will  not 
appear  colored  at  all,  because  such 
a  flame  is  pure  yellow  and  cannot 
be     separated    into    other    colors. 

This   is   the   only   pure 
color  easy  to  obtain. 

5.  Receive  the  colored 
spot  on  a  hand-mirror, 
so  as  to  reflect  it  to  the 
ceiling,  and  tip  the 
mirror  rapidly,  so  as  to 
make  the  spot  move 
backward  and  forward. 
It  will  appear  white,  be- 
cause the  effect  is  the 
same  as  if  the  colors 
were  mixed  together 
again. 

With    the    aid    of    a 
HELIOSTAT    the    colors 
can  be  separated  mucn 
farther,     into     a    ban.  1 
called   the    spectrum.      The   beam 
of  light  from  the   heliostat   should 
be  admitted  to  the  room  through 


PRISM 


549 


PRISONER'S   BASE 


a  narrow  slit  from  one-eighth 
to  one-quarter  of  an  inch  wide. 
This  slit  may  be  cut  in  a  sheet 
of  paper  which  is  pinned  over 
the  hole  through  which  the  light 
passes.  In  front  of  the  slit  is  placed 
a  lens  at  such  a  distance  as  to  throw 
a  clear  image  of  the  slit  on  the  op- 
posite wall,  or  on  a  handkerchief 
held  up  before  it.  The  prism  is 
then  placed  in  front  of  the  lens. 
The  spectrum  will  be  thrown  to  one 
side,  where  it  must  be  received  on  a 
white  wall  or  screen.  This  must  be 
exactly  as  far  from  the  prism  as  the 
wall  or  place  where  the  clear  image 
of  the  slit  was  formed,  otherwise 
the  spectrum  will  not  be  clear.  If 
the  wall  is  just  at  the  right  distance, 
and  the  slit  is  narrow  enough,  verti- 
cal black  lines  are  seen  across  the 
spectrum.  These  black  lines  are 
caused  by  the  sun's  atmosphere, 
which  stops  some  colors  of  light 
and  lets  others  through.  Colored 
liquids  also  let  through  part  of  the 
light  and  stop  other  parts,  as  may 
be  seen  by  placing  various  liquids 
in  the  path  of  the  ray.  For  this 
purpose  a  thin  transparent  vessel  is 
needed.  One  may  be  made  by 
fastening  together  with  shellac  var- 
nish two  pieces  of  window  glass, 
about  four  inches  square,  an  inch 
apart,  by  means  of  wood  strips  on 
three  sides.  Carmine  dissolved  in 
weak  ammonia  water,  placed  in  this 
vessel  and  held  in  front  of  the 
light,  either  between  the  slit  and 
lens,  or  between  lens  and  prism, 
only  lets  through  a  little  of  the  red 
light,  if  the  solution  is  strong. 
When  it  is  weakened,  two  upright 
black  bands  will  be  seen  across  the 
spectrum  in  the  greenish -yellow 
part  of  it.  A  little  blood,  mixed 
with  water,  also  gives  two  bands, 
but  they  are  in  a  slightly  different 
place  from  the  carmine  bands.  This 
is  an  easy  way  of  telling  carmine 
from  blood,  though  their  colors  are 
almost  exactly  alike.  By  trying  all 
sorts  of  colored  substances,  dis- 
solved in  water,  it  will  be  found  that 


each  cuts  off  the  light  in  a  different 
way. 

PRISONER'S  BASE,  an  out-door 
game  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons, though  the  best  number  is 
from  12  to  16.  Two  "Bases,"  or 
enclosures,  are  marked  off,  each 
large  enough  to  hold  half  the 
players,  and  two  "  Prisons  "  a  little 
smaller,  from  one  to  two  hundred 
feet  from  the  Bases,  according  to 
convenience.  Two  methods  of  lay- 
ing out  the  ground  are  shown  in  the 
diagrams.  The  players  are  divided 


Prison 


Prison 


Fig.  i. 


B's 

Prisoi 


A's 
ison 


A's 
Base 


B's 

Base 


Fig.  2. 
Prisoners'  Base  Grounds. 

into  two  opposing  sides,  each  of 
which  occupies  one  of  the  Bases. 
A  player  from  one  side  begins  the 
game  by  running  beyond  the  bounds 
of  his  Base,  and  one  on  the  opposite 
side  pursues  him.  A  second  man 
from  the  first  party  chases  the  pur- 


PRISONER'S   BASE 


550 


PRIVATE  THEATRICALS 


suer,  and  so  on,  each  party  sending 
out  as  many  men  as  they  choose. 
If  any  one  is  touched,  while  out  of 
bounds,  by  a  player  on  the  opposite 
side,  who  left  bounds  after  him,  he 
must  go  to  the  Prison  belonging  to 
the  enemy,  and  stay  there  till  he  is 
released  by  one  of  his  own  side. 
The  Prison  of  each  side  is  opposite 
the  Base  of  the  other  side,  as  shown 
in  the  diagrams.  No  one  is  allowed 
to  touch  the  catcher  as  he  returns 
to  his  Base,  which  he  must  do  at 
once.  A  prisoner  can  be  released 
by  any  one  of  his  friends  who  can 
run  from  his  Base  to  the  Prison 
without  being  caught. 

The  prisoner  and  his  friend  are 
then  allowed  to  return  to  their  Base 
in  safety.  But  if  a  player  is  caught 
while  attempting  a  release,  he  must 
himself  go  to  Prison.  The  game  is 
won  by  the  party  that  succeeds  in 
getting  all  its  enemies  into  Prison 
at  the  same  time.  It  is  necessary 
for  a  player  to  remember  who  Of  his 
opponents  left  their  Base  before  him 
and  who  after  him,  so  that  he  may 
know  whom  to  chase  and  whom  to 
avoid.  When  a  large  number  of 
players  are  out  of  bounds,  this 
makes  the  game  quite  complicated. 

The  game  of  Prisoner's  Base  was 
played  in  England  as  early  as  the 
fourteenth  century,  for  a  proclama- 
tion in  the  reign  of  Edward  III. 
forbids  children  to  play  it  in  the 
avenues  of  the  Palace  of  Westmin- 
ster during  the  sessions  of  Parlia- 
ment, as  it  annoyed  the  members. 
Shakespeare  also  probably  alludes 
to  it  in  the  play  of  Cymbeline,  where 
he  speaks  of 

"...  Two  striplings,  lads  more  like  to  run 
The    country  base    than    to    commit  such 
slaughter.  ' 

It  was  a  favorite  in  the  county  of 
Cheshire,  and  was  played  by  men  as 
well  as  by  boys.  As  played  there, 
no  Prisons  were  used ;  thess?  were 
added  in  the  county  of  Essex. 
About  1770  a  match  game  of  Pris- 
oner's Base  was  played  in  London 


between  twelve  gentlemen  of  Chesh* 
ire  and  twelve  of  Derbyshire. 

PRIVATE  THEATRICALS.  If  the 
theatricals  are  held  in  a  hall,  the 
stage  and  its  accessories  will  usually 
be  found  ready ;  if  in  a  private 
house,  a  stage  must  be  arranged 
specially  for  the  occasion. 

Stage.  The  only  things  absolute- 
ly necessary  are  that  the  stage  shall 
be  separated  from  the  audience 
by  a  curtain,  or  sliding  doors,  and 
that  it  shall  have  at  least  one 
door  in  the  side.  In  a  house  where 
there  are  double  parlors,  separated 
by  sliding  doors,  one  room  may  be 
used  as  the  stage  and  the  other  for 
the  audience.  If  there  is  only  one 
long  parlor,  a  curtain  may  be  hung 
across  one  end.  It  is  better  that  the 
floor  of  the  stage  be  raised,  but  in  a 
private  house  this  is  generally  too 
much  trouble.  It  may  be  arranged, 
however,  by  laying  boards  on  sup- 
ports called  "horses,"  all  of  which 
may  be  hired  at  a  carpenter's  shop. 

Scenery.  The  scenery  on  a  small 
stage  is  usually  of  three  kinds:  (i) 
"  the  drop,"  or  curtain  at  the  back 
of  the  stage,  (C  D  in  the  plan),  on 
which  is  painted  a  landscape,  a 
street,  or  a  representation  of  the 
interior  of  a  building ;  (2)  "  flies,"  or 
"  borders,"  strips  of  painted  canvas 
hung  across  the  top  of  the  stage  at 
intervals,  to  represent  sky  or  ceil- 
ing; and  (3)  "wings."  or  framework 
covered  with  painted  canvas  (W  in 
the  plan),  which  slide  in  grooves,  or 
are  otherwise  fastened  at  the  sides 
of  the  stage,  inclined  a  little  away 
from  the  audience.  When  an  interior 
is  represented  these  are  often  re- 
placed by  one  large  piece  of  canvas, 
called  a  "  flat."  In  large  theatres 
elaborate  scenes  are  often  "built 
up "  to  look  as  much  as  possible 
like  reality.  In  a  private  house 
plays  are  usually  chosen  that  require 
but  one  scene,  generally  the  mten'or 
of  a  room,  which  is  easily  represent- 
ed ;  but  any  one  with  a  talent  for 
painting,  and  the  necessary  time, 
may  paint  drops,  flies,  and  wings. 


F 


•50     o     o     o     o    o     o     o     o    o     o     <T 


P         A 


B.C. 


L.U.E. 


R.U.E. 


C 


D 


Plan  of  Stage. 

FF,  foot-lights  ;  AB,  curtain  ;  CD,  drop  ;  C,  centre  ;  LC,  left  centre  ;  RC,  right  centre ; 
LUE,  left  upper  entrance  ;  RUE,  right  upper  entrance  ;  WW,  wings  ;  P,  prompter ; 
YY,  exits. 


Models  of  these  may  be  bought  of 
dealers  in  theatrical  material.  For 
a  hall  unprovided  with  scenery,  an 
interior  scene  can  easily  be  arranged 
by  getting  three  frames  made  at  a 
carpenter's,  the  size  of  the  required 
walls.  There  should  be  a  real  door 
in  each,  and  at  least  one  "  practi- 
cable "  window  ;  that  is,  a  window 
that  will  actually  open.  The  frames 
must  be  covered  with  wall-paper 
and  held  in  place  by  braces.  If  pos- 
sible, a  space  should  always  be  left 
behind  the  rear  scene,  so  as  to 
secure  a  passage  from  one  side  of 
the  stage  to  the  other.  This  is  gen- 
erally impossible  in  a  private  house. 
Very  good  garden  scenes  can  be 
made  with  potted  plants.  The  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  stage,  and  its 
Entrances,  are  given  special  names, 
which  are  abbreviated  into  letters. 
If  a  person  stand  in  the  middle  of 
the  stage,  facing  the  audience,  he 
is  said  to  be  in  Centre.  The  part  of 
t,he  stage  on  his  right  hand  is  Right, 


that  on  his  left  hand,  Left.  The 
direction  toward  the  audience  is 
"down,"  and  toward  the  back  of 
the  stage  "up."  When  there  are 
wings,  the  spaces  between  them  are 
"entrances."  When  there  are  two 
on  each  side  of  the  stage,  they  are 
the  Right  Upper,  the  Right  Lower, 
the  Left  Upper,  and  the  Left  Lower 
entrances.  When  there  are  more, 
they  are  often  numbered.  In  a  flat, 
there  are  real  doors.  In  a  private 
house  one  door  usually  has  to  do 
duty  for  two,  or  more  entrances. 
The  abbreviations  used  for  these 
various  terms  are  as  follows 

C.  Centre. 
R.     Right. 

L.    Left,  or  Lower. 
R.H.    Right  Hand. 
L.H.     Left  Hand. 

E.  Entrance. 
U.     Upper. 

F.  Flat. 

D.  Door. 

For  instance,  L.C.  means  Left  of  the 


PRIVATE   THEATRICALS 


552 


PRIVATE   THEATRICALS 


Centre,  L.H.F..  CD.,  Left-Hand 
Flat,  Centre  Door,  and  R.L.E. 
Right  Lower  Entrance. 


Fig.  i.— Foot-light. 


Lightning.   The  stage  is  lighted  by 
a  row  of  lamps  or  gas-jets  along  the 


Fig.  2. — Foot-light  Screens. 

front,  called  foot-lights  (FFF  in  the 
plan),  by  one  or  more  rows  above, 


Fig.  3.— Tin  Foot-light  Screen. 

between  the  flies,  and  by  lights  be- 
tween the  wings.  The  foot-lights 
are  placed  in  a  sort  of  trough,  so 
that  they  are  invisible  to  the  audi- 
ence, as  in  fig.  i;or  they  are  screened 
by  pieces  of  wood  or  tin,  as  in  figs.  2 
and  3.  These  screens  may  be  cut 
from  tin,  as  in  fig.  3,  so  that  they 
will  stand  alone. 

Where  gas  is  used,  it  should  be 
so  arranged  that  any  or  all  the  jets 
can  be  regulated  by  one  man,  who 
may  thus  darken  the  stage  at  pleas- 


ure. If  lamps  are  used,  a  narrow 
strip  of  cloth  should  be  hung  close 
inside  the  foot-lights.  It  lies  on  the 
stage  unobserved  till  the  string  on 
which  it  hangs  is  stretched  tight, 
when  it  rises  and  darkens  the  stage. 


Fig.  4. — Portifere  Curtain. 

In  a  private  house  where  the  stage 
is  not  raised,  there  are  no  foot-lights, 
and  lamps  should  be  placed  on  the 
floor,  and  on  tables  or  boxes  at  each 
side  of  the  stage  close  to  the  cur- 
tain, where  they  will  not  be  seen  by 
the  audience,  as  in  fig.  5. 

Curtain.  The  position  of  the  fold- 
ing or  sliding  curtain  on  the  stage  is 
shown  at  AB  in  the  plan  of  the  stage. 
In  a  private  house,  doors  may  be 
used  instead  of  a  curtain,  or  an 
ordinary  portiere  may  be  hung  by 
rings  on  a  cord  stretched  across  the 
room  as  shown  in  fig.  4.  It  may  be 
drawn  aside  by  a  cord,  tied  to  the 
last  ring,  A,  on  one  side,  and  run- 
ing  thence,  through  the  screw-eye 
B  in  the  wall,  and  then  to  the  hand 
of  the  curtain-puller.  It  can  be 
closed  by  another  string  fastened  to 
the  same  ring,  but  running  through 
the  screw-eyes  C  and  D.  Two  cur- 
tains may  be  tacked  to  a  pole  or 
strip  of  wood  at  the  top,  and  drawn 
aside,  as  in  fig.  6,  by  strings  passing 
from  the  inner  lower  corners  to 
screw-eyes  on  either  side,  through 
two  or  more  rings  sewed  on  the  in- 
side of  the  curtains,  in  a  diagonal 
line  from  corner  to  corner,  as  shown 
in  the  figure,  where  one  curtain  is 
down,  and  the  other  partly  raised. 


PRIVATE  THEATRICALS 


553 


PRIVATE  THEATRICALS 


Fig.  5. — Arrangement  of  Lamps  in  House. 


when  the  strings  are  let  go,  the  cur- 
tains will   fall  by  their  own  weight. 


A  curtain  can  be  drawn  directly  up 


rings,  brought  up  through  all  the 
rings  above  it ;  then  through  a 
screw-eye  on  the  strip  of  wood  at 


Fig.  6. — Side  Curtains. 

(as  in  fig.  7)  by  tacking  a  strip  of 
wood  to  it  at  the  bottom,  and  then 
sewing  to  it  vertical  lines  of  rings 
two  or  three  feet  apart,  the  rings  in 
each  line  being  one  or  two  feet 
apart.  A  cord  must  be  tacked  to 
the  bottom  strip  below  each  line  of 


Fig.  7. — Curtain  with  Rings. 

the  top  of  the  curtain,  or  on  the 
ceiling;  and  then  across  to  a  screw- 
eye  above  the  curtain -puller.  By 
pulling  all  these  cords  at  once,  the 
curtaiu  is  gathered  up  into  folds. 


PRIVATE  THEATRICALS 


554 


PRIVATE  THEATRICALS 


Curtains  that  roll  up  (fig.  8)  are 
fastened  firmly  at  the  top  and 
tacked  at  the  bottom  to  a  wooden 
roller,  three  or  four  inches  in  diam- 
eter. A  stout  cord  is  tacked  to 
the  roller  at  one  end,  beyond  the 
curtain,  and  then  wound  around  it 
a  number  of  turns  equal  to  the 
length  of  the  curtain.  The  cord  is 
then  passed  over  a  pulley  in  the 
ceiling.  When  the  cord  is  pulled, 


Fig.  8. — Curtain  with  Roller. 

it  will,  by  unwinding,  turn  the  roller, 
and  thus  roll  up  the  curtain.  The 
roller  should  be  on  the  inside  el 
the  curtain,  and  therefore  the  cord 
should  be  so  wound  that  the  end 
leaves  the  roller  on  the  inside.  H 
the  curtain  is  wide,  there  must  be  on 
the  other  end  a  similar  cord  passed 
over  a  pulley,  across  the  stage  at 
the  top,  and  then  down  to  the  cur- 
tain-puller. (In  the  illustration  the 
pulley  is  made  much  lower  than  it 


should  be,  so  as  to  appear  in  the 
picture.)  A  very  small  curtain  may 
)e  put  up  with  ordinary  window- 
shade  fixtures. 

After  a  play  has  been  selected,  a 
tage-manager,  a  property-man,  and 
a  prompter  must  be  selected.  The 
duties  of  any  two  of  these,  or  of  all 
three,  may  be  undertaken  by  the 
same  person.  In  any  case,  none  of 
them  must  be  a  performer.  The 
stage-manager  should  be  a  person 
of  experience,  and  should  have  full 
authority  in  all  matters  pertaining 
to  the  arrangement  of  the  stage,  the 
conduct  of  rehearsals,  and  the  per- 
formance of  the  play.  If  no  such 
person  is  available,  it  is  better  to 
have  an  inexperienced  chief  than 
none  at  all.  It  may  be  agreed  that 
such  a  manager  is  merely  to  decide 
in  disputed  questions. 

The  prompter  must  sit  at  one  side 
of  the  stage,  close  to  the  curtain,  (P. 
in  the  plan),  and  "prompt"  those  who 
forget  their  parts;  that  is,  tell  them 
the  next  three  or  four  words.  He 
should  be  present  at  every  rehearsal, 
and  not  only  know  the  play  thor- 
oughly, but  the  manner  of  each  actor, 
so  that  he  may  know  an  intentional 
pause  from  one  caused  by  forgetting 
a  speech.  There  should  be  no  oc- 
casion for  prompting  at  all ;  but  if 
there  is,  it  should  be  done  quickly 
and  plainly,  yet  in  such  a  tone  that 
the  audience  cannot  hear.  Usually 
the  prompter  should  also  act  as  cur- 
tain-puller, and  see  that  all  noises, 
calls,  etc.,  are  made  that  are  re- 
quired off  the  stage,  unless  such  are 
to  be  made  by  some  particular  one 
of  the  characters.  Thus,  a  knock, 
a  footstep,  a  cough,  the  noise  caused 
by  the  breaking  of  a  piece  of  glass, 
should  usually  be  made  by  the 
prompter;  and  that  he  may  not  for- 
get what  he  has  to  do,  he  should  go 
over  the  plav  beforehand  and  mark 
on  the  margin  all  places  where  such 
noises  are  to  come  in. 

The  property-man  takes  charge 
of  all  properties,  that  is  articles  of 
any  kind  used  in  the  course  of  the 


PRIVATE   THEATRICALS 


555 


PRIVATE   THEATRICALS 


play,  such  as  letters  to  be  read, 
meals  to  be  served,  or  flowers  to  be 
carried.  He  must  go  over  the  play 
carefully  beforehand,  make  a  list  of 
the  properties,  and  see  that  .they  are 
all  prepared.  He  must  make  notes 
on  the  margin  of  his  copy  of  the 
play  at  the  places  where  the  various 
properties  are  needed,  and  see  that 
they  are  ready  at  the  right  time. 
Thus,  if  one  of  the  characters  is  to 
walk  in  smoking  a  cigar,  the  prop- 
erty-man must  see  that  he  has  the 
cigar  before  going  in  ;  and  if  a  waiter 
is  to  bring  in  water  on  a  tray,  it  is 
the  property-man's  duty  to  have 
ready  the  tray  and  glasses.  These 
things  are  often  left  to  the  actors 
themselves,  but  it  is  better  to  entrust 
them  to  one  man  who  has  memo- 
randa of  them  all,  and  knows  exactly 
where  each  is  needed. 

Rehearsals.    The     stage-manager ; 
requires  each  performer  to  know  his 
part  thoroughly  before  the  first  re-  j 
hearsals.   Before  beginning  to  study,  | 
each  one  should  read  the  whole  play  I 
carefully  several  times.    Long  solilo- ' 
quies  and  speeches  may  be  learned 
separately,  but  conversation  must  be 
studied  in  connection  with  the  other 
parts.      One    who   can    commit    to1 
memory  easily  may  learn  all  of  those  ; 
portions  of  the   play  where  he  ap-  ( 
pears,   including  not  only  his  own  : 
part,  but  those  of  the  other  actors.  ! 
Otherwise,  he  should  learn  the  last 
few  words  of  each  speech  just  pre 
ceding  one  of  his.      These    words, 
which  are  called  his  "  cue,"  enables 
him  to  know  where  the  other  actor 
has  finished  speaking.     It  is  an  aid 
to   the  learner   for  some  friend  to 
hear  him  recite  his  part,  reading  the  ' 
speeches  of  the  other  actors  as  they 
come  in  ;    or  the  learner  may  hold 
the  book  before  him  and  read   the  . 
play,  reciting  his   own   speeches  as  ! 
they  occur.     If  possible,  each  actor  j 
should  have  a  complete  copy  of  the 
play.     If  this   cannot   be  arranged, 
each  part  should  be  copied  legibly, 
with  all    its  cues,  and,  that  all  may 
study  intelligently,  the  play  should 


first  be  read  aloud  to  the  performers. 
At  the  first  rehearsal,  the  various  en* 
trances,  positions,  and  attitudes  of 
the  play  must  be  decided  on.  Many 
of  these  are  given,  in  printed  plays, 
but  the  minor  ones  can  be  varied. 
Those  that  are  finally  adopted  must 
not  be  changed,  for  then  each  per- 
former will  associate  each  speech 
with  some  definite  part  of  the  stage, 
or  some  particular  action,  and  he 
will  thus  remember  better  both  the 
words  and  actions.  After  the  first 
two  or  three,  the  rehearsals  should 
be  as  much  like  actual  perform- 
ances as  possible,  and  there  should 
be  at  least  one  "  dress  rehearsal," 
where  every  detail  of  costume  and 
every  property  is  exactly  as  it -is 
to  be  when  the  play  is  given.  During 
the  first  rehearsals,  if  the  stage-man- 
ager sees  a  fault,  or  anything  that 
might  be  improved,  he  stops  the 
players  at  once,  explains  the  point 
to  them,  and  then  requires  them  to 
repeat  the  passage  according  to  his 
views.  But  all  such  corrections 
should  be  made  in  the  early  re- 
hearsals. During  the  last  ones  it  is 
of  the  first  importance  that  the  play 
should  go  smoothly  and  without 
interruption.  The  number  of  re- 
hearsals required  will  depend  on  the 
skill  of  the  actors.  In  ordinary 
cases,  several  rehearsals  are  usually 
occupied  in  learning  the  parts,  it 
being  very  difficult  to  make  the 
performers  study  them  properly  at 
home.  The  best  plan  is  for  the  stage- 
manager  not  to  appoint  the  first 
rehearsal  till  each  actor,  separately, 
gives  notice  that  he  has  memorized 
his  part  and  is  ready  to  begin. 

Two  faults  common  to  most  be- 
ginners are  that  they  do  not  speak 
loud  enough,  and  that  they  speak  too 
fast.  Every  word,  even  those  parts 
of  the  dialogue  supposed  to  be  in 
low  tones,  should  bespoken  as  if  to 
the  person  that  sits  farthest  from 
the  stage.  The  actor  is  apt  to  think 
that  he  is  really  speaking  for  his 
fellow-actor  to  hear  instead  of  for 
the  audience. 


PRIVATE  THEATRICALS 


556 


PROGRESSIVE  GAMES 


Costumes.  The  proper  costumes 
are  usually  indicated  at  the  begin- 
ning of  a  printed  play,  but  these  may 
often  be  varied  by  the  actors  accor 
ing  to  circumstances.  Sometimes 
the  action  of  a  play  is  supposed  by 
the  author  to  take  place  in  some  past 
age  simply  for  the  sake  of  the  pic- 
turesque costumes,  and  when  these 
cannot  be  obtained,  the  performers 
may  wear  modern  dress  without 
making  other  than  trivial  changes 
in  the  text.  In  dressing  for  the 
etage,  the  actors  should  remember 
that  delicate  effects,  such  as  would 
be  seen  in  a  drawing-room,  are  lost 
to  the  spectators. 

Making  up.  Painting  the  face  so 
as  to  change  the  expression,  putting 
on  false  wigs,  whiskers,  etc.,  is 
called  "  making-up."  False  hair  is 
best  hired  at  acostumer's,  but  when 
none  is  accessible,  very  good  wigs 
can  be  made  by  sewing  hair  on 
skull-caps  of  cloth.  A  negro's  wig 
can  be  made  of  the  curled  hair  used 
to  stuff  furniture,  and  light-colored 
hair  can  be  imitated  by  using  flax, 
tow,  or  jute.  Beards,  side-whiskers, 
and  moustaches  can  be  made  in  like 
manner  on  cloth,  and  fastened  to 
the  face  either  with  fine  sewing  silk, 
adhesive  plaster,  spirit  gum,  or  flour 
paste. 

For  blackening  the  face,  or  mak- 
ing dark  lines,  an  ordinary  bot- 
tle cork  burned  in  the  flame  of  a 
candle  or  lamp  answers  very  well. 
Burned  cork  is  hard  to  wash  off. 
To  remedy  this,  sweet  oil  or  vaseline 
may  be  rubbed  over  the  face  before 
the  cork  is  applied.  For  reddening 
the  face,  carmine  is  generally  used, 
and  for  whitening,  lily-white,  both  of 
which  may  be  bought  at  any  drug- 
gist's. Paints  specially  prepared  for 
"making  up"  can  be  bought  at  a  cos- 
turner's.  For  giving  to  the  face  any 
desired  expression,  the  best  way  is 
to  assume  that  expression,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  before  a  mirror,  and  then 
trace  the  wrinkles  of  the  face  with 
black  lines.  In  general,  parts  of  the 
(ace  intended  to  look  hollow  should 


be  blackened,  as  they  will  then  ap- 
pear in  shadow.  Where  there  are 
foot-lights,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  they  cast  the  shadows  of  the 
chin  and  nose  strongly  upward  over 
the  face,  and  to  counteract  this 
effect  lily-white  should  be  freely 
used.  But  the  amount  of  "  making 
up  "  must  depend  largely  on  the  dis- 
tance of  the  audience.  In  a  private 
house  it  should  be  very  slight. 

PROGRESSIVE  GAMES,  games 
played  by  any  number  of  sets  of 
people  at  once,  where  the  winners 
of  each  game  move  to  a  different 
table.  The  games  commonly  played 
are  EUCHRE,  WHIST,  HEARTS,  and 
ANGLING,  but  others  may  be  substi- 
tuted. The  tables  are  numbered, 
and  it  is  decided  who  shall  sit  at 
each  of  them  usually  by  passing 
around  numbered  cards,  which  also 
serve  as  score-cards.  Partners 
can  be  decided  on  at  each  table 
by  cutting  the  cards,  but  it  is 
usual  to  have  the  score-cards 
decorated  in  pairs,  and  those  players 
having  the  same  device  on  their 
cards  play  together.  All  begin  to 
play  on  the  stroke  of  a  bell  on  table 
No.  i.  When  the  players  at  that 
table  have  finished  one  game,  the 
bell  is  struck  again,  and  all  playing 
ceases.  Those  players  who  are 
ahead  at  each  table  when  the  bell 
sounds,  have  their  score-cards 
marked  usually  by  sticking  on  them 
a  small  gilt  paper  star  or  by  punch- 
ing a  hole  in  them  ;  the  losers'  cards 
are  marked  by  a  star  or  figure  of 
some  other  shape  or  color,  or  left 
unmarked.  The  winners  now  move 
to  the  next  table,  those  at  table  4, 
for  instance,  going  to  table  3,  and 
these  at  table  3  to  table  2 ;  while 
those  at  the  head  table  go  down  to 
the  last.  Playing  then  begins  again, 
and  so  the  game  proceeds  till  some 
hour  agreed  upon  beforehand.  A 
prize  is  usually  given  by  the  lady  of 
the  house  to  the  player  who  has  the 
largest  number  of  winner's  stars. 
Sometimes  there  are  several  prizes, 
and  often  a  "  booby  prize  "  is  given 


PROHIBITED   WORDS 


557 


PROVERBS 


to  the  one  getting  most  of  the  loser's 
stars  or  marks.  There  may  be  one 
or  more  tables  called  "  booby 
tables,"  the  losers  at  which  receive 
a  special  mark,  and  he  who  has  most 
of  them  is  given  the  booby  prize. 
Just  after  the  winners  change  tables, 
they  may  also  change  partners  with 
those  whom  they  find  at  the  new 
table,  or  the  same  partners  may  be 
kept ;  but  whichever  is  done,  all 
should  follow  the  same  rule  through- 
out the  evening.  Sometimes,  in- 
stead of  the  winners  moving  up, 
the  losers  move  down,  in  which  case 
the  game  is  called  "  Drive."  Some- 
times the  winners  move  up  till  the 
head,  or  "  King  "  table  is  reached, 
and  at  this  table  the  losers  move 
down  to  the  lowest  or  "  Booby" 
table.  The  only  games  suited  to 


PROGRESSIVE  EUCHBE. 

Y  JAN.  16^,  1889. 


WON. 


LOST. 


Score  Card. 

progressive  playing  are  those  that 
are  short,  so  that  a  great  number  of 
changes  can  be  made  in  an  evening. 
They  must  also  be  such  that  it  is 
easy  to  tell  which  side  is  ahead  at 
any  time,  for  when  the  players  at  the 
first  table  finish  and  strike  the  bell, 
those  at  the  other  tables  are  usually 
in  the  midst  of  a  game.  For  these 
reasons,  Euchre  is  one  of  the  best 
games  to  play  in  this  way,  the  form 
called  Railroad  Euchre  being  gener- 
ally preferred. 

PROHIBITED  WORDS,  a  game  in 
which  the  use  of  certain  words  is 
not  allowed  in  answering  questions. 


The  words  are  those  often  used  in 
conversation,  such  as  Yes,  No,  Why, 
But,  or  any  others  like  them,  and  are 
agreed  upon  by  the  company  before 
the  game.  One  of  the  players  is 
chosen  to  ask  the  questions,  which 
may  be  on  any  subject.  He  asks 
one  of  each  player,  in  order,  pur- 
posely framing  them  so  that  it  will 
be  difficult  to  answer  without  using 
a  prohibited  word.  When  any  one 
does  so,  the  offender  pays  a  forfeit 
and  takes  the  questioner's  place. 

This  game  is  said  to  be  of  Italian 
origin. 

PROTEAN  CARDS,  a  pack  of  104 
cards,  52  printed  in  black  and  52  in 
red.  Each  card  bears  a  letter  of  the 
alphabet  on  its  upper  half,  and  a 
numeral  on  its  lower.  A  great 
number  of  games 
can  be  played 
with  these  cards, 
many  of  which 
are  nearly  the 
same  as  the  prin- 
c  i  p  a  1  games  of 
CARDS  and  DOM- 
INOES. They  can 
be  used  also  for 
LOGOMACHV  and 
other  letter 
games.  The  cards  are  sold  at  toy- 
stores.with  a  little  book  describing  50 
games  that  can  be  played  with  them. 
Protean  cards  were  invented  by  Mrs. 
Mary  Mapes  Dodge  (C.  P.  P.), 
the  editor  of  "  St.  Nicholas."  Pro- 
tean means  easily  changing  its 
shape,  from  Proteus,  the  name  of  a 
fabulous  divinity  who  could  take 
different  forms  at  will. 

The  cards  are  called  Protean  be- 
cause so  many  different  games  can 
be  played  with  them. 

PROVERBS,  a  game  in  which  one 
of  the  players  tries  to  guess  a  prov- 
erb chosen  by  the  rest  of  the  com- 
pany. The  guesser  goes  out  of  the 
room,  and  when  the  proverb  has 
been  chosen,  each  player  in  order  is 
given  one  of  the  words  that  com- 
pose it.  The  guesser  is  then  called 


Protean  Card. 


PROVERBS 


558 


PROVERBS 


in,  and  asks  a  question  of  each 
player,  who  must  introduce  his  word 
into  the  answer.  Thus,  suppose  the 
proverb  chosen  to  be  "  Make  hay 
while  the  sun  shines."  The  first 
player  may  be  asked  "  How  do  you 
do  this  evening?"  and  may  answer 
"  Very  well,  but  your  questions 
make  my  head  ache."  The  second 
question  may  be,  "  What  have  you 
been  doing  this  afternoon  ?"  and  the 
answer,  "  Playing  in  the  barn,  on 
the  hay,"  and  so  on.  If  the  proverb 
is  guessed,  the  one  whose  answer 
gave  the  clue  must  take  the  guesser's 
place.  If  it  is  not,  the  guesser  must 
pay  a  forfeit  and  go  out  again. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  If  there  are  more  players  than 
words    in   the   proverb,   the   words 
may  be   given  out  twice  or  more; 
and  if  there  are  fewer,  some  of  the 
players  may  take   two   words.     In 
either  case,   the    guesser    must   be 
told,  when    he    begins,  where    the 
proverb  ends,  which  players   have 
two  words,  and  whether  they  intend 
to   put   those   words   in   the   same 
answer  or  different  answers. 

2.  The  word  must  be  given  exact- 
ly as  it  appears  in  the  proverb  ;  not 
in  another  tense,  mood,  or  number. 

3.  If  the  guesser  fails,  he  may  try 
the  same  proverb  again,  after  paying 
his  forfeit,  or  call  fora  new  one. 

Shouting  Proverbs,  a  kind  of 
Proverbs  in  which,  at  a  signal 
from  the  guesser,  all  the  players 
shout  their  words  at  once.  This 
may  be  repeated  a  number  of  times 
agreed  on  beforehand.  If  the  guesser 
tries  to  listen  to  all  the  words  at 
once,  he  will  find  it  very  hard  to 
understand  any  of  them  ;  but  if  he 
stands  near  one  player  at  a  time  and 
listens  only  to  him,  the  proverb  is 
easy  to  guess.  For  this  reason  the 
guesser  may  be  required  to  stand  at 
an  equal  distance  from  all  the  play- 
ers. They  may  sit  in  a  circle,  while 
he  stands  in  the  middle. 


Acting  Proverbs,  a  kind  of  Prov- 
erbs in  which  the  players  choose 
sides,  and  one  acts  an  impromptu 
play,  illustrating  a  proverb,  while 
the  other  side  tries  to  guess  what 
proverb  is  meant. 

Parallels,  a  game  in  which  one  of 
the  players  tells  a  story  to  illustrate 
some  familiar  proverb,  while  the 
others  guess  what  it  is.  The  story 
continues  till  the  proverb  is  guessed 
correctly,  when  the  successful  guess- 
er becomes  story-teller  in  his  turn. 

One  way  of  playing  is  to  choose 
sides.  The  sides  stand  in  opposite 
lines,  and  astory  told  by  a  player  on 
one  side  must  be  guessed  by  some 
player  on  the  other  side.  At  the 
expiration  of  some  fixed  time,  gen- 
erally from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour, 
the  side  one  of  whose  members  is 
telling  a  story  is  declared  the  win- 
ner. 

Split  Proverbs.  The  company  sits 
in  a  circle,  and  one,  beginning  the 
game,  throws  a  handkerchief  at  an- 
other of  the  players,  saying,  as  he 
does  so,  the  first  part  of  a  proverb, 
which  the  other  must  immediately 
finish  by  adding  the  last  half  of  a 
different  proverb.  The  two  must 
make  a  complete  sentence,  but  it 
may  be  nonsensical  or  ridiculous. 
The  one  who  throws  the  handker- 
chief counts  ten  distinctly  as  he 
does  so,  ;md  if  the  other  does  not 
begin  to  finish  the  sentence  by  the 
timethe  first  has  ended  his  counting, 
he  must  pay  a  forfeit.  The  one  at 
whom  the  handkerchief  was  thrown 
then  continues  the  game  by  throw- 
ing it  at  another  player  and  begin- 
ning another  proverb.  For  the  sake 
of  illustration  some  examples  of 
split  proverbs  are  given  below  : 

A  rolling  stone — knows  his  own 
father. 

A  wise  son — gathers  no  moss. 

Make  hay  while  the  sun — sweeps 
clean. 

In  Germany  this  game  is  called 
Verkehrte  Sprich'Worter  (Perverted 
Proverbs). 


PUMPS 


559 


PUMPS 


PUMPS.  Pumps  are  described  in 
C.  C.  T.  To  make  a  suction-pump, 
take  an  ordinary  ar- 
Cil  jya  gand  lamp  chimney, 
f(l  <SSig  and  if  the  long  part  is 
not  of  the  same  size 
throughout,  cut  about 
an  inch  and  a  half  from 
the  top  (see  directions 
for  glass-working  in 
C  H  EM  I  CA  L  EXPERI- 
MENTS). Fit  a  rubber 
stopper  with  one  hole 
into  the  bottom  of  the 
chimney,  put  a  short 
piece  of  glass  tubing 
in  the  hole  (not  allow- 
ing it  to  project  above 
the  stopper),  and  to 
Fig-  i  t-h's  ^t  a  rut)ber  tube,  a  , 
Home-mkde  (see  Fig.  i),  as  long  as 
Suction-pump,  may  be  desired,  to ; 
reach  to  the  water,  c,  to  be  pumped.  j 
To  make  the  piston,  take  a  rubber 
stopper,  d,  a  little  smaller  than  the 
upper  part  of  the  chimney,  and  make 
it  fit  tightly  by  winding  it  with  twine, 
if  necessary.  This  stopper  must  have 
two  holes.  Through  one  fit  the 
end  of  a  glass  rod,  e,  for  a  piston- 
rod,  letting  the  lower  end  project  a 
little,  and  winding  it  with  twine 
just  above  and  just  below  the  stop- 
per, so  that  it  can 
pull  through  neither 
way.  Over  the  hole 
in  the  lower  stopper, 
and  over  the  second 
hole  in  the  stopper 
that  serves  as  piston- 
head,  fasten  valves 
made  of  bits  of  rub- 
ber cloth  or  leather, 
Fig.  2.  Valve,  secured  at  one  edge 
with  one  or  two  tacks,  so  that  they 
will  flap  up  and  down.  The  valve  is 
shown  more  plainly  in  Fig.  2.  At 
the  top  of  the  chimney  fit  another 
stopper  with  two  holes,  through  one 
of  which  the  glass  piston-rod  slides, 
while  in  the  other  is  fitted  a  glass 
tube,/,  to  deliver  the  water. 

To  make  a  force-pump   (Fig.  3), 
the  lowest  stopper  must  have  two 


holes,  and  the  valve-hole  in  the 
piston-head  must  be  plugged.  With 
the  other  hole  is 
connected  an  air- 
chamber  b,  made  of 
a  vaseline  bottle, 
as  shown  in  the 
figure.  The  stop- 
per of  this  air- 
chamber  has  two 
holes.  Over  the 
one  that  connects 
with  the  pump  is  a 
valve.  The  other 
is  fitted  with  a  jet. 
Steam  -Pump. 
Fig.  3.  Force-pump.  Fill  a  flask  (see 

CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS)  half  full 
of  water,  and  close  it  with  a  tight 
cork  or  rubber  stopper,  through 
which  passes  a  glass  tube  reaching 
nearly  to  the  bottom.  To  the  tube 
fasten  three  or  four  feet  of  rubber 
tubing.  Place  the  flask  over  an  al- 


Fig.  4. 

cohol  lamp  or  Bunsen  burner,  and 
the  water  will  presently  rise  in  the 
tube  and  flow  out  of  the  end.  The 
reason  is,  that  it  is  forced  out  by  the 
pressure  of  the  heated  water  vapor 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  flask. 

Pumps  without  a  Piston,    i.  Take 
a  glass   tube  several  feet  long,  and 


PUMPS 


560 


PUNCH  AND  JUDY 


large  enough  to  be  stopped  conven- 
iently with  the  finger  or  thumb. 
Plunge  the  end  in  the  water,  and 
then  stopping  the  open  end,  draw  it 
quickly  up,  but  not  far  enough  to 
pull  the  lower  end  out  of  water. 
Continue  this  up-and-down  motion 
rapidly,  always  opening  the  tube 
while  pushing  down  and  stopping  it 
while  pulling  up.  The  water  will 
rise,  and  finally  flow  out  at  the  top 
of  the  tube  at  each  downward  push. 
2.  Hold  a  common  glass  funnel, 


large  end  downward,  in  a  pail  of 
water  (see  Fig.  4.),  and  rapidly  move 
it  up  and  down.  The  water  will 
rise  into  the  small  end,  and  with 
practice  may  be  made  to  spout  out 
of  it  for  some  distance. 

PUNCH  AND  JUDY,  a  theatrical 
entertainment,  in  which  the  per- 
formers are  puppets,  operated  by  an 
unseen  person.  The  puppets  are  so 
made  that  the  exhibitor  can  slip  his 
hand  and  wrist  into  their  bodies,  in- 
serting his  forefinger  into  the  head 


Punch  and  Judy  Show. 


and  his  thumb  and  second  finger 
into  the  arms.  The  exhibitor  shows 
the  puppets  to  the  audience  through 
an  opening  about  two  or  three  feet 
square,  just  above  his  head ;  only 
two  appear  at  a  time,  one  being 
operated  by  each  hand.  The  open- 


ing may  be  made  by  hanging  a  cur- 
tain in  an  ordinary  doorway  be- 
tween two  rooms,  so  that  it  just 
hides  the  exhibitor  when  he  stands 
upright.  Another  arrangement  is 
made  by  taking  a  dry-goods  box  two 
or  three  feet  square  and  hanging  or 


PUNCH  AND  JUDY 


PUNCH  AND  JUDY 


supporting  it  against  the  wall.  The 
front  and  bottom  of  the  box  must 
be  open,  and  from  the  front  and 
sides  curtains  hang  to  the  floor,  con- 
cealing the  exhibitor.  In  either 
case  an  ornamental  wooden  or 
pasteboard  frame  may  be  placed 
around  the  opening  on  the  side 


toward  the  audience,  and  it  is  con- 
venient to  have  a  shelf  at  the  bottom 
of  the  opening,  projecting  outward 
to  form  a  sort  of  stage. 

The  chief  characters  are  always 
Punch  and  his  wife  Judy,  but  many 
others  are  usually  introduced,  gen- 
erally including  a  doctor,  a  police- 


Fig:,  i. 

man  or  constable,  and  a  hangman. 
Punch  has  a  hooked  nose  and  chin, 
pointing  toward  each  other,  and  is 
the  only  one  of  the  puppets  whose 


Fig.  2. 

legs  are  seen  by  the  audience- 
They  are  made  to  hang  loosely,  so 
that  he  can  dance  on  the  stage.  He 
holds  a  stick  about  a  foot  long,  by 


Fig-.  3. — Punch  (i),  Judy  (2),  and  Hangman  (3). 

pressing  it  with  his  arm  against  his  i  with   the   knife  into  the  nose  and 
side.     When  he  strikes  anyone  with 
it,  his  whole    body  bobs    forward. 


The  heads  of  the  puppets  are  paint- 
ed on  rolls  of  cardboard,  as  in  Fig. 
i,  or  cut  out  of  hollow  pieces  of 
wood  like  Fig.  2,  when  they  look 
like  Fig.  3.  The  projecting  ridge 
on  one  side  of  the  cylinder  is  shaped 


chin.  In  any  case  the  figures  have 
a  hole  at  the  bottom  for  the  exhibi- 
tor's forefinger;  the  bodies  are  fas- 
tened to  them  with  glue  or  tacks. 
The  exhibitor  speaks  for  each  of 
the  performers,  and  carries  on  a 
sort  of  drama,  generally  opening 
with  a  scene  between  Punch  and  his 


PUNCH   AND  JUDY 


562 


PUSS   IN   THE  CORNER 


Fig.  4.— The  Baby. 


wife  Judy.  Punch  disposes  of  the 
other  characters 
one  by  one,  by 
killing  them 
with  his  stick, 
and  throwing 
their  bodies  on 
the  stage.  At 
the  close,  the 
hangman  comes 
to  execute  him, 
but  Punch  pre- 
tends he  does 
not  know  how 
to  put  his  head  into  the  noose,  and 
when  the  hangman  undertakes  to 
show  him,  Punch  pulls  the  rope 
and  hangs  the  executioner  himself. 

.    The  gallows  is  one 

*  *|    upright  stick  with 

Ua  cross  beam,  and 
fits  into  a  hole  in 
the  shelf.  At  the 
end  of  the  beam 
are  two  holes, 
through  which 
passes  a  string,  se- 
cured at  one  hole 
by  a  knot,  and 
forming  a  sort  of 
noose  between  the 
two.  The  action 
of  the  rest  of  the 
drama  depends  on 
Fig.  5.— Gallows,  the  ingenuity  of 


the  exhibitor.  Punch  speaks  in  a 
peculiar  squeaking  voice,  and  gives 
a  sort  of  squeal  of  joy  at  the  dis- 
comfiture of  his  enemies.  The 
squeak  may  be  produced  by  an  in- 
strument called  a  Punch  and  Judy 
Trumpet  (see  Fig.  7),  made  of  two 
half  rings  of  wood  and  a  bit  of  rib- 
bon. The  manner  of  speaking  must 
be  learned  from  some  one  who 
knows  it.  Those  performers  who 
have  not  yet  made  their  appear- 


Fig;.  6— Punch  and  Judy  dressed  for  the  Play. 


Fig.  7. — Punch  and  Judy  Trumpet. 


ance  must  be  laid  on  a  chair  or 
hung  on  hooks,  within  easy  reach 
of  the  exhibitor. 

PUSH  PIN,  a  SOLITAIRE  game 
of  CARDS,  played  with  two  packs. 
The  cards  are  laid  out  in  a  straight 
line,  face  upward,  as  they  come 
from  the  pack.  Any  card  that  lies 
between  two  of  the  same  suit,  or 
two  of  the  same  value,  as  any  two 
Hearts,  or  any  two  Queens,  is 
pushed  out  of  place,  and  two  or 
more  of  the  same  suit  between  two 
of  the  same  value  may  also  be 
pushed  out.  The  card  at  one  end 
of  the  row  may  be  removed  to  the 
other,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing, 
the  cards  may  be  placed  in  a  circle. 
The  player  wins  if  he  can  push  out 
all  cards  but  two. 

PUSS  IN  THE  CORNER,  a  game 
played  by  several  persons,  each  of 
whom  stands  in  the  corner  of  a 
room.  One  player,  chosen  as  Puss, 
stands  in  the  middle.  As  the  others 
change  corners,  two  by  two,  which 
they  try  to  do  when  the  Puss  is  not 
looking,  he  attempts  to  slip  into  one 


PUZZLE   DRAWINGS 


563 


QUAKER   MEETING 


of  the  corners,  and  if  he  succeed, 
the  player  thus  left  out  must  be 
Puss  in  his  turn.  The  game  may 
be  played  out  of  doors,  when  trees, 
posts,  or  stones  may  be  used  as  cor- 
ners. In  such  a  case,  Puss  has  only 
to  touch  the  tree  or  stone  after  one 
player  has  left  it,  and  before  the 
player  with  whom  he  is  changing 
places  touches  it. 

PUZZLE  DRAWINGS,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
each  with  pencil  and  paper.  Each 


player  draws  on  his  paper  some 
kind  of  a  line,  straight,  curved, 
angular,  or  all  three,  and  the  papers 
are  folded  and  mixed.  Each  then 
selects  one,  and  must  draw  a  figure 
that  is  partly  formed  by  the  line  on 
the  paper.  Those  who  do  not  suc- 
ceed must  pay  forfeits.  One  who  is 
used  to  the  game  can  often  make  a 
creditable  picture  with  a  line  so 
jagged  and  irregular  that  the  task 
seems  impossible. 

PYRAMID.     See  CHECKERS. 


QUADRALET,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons  with  49 
square  pieces,  completely  filling  a 
shallow  square  box.  One  of  the 
pieces  is  marked  with  a  black  dot, 
and  of  the  others  half  are  white  and 


Quadralet. — Fi^.   i. 


half  brown.  The  pieces  are  ar- 
ranged in  a  pattern,  and  the  dotted 
one  removed.  If  the  game  is 
played  as  a  SOLITAIRE  game,  the 
player's  object  is  to  make  the  white 
and  brown  pieces  change  places 
completely,  by  moving  them  one  by 
one  into  an  adjacent  empty  space. 
When  more  than  one  play,  he  wins 
who  can  do  this  in  the  least  number 
of  moves.  For  instance,  if  the 

eleces  are  arranged  at  first  as   in 
ig.   i,  they  will  look  as  in  Fig.  2 


when  the  game  has  been  won.    If 
the    player    finds    it    necessary  to 


Quadralet. — Fig.  2. 


move  a  piece  back,  that  counts  as 
a  move.  The  word  Quadralet  is 
from  the  Latin  Quadratum,  a 
square. 

QUAKER  MEETING,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
who  have  handkerchiefs  tied  around 
their  heads,  and  are  supposed  to 
represent  Quakers.  A  leader  is 
chosen,  who  takes  the  other  play- 
ers, one  by  one,  into  another  room, 
and  tells  each  some  ridiculous  thing 
to  do,  such  as  to  walk  across  the 
room  on  all  fours  grunting  like  a 
pig,  or  to  go  around  kissing  the 
furniture  (see  FORFEITS).  When 
all  have  been  thus  instructed,  the 


QUEEN    DIDO   IS   DEAD 


564 


QUERIES 


players  sit  around  the  sides  of  the 
room,  and  the  leader  points  to 
them,  one  by  one.  Each,  as  he  is 
pointed  out,  must  do  the  task  as- 
signed him. 

During  the  game  none  of  the 
players  must  speak,  laugh  aloud,  or 
make  any  other  noise  with  the 
mouth  or  lips,  under  penalty  of  a 
forfeit. 

This  game  is  called  Quaker  Meet- 
ing, because  at  the  religious  ser- 
vices of  the  Society  of  Friends 
(called  Quakers)  all  present  often 
sit  for  a  long  time  without  speak- 
ing a  word  or  making  a  sound. 

QUEEN  DIDO  IS  DEAD,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  ot  persons, 
who  stand  in  a  circle,  or  in  a  row. 
The  player  who  begins  the  game 
says  to  his  neighbor,  "Queen  Dido 
is  dead !"  The  neighbor  inquires 
of  the  speaker,  "  How  did  she  die  ?" 
and  the  answer  is,  "  She  died  doing 
so."  As  the  last  word  is  spoken, 
the  speaker  begins  to  shake  his 
right  hand  up  and  down,  and  he 
continues  the  motion  through  the 
game.  The  second  player  now  re- 
peats this  conversation  with  the  one 
next  him,  and  when  it  has  gone 
the  round  of  the  company  all  are 
shaking  their  right  hands.  During 
the  second  round  the  speaker,  at 
the  word  "so,"  begins  also  to  shake 
his  left  hand  ;  on  the  third  round, 
to  stamp  his  right  foot;  on  the 
fourth,  his  left;  and  on  the  fifth,  to 
nod  his  head.  By  this  time  the 
appearance  of  the  company  is  very 
laughable,  and  all  are  generally 
tired ;  but  if  it  is  desired  to  con- 
tinue the  game,  each  player,  as  he 
says  "She  died  doing  so,"  may  be- 
gin to  run  around  in  a  small  cir- 
cle. 

There  are  many  variations  of  this 
game.  In  one  of  them,  called  "  My 
Aunt  Ion, "the  conversation  is, "Do 
you  know  my  Aunt  Ion?"  "No." 
"  My  Aunt  Ion  does  so."  In  an- 
other, called  "  Neighbor,  neigh- 
bor," it  is,  "  Neighbor,  neighbor, 
how  art  thou  ?"  "  Pretty  well,  I 


thank  thee.  How's  the  neighbor 
next  to  thee  ?"  "  I  don't  know,  but 
I'll  go  see."  Here  each  player  be- 
gins to  make  the  new  motion  as  he 
asks  the  first  question. 

QUEEN'S  PARTY,  THE,  a  SOLI- 
TAIRE game  of  CARDS,  played  with 
one  pack.  The  first  sixteen  cards, 
in  the  pack  are  laid,  as  they  appear, 
in  four  rows  of  four  each,  forming 
a  hollow  square.  These  cards  are 
called  the  Ante-chamber,  and  the 
space  within  them  is  named  the 
Audience  Hall.  The  cards,  repre- 
senting guests,  are  taken  from  the 
Ante-chamber,  or  directly  from  the 
pack,  and  placed  in  the  Audience 
Hall  in  their  proper  positions,  which 
are  as  follows:  The  King  and  Queen 
of  Hearts  at  the  top,  of  Diamonds 
at  the  bottom,  of  Clubs  at  the 
right,  and  of  Spades  at  the  left. 
The  Queens  are  placed  on  the 
Kings,  and  each  pair  must  enter  the 
Audience  Hall  together. 

The  Aces  (called  Emperors)  are 
in  like  manner  accompanied  by  the 
Knaves,  which  are  placed  on  them, 
and  are  laid  in  the  corners  of  the 
Audience  Hall.  On  the  Knaves  are 
placed  in  order  the  other  cards 
(called  common  people)  following 
suit.  Spaces  left  by  guests,  in  pass- 
ing from  the  Ante-chamber,  are 
filled  from  the  pack,  and  those 
cards  that  can  be  placed  neither  in 
the  Ante-chamber  nor  at  once  in 
the  Audience  Hall,  are  laid  aside  to 
form  stock,  the  top  card  of  which 
can  also  be  used  at  any  time.  If 
the  whole  pack  can  be  brought  thus 
into  the  Audience  Hall,  the  player 
wins. 

QUERIES,  a  writing  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons.  Each 
writes  at  the  top  of  a  piece  of  paper 
a  question  on  some  historical  or 
other  subject,  and  then  puts  the 
answer  at  the  bottom,  folding  up 
part  of  the  paper  so  as  to  hide  it. 
The  papers  are  now  passed  around 
in  regular  order.  Each  one  an- 
swers the  queries  to  the  best  of  his 
ability,  folding  the  paper  to  hide  his 


QUICK   MOTION 


565 


QUININE 


answer.  Finally,  the  papers  are  un- 
folded and  read. 

QUICK  MOTION,  Experiments  on. 
The  following  experiments  are  all 
explained  by  the  fact  that  motion 
can  be  imparted  to  objects  but  grad- 
ually, and  that  when  it  is  done  sud- 
denly the  objects  often  prefer  to 
break  or  give  way,  rather  than  pass 
the  motion  along,  though  it  seems 
easier  to  do  the  latter. 

i.  Place  a  silver  dollar  on  a  visit- 
ing card,  the  edge  of  the  card  pro- 
jecting half  an  inch  beyond  the  edge 
of  the  table.  If  the  card  is  moved 
gradually,  it  will  carry  the  coin  with 
it ;  but  if  it  be  snapped  suddenly  it 
will  slide  under  the  coin,  which  will 
not  move.  If  the  coin  and  card  be 
placed  on  a  wine-glass  when  the  ex- 
periment is  tried,  the  coin  will  fall 
into  the  glass. 


Experiment  2. 

2.  Pile  about  ten  checkers  one  on 
another.     If  one  in   the   middle  of 
the  pile  be  pushed  slowly  with  the 
edge  of  a  ruler,  the  pile  will  be  over- 
turned ;  but  if  it  be  struck  sharply 
with  the  ruler,  taking  care  to  give  a 
perfectly  horizontal  blow,  it  may  be 
knocked  from  the  pile,  leaving  the 
remainder  upright. 

3.  Suspend  a  small  stick  by  one 
end  from  a  string  several  feet  long. 
If  the    stick   be  pushed  slowly    by 
a    heavier     stick,    it    will    simply 
swing;  but  if  struck  sharply,  it  may 
be  broken,  the  string  moving  very 
little. 


4.  Fix  two  screw-eyes  on  opposite 
sides  of  a  croquet  ball,  and  to  each 
tie  thread  just  strong  enough  to  sus- 
tain the  ball.  Hang  the  ball  up  by 


Experiment  4. 

one  of  these  threads.  If  the  other  be 
pulled  slowly,  straight  downward, 
the  upper  string  will  break  ;  but  if  it 
be  jerked  suddenly,  the  lower  one 
will  break. 

5.  Fix  a  needle  at  each  end  of  a 
broomstick,  and  support  it  by  rest- 
ing the  needles  on  the  edges  of  two 
wine-glasses,  which  stand  on  chairs. 
By  striking  the  broomstick  violently 
in  the  middle  with  a  stout  stick,  it 
may  be  broken  without  injuring  the 
glasses. 

QUININE,  Experiments  with.  I. 
Dissolve  some  quinine  by  putting  a 
few  grains  into  a  bottle  of  water  and 
leaving  it  two  or  three  days,  shak- 
ing it  occasionally.  It  will  dissolve 
quicker  if  a  little  tartaric  acid,  or  a 
drop  of  sulphuric  acid  be  added. 
Admit  a  sunbeam  from  a  HELIOSTAT 
into  a  darkened  room,  and  place 
a  piece  of  dark  blue  glass  over  the 
aperture.  Hold  the  bottle  of  quin- 
ine solution  in  the  beam  of  light 
and  it  will  glow  with  a  curious  blue 


QUOITS 


566 


QUOITS 


color  which  seems  to  come  from 
within  the  fluid.  By  holding  a 
bottle  of  pure  water  beside  it,  the 
difference  between  them  will  be  per- 
ceived at  once. 

2.  Into  a  glass  of  clear  water  held 
in  the  beam  of  blue  light  pour  a 
little  of  the  quinine  solution.  It 
will  appear  like  a  slowly  descending 
blue  cloud. 

This  property  of  quinine  is  called 
fluorescence.  Another  fluorescent 
substance  is  chlorophyl,  the  green 
coloring  matter  of  leaves.  It  can 
be  obtained  by  boiling  tea  leaves, 
pouring  off  the  water  and  adding 
more  from  time  to  time,  till  it  ceases 
to  taste  of  tea.  Then  soak  the 
leaves  in  hot  alcohol,  which  will  dis- 
solve the  chlorophyl.  This  solution 
treated  like  the  quinine  above  gives 
a  red  light.  A  solution  of  madder 
mixed  with  alum  produces  a  yellow 
fluorescence,  soot  dissolved  In  alco- 
hol, a  greenish  blue,  and  petroleum 
a  green. 


Holding  the  Quoit. 

QUOITS,  a  game  generally  played 
on  level  sward,  by  two  or  more 
persons,  with  flat  iron  rings  or  disks, 
which  are  pitched  at  a  goal  or  hub. 
The  hubs,  sometimes  called  motts, 


are  usually  two  pins  driven  into  the 
ground,  about  eighteen  yards  apart. 
The  players,  who  may  be  either  two 
or  three  playing  singly  against  each 
other,  or  four  or  six  divided  into 
equal  sides,  are  each  provided  with 
an  equal  number  of  quoits,  gen- 
erally two.  Each  player,  in  turn, 
stands  beside  one  hub  and  pitches 
his  quoits  so  that  they  will  fall  and 
be  as  near  as  possible  to  the  other 
hub.  The  first  figure  shows  the 
manner  of  holdingthe  quoit.  Some- 
times an  expert  player  succeeds  in 
encircling  the  hub  with  one  of  his 
quoits  (called  making  a  "  ringer"), 
but  this  is  very  difficult. 

This  and  other  positions  of  the 
quoit  at  the  hub  are  shown  in  the 
last  figure.  A  is  a  ringer,  B  is  called  a 
"  cutter,"  and  C  is  said  to  be  "pitched 
true." 


Position  of  Quoits  at  the  Hub. 

After  the  first  player  has  pitched 
all  his  quoits,  the  second  player 
takes  his  turn,  and  then  the  others, 
if  there  are  more  than  two.  When 
all  have  played,  all  go  to  the  other 
hub  and  reckon  up  the  points,  he 
whose  quoits  lie  nearest  to  the  hub 
counting  one  point  for  each  quoit  ; 
but  each  quoit  entitled  to  count  must 
be  nearer  the  hub  than  any  of  the  op- 
ponent's quo:ts.  The  quoits  aregen- 
erally  numbered  or  otherwise  mark- 
ed so  that  those  belonging  to  each 
player  can  be  easily  known.  When 
the  points  have  been  reckoned,  the 
players  then  pitch  their  quoits  at  the 
other  hub,  and  so  on  alternately 
until  the  game  is  won  by  one  of 
the  players  or  sides  getting  the  re- 
quisite number  of  points.  The 
number  of  points  in  the  game  is 
agreed  on  by  the  players  beforehand, 
but  it  is  usually  eleven  or  twenty- 
one.  He  who  rings  the  hub  counts 
ten  points  towards  the  game.  Boys 


QUOITS 


567 


QUOTATIONS 


often  play  quoits  with  flat  stones, 
which  may  easily  be  rounded  so  as 
to  make  them  almost  as  good  as 
iron  ones.  They  use  also  a  small 
stone  instead  of  an  iron  pin  for  a 
hub. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  The  hub-pin  must  be  driven  in 
SO  as  to  project  not  more  than  half 
an  inch  above  the  surface. 

2.  Each  player  may  select  quoits 
of  any  size  he  chooses. 

•  3.  In  pitching,  each  player  must 
stand  within  three  feet  of  the  hub. 

4.  The  distance  of  a  quoit  from 
the  hub  must  be  measured  from  the 
middle  of  the  hub  to  the  nearest 
visible  point  of  the  quoit.  Thus, 
if  the  quoit  is  stuck  into  the  ground, 
the  part  beneath  the  surface  does 
not  counf. 

Parlor  Quoits.  Quoits  for  use  in 
the  parlor  are  sold  at  toy  stores. 
They  are  usually  made  of  rubber, 


Discobolus. 

and   the   hub,    or    short   stake,   at 
which  they  are  pitched,  is  fixed  in 


a    board   which   is   placed   on    the 
floor. 

A  game  called  "  faba  baga,"  which 
is  also  sometimes  called  "  parlor 
quoits,"  is  played  by  tossing  bean- 
bags  at  a  hole  in  a  board. 

History.  Pitching  quoits  was  a 
favorite  amusement  among  the  an- 
cients. The  Greeks  and  Romans 
played  with  a  kind  of  quoit  called  a 
discus,  which  had  no  hole  in  it,  but 
was  solid,  like  a  plate.  The  illustra- 
tion shows  the  celebrated  Greek 
statue  called  the  discobolus  (dis- 
cus-thrower), the  work  of  the  sculp- 
tor Myron,  of  which  there  are  copies 
in  the  Vatican  and  elsewhere. 

In  England  the  hub  or  pin  was 
formerly  called  the  "  hob."  Country- 
men, who  could  not  get  quoits  of 
the  proper  form,  played  with  horse- 
shoes, and  in  some  parts  of  England 
a  quoit  is  still -called  a  "  shoe."  The 
word  quoit  is  from  the  provincial 
English  coit,  to  throw. 

QUOTATIONS.  A  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons,  who  sit  in  a 
row  or  circle.  One  begins  by  re- 
peating a  quotation,  either  prose 
or  poetry,  and  the  next  must  then 
give  one,  the  first  word  of  which 
begins  with  the  same  letter  as  the 
last  word  of  the  quotation  just  given. 
The  game  goes  on  thus  as  long  as 
the  players  choose.  Any  one  who 
does  not  give  his  quotation  in  one 
minute  (or  any  other  time  agreed  on 
before  the  game)  pays  a  forfeit.  In- 
stead of  paying  a  forfeit,  he  may  be 
required  to  leave  the  game,  and  it 
may  thus  be  continued  till  only  one 
is  left,  who  is  declared  the  winner. 
Any  player  may  be  required  to  tell 
the  author  of  his  quotation,  or  even 
the  book,  poem,  or  play  where  it  is 
to  be  found,  if  it  is  so  agreed.  The. 
following  example  shows  how  the 
quotations  may  follow  each  other  : 

"  Know  ye  the  land  where  the  Cypress  and 

Myrtle." — Byron 

"  Man  never  is,  but  always  to  be,  blest."—  Pope, 
"  Belgium's  capital  had  gathered  there. 

Her  beauty  and  her  chivalry." — Byron. 
"  Come  and  walk  with  us,  the  Walrus  did  be- 
seech."— Carroll. 

etc.,  etc. 


RACKETS 


568 


RACKETS 


R 


RACKETS,  or  RACKET  (some- 
times spelled  Racquet),  a  game 
played  by  two  or  four  persons  with 
rackets  and  a  ball,  in  a  court  sur- 
rounded by  four  walls.  The  floor  is 
evenly  paved,  and  marked  as  in 
the  diagram : 

E 


A 

C 

D 

B 

Racket  Court. 

For  double  matches,  with  two 
persons  on  a  side,  the  court  was 
formerly  80  by  40  feet,  but  for  single 
matches  it  was  smaller.  Of  late 
years  the  standard  court  for  both 
kinds  of  matches  has  been  63  by 
31^  feet.  The  walls  E,  F,  G,  H  are 
black  on  the  inside,  and  the  balls 
used  are  sometimes  whitened  by 
shaking  them  in  a  bag  with  some 
white  powder,  so  that  they  will  leave 
marks  on  the  black  wall  where  they 
strike.  The  front  wall,  H,  should 
be  30  feet  high,  and  is  faced  with 

Elanks  to  the  height  of  20  inches 
x>m  the  floor.  The  part  so  faced  is 
called  the  "  Telltale."  About  10 
feet  from  the  floor  is  a  horizontal 
white  line  called  the  "  Service-line," 
or  "  Cut-line."  A  and  B  are  called 
"  Service-spaces,"  or  sometimes 
"Rings;"  C  and  D  the  Right  and 
Left  Courts  ;  and  E  F  the  "  Short- 
line."  In  the  rear  of  the  court  is 
often  a  gallery  for  spectators,  which 
is  protected  by  netting.  In  the 
court  there  is  usually  an  attendant 
called  the  Marker,  who  scores  for 
the  players  and  acts  as  umpire.  The 
rackets  used  are  similar  to  TENNIS 


rackets,  but  longer  and  smaller  in 
the  face,  and  the  balls  are  hard, 
about  an  inch  in  diameter,  weighing 
an  ounce. 

The  players  decide  by  lot,  or  in 
any  other  way  they  choose,  on  the 
one  to  begin  the  game,  who  is  called 
the  "  In-player"  or  "  Man  in.''  He 
stands  in  one  of  the  service-spaces, 
and  with  his  racket  strikes  or 
serves"  the  ball  so  that  it  bounds 
from  the  front  wall  above  the  cut- 
line  into  one  of  the  courts  :  C,  if  he 
served  from  B ;  and  D,  if  from  A. 
One  of  the  players  on  the  o^her  side, 
called  the  Out-player,  stands  in 
readiness  to  "  take  the  service,"  that 
is,  to  strike  the  ball  either  on  the 
bound  or  before  it  has  reached  the 
ground.  The  Out-player  may  stand 
wherever  he  wishes,  but  in  case  of  a 
double  match,  the  two  other  players 
must  stand  behind  the  In-player  till 
the  ball  is  served. 

If  the  ball  is  served  wrongly,  it  is 
a  fault,  and  when  the  server  makes 
two  consecutive  faults  his  "  hand  is 
out,"  that  is,  he  becomes  the  Out- 
player,  and  his  adversary  serves. 
After  a  good  service  the  ball  is 
struck  by  the  players  alternately 
against  the  front  wall  above  the 
Telltale,  and  may  fall  in  any  part  of 
the  court.  It  may  be  hit  on  the 
"  fly,"  or  on  the  bound,  but  if  any  one 
fails  to  hit  it,  or  hit  it  out  of  the 
court,  it  counts  against  him,  putting 
his  hand  out,  if  he  be  the  In-player, 
and  scoring  a  point,  or  "Ace,"  for 
his  opponent,  if  he  be  the  Out- 
player.  The  game  continues  till 
one  side,  by  making  15  aces,  wins 
the  game. 

After  the  service,  the  ball  may 
strike  one  or  more  of  the  other  walls 
of  the  court  after  it  has  bounded 
from  the  front  wall,  and  a  skilful 
player  often  makes  very  puzzling 
strokes  by  driving  the  ball  into  a 


RACKETS 


569 


RAIN  STORM 


corner,  where  it  bounds  about  from 
one  wall  to  another.  This  is  the 
principal  difference  between  Rack- 
ets and  LAWN  TENNIS.  In  Rackets, 
as  in  the  latter  game,  the  player  can 
make  the  ball  bound  in  different  di- 
rections by  "  cutting"  it,  and  as  the 
ball  has  four  walls  to  bound  from, 
as  well  as  the  floor,  a  "cut"  often 
causes  it  to  take  a  very  unexpected 
course. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

The  following  rules  are  those  of 
the  New  York  Racquet  Court  Club, 
and  have  been  adopted  by  the  Na- 
tional Amateur  Athletic  Union  : 

1.  The  game  to  be  15  up.    At  13 
all,   the  out- players   may  set  to  5 ; 
and  at  14  all,  to  3  ;  provided  this  be 
done  before  another  ball  is  served. 

["  Set  to  5  "  means  that  instead  of 
playing  the  remaining  2  Aces  of  the 
fifteen,  5  Aces  are  played.  "  Set  to 
3,"  that  instead  of  the  remaining 
one  Ace  3  are  played.] 

2.  On  commencing  the  game,  in 
a  double   match,  whether  odds  be 
given  or  not,  the  side  going  in  first 
to  serve  shall  have  but  one  hand  ; 
but  in  a  single  match  the  party  re- 
ceiving odds   shall   be   entitled   to 
them  from  the  beginning. 

3.  The  ball  shall  be  served  alter- 
nately right  and  left,  beginning  on 
whichever  side  the  server  chooses. 

4.  The  server  must  stand  with  at 
least  one  foot  in  the  "  service  box," 
and  serve  the  ball  over  the  line  on 
the  front  wall  and  within  the  proper 
service-court;     otherwise     it     is   a 
"fault."  Serving  two  faults,  missing 
the  ball,  or  the  ball  served  striking 
anywhere  before  it  reaches  the  front 
wall,  is  a  hand-out. 

5.  All  balls  served  or  played  into 
the  galleries,  hitting  a   beam,  iron 
rod,  the  telltale,  or  any  wood  or  net- 
ting, or  above  the  cemented  lines  of 
the  courts,  although  they  may  re- 
turn to  the  floor,  count  against  the 
Striker. 

6.  A   ball,   to    be  fair,   must    be 
truck  before  or  on  the  first  bound, 


and  must  not  touch  the  floor,  the 
galleries,  the  telltale,  or  any  wood  or 
netting,  or  above  the  cemented  lines 
of  the  courts,  before  or  after  reach- 
ing the  front  wall. 

7.  Until  a  ball  has  been  touched 
or  bounded  twice  it  may  be  struck 
at  any  number  of  times. 

8.  Only  the  player  to  whom  a  ball 
is  served  may  return  it. 

9.  A  ball  touching  the  striker  or 
his  partner  before  the  second  bound 
loses  a  hand  or  an  ace. 

10.  If  a  fair  ball  hit  the  striker's 
adversary  above  or  on  the  knee,  it 
is  a  "  let,"  and  shall  be  played  over ; 
if  below  the  knee,  it  counts  against 
the  striker. 

11.  The  out-players  may  once  only 
in  each  game  exchange  courts  to  re- 
turn service. 

12.  Every   player  should   try   to 
keep   out    of    his  adversary's  way. 
When  a  "hinder"  is  claimed  it  shall 
be  decided  by  the  marker. 

13.  The  marker's  decision,  on  all 
questions  referred  to  him,  shall  be 
final.     If  he  is  in  doubt  he  should 
ask  advice  ;  and  if  he  cannot  decide 
positively,  the  ace  is  to  be  played 
over. 

History.  Rackets  is  a  modifica- 
tion of  Court  TENNIS.  It  has  long 
been  popular  in  England  and  Ire- 
land, and  has  been  recently  intro- 
duced into  this  country,  where  sev- 
eral clubs  have  been  formed  to  play 
it.  The  New  York  club  has  a  fine 
court  on  26th  Street,  near  the  corner 
of  Sixth  Avenue. 

Fives,  a  kind  of  Rackets  in  which 
the  palm  of  the  hand  is  used  instead 
of  the  racket.  There  is  only  a  front 
wall  in  the  court,  the  others  being 
replaced  by  lines  drawn  on  the 
ground.  In  Italy  is  played  a  kind  of 
Fives  called  Pallone,  in  which  the 
ball  is  struck  with  the  arm,  protected 
from  wrist  to  elbow  with  a  guard  of 
heavy  leather. 

RAILROAD  BAGATELLE.  See 
BAGATELLE. 

RAIN  STORM,  Imitation  of.  Boil 
Canada  balsam  in  a  flask,  over  an 


RANK   AND   FILE 


570 


REFLECTION   OF   SOUND 


alcohol  lamp.  Clouds  of  turpen- 
tine drops  will  form  in  the  upper 
part  of  the  flask,  and  if  a  cold  glass 
rod  be  inserted,  these  will  condense 
and  fall  like  rain. 

RANK  AND  FILE,  a  SOLITAIRE 
game  of  CARDS,  played  with  two 
packs.  The  first  eleven  cards  are  laid, 
as  they  appear,  in  a  row  on  the  table, 
face  upward,  and  the  rest  of  the 
cards  in  similar  rows  below  as  long 
as  the  pack  lasts.  The  object  is  to 
pile  the  cards  in  families  ;  down- 
ward from  four  Kings,  following 
suit,  and  upward  from  four  Aces. 
For  this  purpose  such  cards  as  are 
wanted  are  used  as  they  appear 
from  the  pack,  instead  of  putting 
them  in  rows.  Any  card  in  the 
first  row  can  also  be  used,  and  the 
two  right-hand  cards  of  each  of  the 
other  rows.  When  there  is  a  va- 
cancy in  the  first  row,  it  is  filled 
from  the  pack,  but  other  vacancies 
are  not  filled.  When  the  pack  is 
exhausted,  any  card  can  be  used 
that  has  no  card  directly  below  it. 
When  a  line  is  clear  from  top  to 
bottom,  any  King  that  can  be  played 
may  be  placed  in  it.  If  the  families 
cannot  be  completed  thus,  the 
player,  beginning  at  the  lower  left- 
hand  corner,  takes  up  the  cards  in 
the  opposite  order  from  that  in 
which  he  laid  them  down,  and  re- 
lays them,  without  shuffling,  as  at 
first.  .  The  cards  can  thus  be  re-laid 
twice;  and  if  the  families  can  be 
completed  thus,  the  player  wins. 

READER,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  each  of  whom 
assumes  a  trade  or  profession,  ex- 
cept one,  who  is  chosen  to  act  as 
Reader.  The  Reader  selects  a 
passage  from  any  book,  either  prose 
or  poetry,  and  reads  it  aloud,  stop- 
ping at  intervals  to  point  at  one  of 
the  other  players.  The  one  at 
whom  he  points  must  at  once  sub- 
stitute for  the  next  word,  which 
must  be  a  noun,  some  one  connect- 
ed with  his  assumed  trade,  and  then 
the  Reader  goes  on.  Any  one  who 
does  not  at  once  respond,  or  puts 


in  a  word  not  connected  with  his 
trade,  must  pay  a  forfeit.  Some- 
times the  reader  copies  the  passage 
on  paper,  calling  for  the  words,  as 
before,  and  then  reading  the  whole 
aloud. 

For  instance,  suppose  the  players 
assume  respectively  the  occupations 
of  carpenter,  grocer,  plumber,  hack- 
man,  physician,  and  painter,  and 
give  in  order,  as  they  are  required, 
the  words  italicized  in  the  following 
verse,  which  the  reader  selects  from 
Horatius  at  the  Bridge,  with  this 
result : 

"  Then  out  spake  brave  Jack-fltine, 
The_/?0«r  barrel  of  the  furnace, 
To  every  horse  upon  this  ipecac 
Putty  cometh  soon  or  late.'1 

REFLECTION  OF  SOUND,  Ex- 
periments on  the.  Experiments  on 
the  reflection  of  sound  at  a  dis- 
tance are  described  under  ECHOES. 

1.  It  may  be  observed  in  a  room 
by  cutting  two  large  holes  in  a  card 
board  disk  about  a  foot  in  diameter. 
The  disk   is  placed  on  a  TWIRLER, 
and  the  experimenter,  standing  close 
to    it   on   one    side,    blows    a    toy 
trumpet  so  that  the  sound  will  be 
reflected   from   the   disk,  near  the 
top,  to  a  person  on  the  other  side 
of  the  room.     When  the  trumpet  is 
blown  and  the  disk   rotated  at  the 
same  time,  the  listener  will  hear  a 
successive  strengthening  and  weak- 
ening of  the  sound,  resembling  beats 
(see  VIOLIN,  Experiment  5).      This 
is  caused  by  the  passage  of  the  holes 
before    the     trumpet,    letting    the 
sound  through  instead  of  reflecting 
it  to  the  listener. 

2.  Let     one    person     sound    the 
trumpet   at   one  end  of  the    room, 
while  another,  standing   at  the  op- 
posite end,  holds  a  common  palm- 
leaf  fan  before  his  ear.     When  the 
fan  is   slowlv  twirled  by  the  handle, 
a  change  in  the  sound  is  heard,  be- 
cause it  is  reflected  better  in  some 
positions  than  in  others. 

3.  In  front  of  a  concave  mirror,  r, 
at  w  (see  illustration)  hang  a  watch, 
or   support  it  on   a  block  of  wood. 


REPEATING  GAMES 


571 


REPEATING  GAMLS 


Sound  Mirrors. 


Place  the  ear  at  e,  in  front  of 
another  concave  mirror,  r*,  placed 
at  some  distance.  It  will  be  found 
that  the  ticking  is  heard  more  dis- 
tinctly there  than  elsewhere.  The 
sound  is  reflected  in  the  direction 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines  and  ar- 
rows. The  point  c  is  the  centre  of 
the  sphere  ot  which  the  mirror  r 
forms  a  part.  Ordinary  choppmg- 
bowls  will  do  very  well  for  mirrors, 
as  they  will  reflect  sound,  though 
they  do  not  reflect  light. 

REPEATING  GAMES,  games  in 
which  the  players  in  turn  repeat  a 
sentence  after  one  who  is  chosen 
leader.  At  each  round  the  leader 
adds  something,  and  the  whole,  in- 
cluding additions,  must  be  repeated 
by  all  in  turn,  as  in  the  child's  story, 
"The  House  that  Jack  Built." 
Those  who  fail,  either  drop  out  of 
the  game  or  pay  a  forfeit.  Any  one 
may  invent  sentences  for  such  a 
game.  They  should  be  as  ridiculous 
as  possible  and  contain  many  long 
words.  A  few  collections  of  sen- 
tences commonly  used  for  such 
games  is  given  below. 

I.  The  following  nonsense  story, 
composed  by  the  English  actor, 
Foote,  is  very  well  known  :  "  She 
went  into  the  garden  to  cut  a  cab- 
bage-leaf to  make  an  apple-pie, 
when  a  great  she-bear,  coming  up  the 
street,  poked  his  head  into  the  shop. 
What!  No  soap  !  So  he  died,  and 
she  very  imprudently  married  the 
barber,  and  there  were  present  the 
Pickaninnies,  and  the  Gobillilies, 


and  Garulies,  and  the  Grand  Pan- 
jandrum, with  the  little  round  but- 
ton at  the  top  ;  and  they  all  fell  to 
playing  Catch  as  Catch  Can,  till  the 
gunpowder  ran  out  at  the  heels  of 
their  boots."  This  can  be  divided 
into  such  parts  as  the  leader  chooses, 
for  use  in  the  game.  In  the  remain- 
ing games  the  original  sentence  and 
additions  are  numbered. 

II.  My  Aunt's  Garden.  i.  "I 
come  from  my  Aunt's  Garden, — oh 
such  a  pretty  garden  !  In  my  Aunt's 
Garden  are  four  corners." 

2.  "  In  the  first  corner  grows  an 
elegantine — 

Give   me   your    heart,  and   I 
will  give  you  mine." 

3.  "  In  the  second  corner  grows  a 
rose  so  fair — 

I  would   embrace   you,  but  I 
I  do  not  dare  !" 

4.  "In  the  third  corner  grows  a 
crimson  pink — 

Tell   me  of  whom  you   most 
frequently  think." 

5.  (Each   player,  after    repeating 
the   sentences,  whispers  a  name  to 
his  left-hand  neighbor.) 

6.  "  In  the  fourth  corner  grows  a 
poppy  red- 
Repeat  to   us  all  what   just 

now  you  said." 

7.  (Each   repeats   aloud  what   he 
whispered.) 

Another  form  of  "  My  Auiu  s 
Garden." 

1.  See  my  Aunt's  Garden  !    Oh 
what  a  pretty  Garden  ! 

2.  In  my  Aunt's  Garden  there  is 


REPEATING   GAMES 


572 


RIBBONS 


a  tree.    Oh  how  pretty  is  the  tree  in 
my  Aunt's  Garden  ! 

3.  On    the    tree    in    my    Aunt's 
Garden  there  is  a  branch.    Oh  how 
pretty  is  the  branch  on  the  tree  in 
my  Aunt's  Garden ! 

4.  On  the  branch  on  the  tree  in 
my  Aunt's  Garden  there  is  a  nest. 
Oh    how  pretty  is  the  nest  on  the 
branch   on  the  tree   in  my  Aunt's 
Garden ! 

5.  In  the  nest  on  the  branch  on 
the  tree  in  my  Aunt's  Garden  there 
is   a   bird.     Oh   how  pretty  is  the 
bird  in  the  nest,  etc. 

6.  The  bird  in  the   nest  on   the 
branch  on  the  tree    in    my  Aunt's 
Garden  bears  in  his  beak  a  billet 
with  the  words,  "  1  love  you."      Oh 
how   pretty  are  the   words  "  I  love 
you"   on   the   billet  in  the   beak  of 
the  bird,  etc. 

III.  The  Key  of  the  King's  Garden. 

1.  I  sell  you  the  key  of  the  King's 
Garden. 

2.  I  sell  you  the  string  that  holds 
the  key  of  the  King's  Garden. 

3.  I  sell  you  the  nail  where  hangs 
the  string,  etc. 

4.  I  sell  you  the  beam,   in  which 
is  the  nail,  etc. 

5.  I  sell  you  the  rat  that  gnawed 
the  beam,  etc. 

6.  I  sell  you  the  cat  that  killed 
the  rat,  etc. 

This   can   be   continued    at    the 
pleasure  of  the  Leader. 

IV.  The  Good  Little  Man, 

1.  I  sell  you  my  good  little  man. 

2.  I  sell  you  the  house  of  my  good 
little  man. 

3.  I  sell  you  the  door  of  the  house, 
etc. 

4.  I  sell  you  the  lock  of  the  door, 
etc. 

And  so  on  at  pleasure. 

V.  One  Old  Ox. 

f.  One  old  ox,  open  ing  oysters. 

2.  Two  toads,  totally  tired,  trying 
to  trot  to  Tewksbury. 

3.  Three  tame  tigers  taking  tea. 

4.  Four    fat    friars    fanning   the 
fainting  fair. 

5.  Five  fairies  fending  fireflies. 


6.  Six  soldiers  shooting  snipes. 

7.  Seven   salmon   sailing   in  Sol- 
way. 

8.  Eight  elegant  engineers  eating 
excellent  eggs. 

9.  Nine  nimble  noblemen  nibbling 
nonpareils. 

10.  Ten   till-tinkers   taking  two- 
pence. 

11.  Eleven  electors  eating  early 
endive. 

12.  Twelve  twittering  titmice  tee- 
tering on  the  tip-top  of  a  tall  tree. 

VI.  The  Good  Fat  Hen. 

1.  A  good  fat  hen. 

2.  Two   ducks  and  one  good  fat 
hen. 

3.  Three  squalling  wild  geese,  two 
ducks,  and  one  good  fat  hen. 

4.  Four  plump  partridges,  three 
squalling  wild  geese,  etc. 

5.  Five  hundred  Limerick  oysters, 
four  plump  partridges,  etc. 

6.  Six   pairs   of  Don   Alphonso's 
tweezers,    five    hundred    Limerick 
oysters,  etc. 

7.  Seven     hundred     Macedonian 
horsemen  drawn  up  in  line  of  baU 
tie,  etc. 

8.  Eight  cages  of    Heliogabalus 
sparrowkites,  etc. 

9.  Nine    sympathetic,     epithetic, 
didactic  propositions,  etc. 

10.  Ten    helioscopic,    periscopic, 
pharmaceutical  tubes,  etc. 

11.  Eleven  flat-bottomed  fly-boats 
floating  from  Madagascar  to  Mount 
Prunello,  etc. 

12.  Twelve     European     dancing- 
masters  sent  to  Egypt  to  teach  the 
Egyptian  mummies   to   dance  and 
sing,  etc. 

A  kind  of  repeating  game  called 
GENTEEL  LADY  is  told  about  in  an 
article  by  itself.  QUEEN  DIDO,  and 
the  games  like  it,  are  also  repeating 
games,  but  the  things  repeated  are 
motions  of  the  head  and  limbs,  in- 
stead of  words. 

RESEMBLANCES.  See  WHAT  IS 
MY  THOUGHT  LIKE. 

REVIEWERS,  THE.  See  BOOK 
NOTICES, 

RIBBONS,  a  game  played  by  any 


RICH  MAN 


RIDING 


number  of  persons  in  a  circle,  each 
one  of  whom  holds  one  end  of  a 
ribbon,  all  the  other  ends  being 
united  in  the  hand  of  the  leader 
of  the  game,  who  stands  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  circle.  when  he  says 
"  Pull,"  they  must  let  go,  and  when 
he  says  "  Let  go,"  they  must  pull 
the  ribbons.  Any  one  obeying  the 
leader's  order  is  obliged  to  pay  a 
forfeit. 

RICH  MAN,  a  game  of  CARDS  played 
by  three  persons  with  a  EUCHRE 
pack.  The  player  who  cuts  the 
lowest  card  deals,  and  is  called  Rich 
Man.  He  gives  himself  ii  cards  and 
each  of  the  others  10,  turning  up 
the  remaining  card  as  trump.  Each 
of  the  other  players  in  order,  begin- 
ing  at  his  left,  may  then  demand  of 
him  a  card  with  one  more  pip  than 
some  one  card  in  the  asker's  hand, 
and  if  the  dealer  have  it,  he  must 
exchange  with  the  asker.  For  in- 
stance, if  a  player  have  a  Nine,  he 
may  ask  the  dealer  to  exchange  a 
Ten  for  it.  Suits  are  not  mentioned. 
If  the  dealer  have  two  or  more  Tens, 
he  would  be  allowed  to  give  which- 
ever he  chose.  If  he  have  not  the 
card  asked  for,  he  says  so,  and  the 
next  playerasks.no  one  beingallowed 
a  second  chance.  In  case  the  cards 
are  exchanged,  the  third  player  must 
not  see  of  what  suits  .they  are. 
Play  then  begins,  the  eldest  hand 
leading.  Suit  need  not  be  followed, 
but  the  trick  must  be  taken  if  pos- 
sible. Court-cards  have  no  rank 
and  cannot  win,  and  a  trick  com- 
posed entirely  of  them  is  always 
taken  by  the  leader.  The  highest 
plain  card  of  the  suit  led  takes  the 
trick,  unless  an  equal  one  of  the 
same  color  has  been  played,  when 
Diamonds  always  take  Hearts,  and 
Clubs  take  Spades.  If  Hearts  or 
Spades  are  trumps,  the  trump  suit 
is  highest  in  its  own  color;  but  a 
trump  has  no  power  to  take  unless 
led  or  played  to  a  trump  lead.  There 
is  therefore  no  "  trumping  in."  Af- 
ter the  fifth  trick  is  taken,  the  dealer 
is  allowed  to  play  the  trump  card, 


but  he  cannot  take  it  in  hand. 
winner  of  each  trick  scores  one, 
and  the  dealer  scores  two  additional 
points,  but  3  points  are  forfeited 
for  each  failure  to  take  a  trick  when 
possible,  and  3  points  by  the  dealer 
for  withholding  a  card  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  game,  if  he  has  it. 

RIDING.  The  art  of  riding  can 
be  acquired  by  practice  only,  but 
instruction  from  a  good  master  is 
worth  its  cost.  In  this  country  the 
American,  English,  and  German 
styles  are  all  practised. 

The  German  style  is  rapidly  pass- 
ing out.  The  American  style  is 
generally  practised  in  the  Western 
and  Southern  States,  while  in  the 
Middle  States  the  English  style  has 
become  the  fashion.  The  Germans 
teach  to  sit  with  a  straight,  stiff 
body,  shoulders  well  thrown  back, 
toes  up  and  turned  partly  out,  and 
heels  well  down,  the  back  of  the 
calf  of  the  leg  gripping  the  horse 
tightly.  The  American  style  is  to 
ride  with  the  body  in  an  easy  posi- 
tion, the  toes  lower  than  the  heels, 
the  knees  grasping  the  saddle  firm- 
ly, and  the  toes,  only,  in  the  stirrup. 
The  English  style  is  a  natural  posi- 
tion of  the  body,  the  foot  thrust 
all  the  way  into  the  stirrup,  the  toes 
slightly  lower  than  or  on  a  level 
with  the  heel.  The  American  style 
is  suited  to  riding  easy-gaited  horses 
only,  or  on  military  saddles,  while 
the  English  style  is  suited  to  park 
riding  as  well  as  to  rough  riding  and 
hunting. 

The  saddle  and  bridle  should 
always  be  examined  before  mount- 
ing. See  that  the  throat-latch  (the 
strap  under  the  throat)  is  loose 
enough  to  easily  pass  your  four 
fingers  between  it  and  the  throat ; 
that  the  curb-chain  hangs  in  the 
chin  groove  and  is  loose  enough  to 
pass  a  finger  between  it  and  the  jaw, 
whilst  the  bit  hangs  naturally  ;  that 
the  saddle  rests  where  it  would  lie 
easiest  before  fastening  the  girths : 
neither  high  up  on  the  shoulder  nor 
so  far  back  that  it  will  work  forward; 


RIDING 


574 


RIDING 


M 


Double  Bridle.— A,  Cheek  ;  B,  Cheek  of  snaffle  head-piece ;  C,  Throat-latch  ;  D,  Nose- 
band ;  E,  Front ;  F,  Snaffle,  or  Bridoon-bit ;  GG,  Curb-bit ;  H,  Curb-chain  ;  I,  Lip-strap  ; 
KK,  Snaffle-reins  ;  LL,  Curb-reins  ;  M,  Head-piece. 


that  the  girths  are  not  crossed  or 
wide  apart,  and  that  they  are  tight, 
but  not  so  tight  as  to  give  the  horse 
pain. 

The  snaffle-bit,  used  alone  or 
with  the  curb,  should  be  high 
enough  in  the  mouth  to  touch  its 
corners,  but  not  wrinkle  the  skin  ; 
the  curb  an  inch  and  a  half  below 
the  corner  of  the  mouth. 

To  Mount,  i.  Stand  on  the  left 
side  of  the  horse  near  his  shoulder, 
the  body  three  quarters  facing  him, 
the  right  shoulder  farthest  from 
him  ;  take  the  reins  up  in  the  right 
hand  and  place  them  in  the  left. 
Grasp  a  lock  of  the  mane  with  the 
left  hand  a  little  forward  of  the 
shoulder  in  such  a  manner  as  may 
be  most  convenient,  meanwhile 
holding  the  reins  firmly  but  not 
pulling  upon  the  horse's  mouth. 


2.  Now  take   the   stirrup   in  the 
right  hand,  putting  the  left  foot  into 
it.     If  you  can  take  it  without  the 
use  of  the  hand,  so  much  the  bet- 
ter. 

3.  Put  the  right  hand   well  over 
on  the  right  side  of  the  cantle  of  the 
saddle  (pressing  downward  to  help 
prevent  the  saddle  turning). 

4.  Rise  with  a  good  spring  from 
the  right  foot. 

5.  Throw     the     right    leg    over, 
clearing  the  horse's  back,  withdraw- 
ing  the   right   hand   at    the    same 
time,  and  sink  gently  into  the  sad- 
dle;   release   the    mane;    turn    the 
right  foot  inward  and  you  will  easily 
find  the  stirrup.     (The  forward  end 
of  stirrup   as   it   hangs,  should  be 
turned  away  from  the  horse  in  put- 
ting the  foot  in.)  Lengthen  the  reins 
in  the  left  hand  by  letting  them 


RIDING 


575 


RIDING 


slide  through  the  fingers  or  by  pull- 
ing them  through  with  the  right. 
If  a  whip  is  carried,  grasp  it  in  the 
palm  of  the  right  hand,  butt  up, 

Another  method  of  mounting  is  i, 
to  stand  opposite  the  saddle-girths  ; 


English  Saddle.— A,  Pommel ;  B,  Cantle; 
C,  Skirt ;  D,  Flap ;  E,  Panel ;  F,  Stirrup  ;  G, 
Stirrup-leather  ;  H,  Roll  ;  I,  Dee,  for  fasten- 
ing hunting-flask  ;  K,  Staple,  for  fastening 
breast-plate  ;  LL,  Girths  ;  M,  Tread  of  stir- 
rup. 

2,  grasp  the  pommel  of  the  saddle 
with  the  right  hand,  which  also 
holds  the  reins;  3,  take  the  stirrup 
in  the  left  hand  and  insert  the 
foot ;  4,  take  a  lock  of  the  mane, 
half-way  up  the  neck,  in  the  left 
hand,  thumb  uppermost;  5,  then 
proceed  to  get  on  as  described 


above.  This  method  does  away  with 
removing  the  support  of  the  right 
hand  as  the  leg  is  thrown  over  the 
horse's  back.  After  one  has  learned 
to  ride  it  is  well  to  practise  mount- 
ing from  the  right  side,  reversing 
the  methods  given 
above. 

To     Dismount* 
Grasp  the  mane  near 
the  shoulder  with  the 
left  hand,  which   also 
holds      the       reins; 
place  the  right  hand 
on  the  right  skirt ;  to 
steady  the  body  withdraw  the  right 
foot    from    the  stirrup,  and  whilst 
throwing  it  over  the  saddle  slide  the 
right  hand  back  to  and  grasp  the 
cantle,  to  ease  the  descent. 

Restlessness  in  being  mounted  is 
often  caused  by  the  rider's  foot 
tickling  the  horse's  side,  but  oftener 
from  rough  treatment,  or  allowing 
the  horse  to  rush  off  the  moment 
the  rider  is  seated  :  he  should  always 
be  made  to  stand  a  few  seconds. 
If  he  starts  before  you  are  ready  to 
rise  from  the  ground,  say  "whoa" 
and  shorten  the  reins  with  the  right 
hand  to  check  him,  then  let  them 
slide  through  the  fingers  to  posi- 
tion. It  is  better  to  mount  only  half- 
way, not  throwing  the  leg  over,  and 
come  back  to  the  ground  to  quiet 
him  than  to  get  on  whilst  he  is  mov- 
ing. He  may  often  be  made  to 
stand  by  shortening  the  right  rein 
or  reins,  thus  pulling  his  head  to 
the  right  and  holding  it  there  until 
mounted.  A  simple  way  to  make 
him  stand,  if  very  restive,  is  to  let 
the  groom  pick  up  his  off  fore-leg 
and  hold  it  close  to  the  horse's 
elbow.  Some  horses  do  not  like  to 
have  their  heads  held  by  a  groom 
while  being  mounted  and  will  be 
quiet  so  soon  as  released. 

The  Seat.  Sit  without  putting 
the  feet  into  the  stirrups,  the  weight 
of  the  body  resting  on  the  buttocks  ; 
shoulders  back ;  elbows  close, 
though  not  pressed  to  the  body ; 
the  thighs  grasping  the  saddle  ;  the 


RIDING 


57<5 


RIDING 


The  Seat. 


legs,  beiow  the  knees,  hanging  per- 
pendicularly, and  back  far  enough 
to  cover  the  girths ;  toes  slightly 
in ;  the  side  of  the  calf  of  the  leg 
and  the  inside  of  the  knee  will  then 
be  found  to  grasp  the  saddle ;  the 
whole  body  at  ease.  A  strong  grip 
at  the  knee  and  with  the  inside  of 
the  calf  is  as  important  as  the  thigh 
grip  and  is  easily  secured  by  turn- 
ing the  toes  well  in.  The  foot 
should  be  nearly  parallel  with  the 
horse's  body.  The  shapes  of  differ- 
ent men  require  modifications  in 
the  seat,  but  a  good  rule  to  bear  in 
mind  is  "toes  in  and  heels  down." 
The  length  of  the  stirrup-leathers 
should  now  be  regulated  so  as  to 
make  the  bottom  of  the  iron  hang 
about  an  inch  higher  than  the  hol- 
low of  the  foot  just  in  front  of  the 
heel  of  the  boot,  when  "the  seat" 
will  remain  as  above  described,  ex- 
cepting a  slight  throwing  forward 
and  raising  of  the  knees.  The 


length  of  stirrup,  however,  must  be 
regulated,  somewhat,  by  the  feeling 
of  comfort  after  trial.  Having  once 
ascertained  this  length  it  will  be 
found  convenient  to  note  it  by 
measuring  from  the  finger-tips,  rest- 
ing on  the  buckle  of  the  stirrup  (the 
latter,  of  course,  being  against  the 
stirrup-bar  of  the  saddle)  toward  the 
arm-pit,  with  the  stirrup  and  leather 
under  the  arm.  See  how  near  the 
arm-pit  the  bottom  of  the  stirrup 
comes,  and  thereafter,  keeping  this 
point  in  mind,  the  rider  may  know 
whether  his  stirrups  are  about  the 
right  length  before  mounting  on 
any  saddle. 

One  of  the  quickest  ways  to  learn 
"balance"  and  to  get  "shaken 
down  "  into  the  saddle  is  to  ride 
on  a  pad  a  few  times,  or  in  the  sad- 
dle without  the  stirrups,  upon  a 
gentle  horse  in  a  riding-school,  if 
possible ;  or,  if  no  riding-school 
be  available,  have  the  halter  left  on 


RIDING 


577 


RIDING 


with  the  bridle  and  fasten  to  it  a 
rope  twenty  or  twenty-five  feet  long ; 
let  an  attendant  hold  this  and  cause 
the  horse  to  trot  in  a  circle  and  at 
tlie  same  time  retain  control  of 
him. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  practice  rid- 
ing without  stirrups  (crossing  them 
over  the  front  of  the  saddle).  In 
road  or  park  riding  the  stirrups  may 
be  under  the  ball  of  the  foot.  In 
hunting  or  rough  riding  the  foot 
should  be  pushed  "home,"  that  is, 
as  far  into  the  stirrup  as  it  will  go. 
Never  use  too  small  stirrups  ;  there 
is  danger  of  the  foot  catching  in 
case  of  a  fall.  Stirrups  with  broad 
"  treads "  (the  bottom  where  the 
foot  rests)  are  the  most  comfortable. 
Do  not  ride  the  same  horse  upon 
all  occasions ,  frequent  changes 
give  ease  and  security  to  one's  seat 
and  teach  general  management. 

In   first  rides,   only  a  snaffle-bit 


Snaffle-bit. 

and  a  single  pair  of  reins  should  be 
used,  one  rein  being  held  in  each 
hand.  Any  horse  fit  for  a  beginner 
will  start  upon  the  rider  mewing 
and  loosening  the  reins  and  press- 
ing the  heels  slightly.  To  turn, 
pull  the  rein  on  the  side  in  the 
direction  toward  which  you  wish 
to  go.  If  intending  to  turn,  do 
not  commence  pulling  until  quite 
ready  to  change  direction.  Do  not 
raise  the  elbows  or  hands  in  turn- 
ing. To  stop,  slightly  raise  and 
draw  in  the  reins,  ceasing  the  pull 


as  soon  as  the  horse  stops.  Most 
Southern  and  Western  horses  are 
trained  to  guide  by  simple  pres- 
sure of  the  reins  on  the  side  of  the 
neck  opposite  to  which  it  is  de- 
sired to  turn,  and  all  well-trained 
saddle-horses  should  be  so  trained. 

Having  become  accustomed  to  the 
motion  of  the  horse  at  a  walk,  he  may 
be  made  to  trot  by  steadying  the 
reins,  leaning  slightly  forward  and 
pressing  the  legs  against  his  side, 
clucking  to  him,  or  touching  him 
lightly  with  the  whip  if  necessary. 
There  are  two  methods  of  riding  at 
the  trot :  the  close-sitting,  and  rising 
in  the  stirrups.  In  the  former,  the 
rider  gives  himself  up  to  the  mo- 
tions of  the  horse,  holding  the  body 
and  legs  without  stiffness.  It  is 
possible  for  the  rider  who  has  at- 
tained good  "  balance"  to  sit  upon 
most  trotting- horses  without  being 
thrown  noticeably  from  the  saddle, 
though  on  a  rough-gaited  horse  it  is 
very  fatiguing. 

In  "rising  to  the  trot,"  the  rider 
partly  raises  himself  and  is  partly 
thrown  up  from  the  saddle  at  every 
other  step  of  the  horse,  using  the 
knee  as  a  pivot,  aided  by  a  slight 
pressure  upon  the  stirrups.  This 
rising  is  easily  acquired,  but  must 
only  be  attempted  when  the  rider 
feels  the  rise  to  be  in  accord  with 
the  step  of  the  horse.  Do  not  allow 
the  legs  from  the  knees  down  td 
swing  backward  and  forward ;  noth- 
ing is  more  awkward.  Keep  the 
head  and  shoulders  well  back.  Be 
careful  not  to  throw  the  waist  for- 
ward at  each  rise :  it  is  better  even 
to  throw  the  head  and  shoulders 
forward  to  overcome  this  most 
awkward  fault. 

The  Canter  is  an  acquired  form  of 
slow  galloping.  When  a  horse  be- 
gins to  canter,  he  turns  himself  a  lit- 
tle to  one  side,  that  he  may  advance 
the  fore-leg  he  is  going  to  "  lead" 
with,  and  he  may  be  made  to  take 
this  gait  from  a  walk  or  slow  trot, 
by  lightly  pulling  and  raising  the 
rein,  at  the  same  time  touching  him 


RIDING 


578 


RIDING 


with  the  heel,  pressing  with  the  leg 
behind  the  girths  and  throwing  the 
greater  part  of  the  weight  of  the 
body  on  the  side  opposite  the  one  it 
is  intended  to  have  him  "lead," 
and  causing  him  to  increase  his 
speed,  at  the  same  time  curbing 
him.  If  the  rider  wishes  him  to 
start  off  with  the  right  leg,  the  left 
rein  must  be  slightly  tightened  and 
the  left  flank  touched,  and  vice- 
versa.  In  cantering  in  a  circle  or 
on  a  short  curve,  the  horse  should 
always  lead  with  the  inside  leg,  that 
is,  the  leg  toward  the  centre  of  the 
curve.  The  reins  should  be  held 
firmly  but  gently. 

Mr.  E.  L.  Anderson,  a  modern 
authority,  holds  that  "  if  the  horse 
is  lightened  in  front  (that  is,  made 
to  raise  his  legs  by  a  '  play '  of  the 
bit)  he  maybe  lightened  more  upon 
one  side  than  upon  the  other  by  in- 
creased action  of  the  bit  upon  that 
side."  He  therefore  advocates  that 
if  we  wish  "  to  make  the  horse 
gallop  by  leading  with  the  right 
side,  we  shall  lighten  that  side  by  a 
' play'  of  the  right  rein,  and  bend 
the  croup  by  an  application  of  the 
left  spur." 

In  the  canter  and  gallop  the  body 
should  not  be  held  stiffly  from  the 
waist  upward,  but  move  with  the 
horse. 

The  Gallop  is  a  natural  pace,  and 
consists  of  a  succession  of  leaps, 
in  which  the  legs  of  one  side  leave 
the  ground  after,  but  pass  beyond, 
the  legs  of  the  other  side.  The 
horse  "  leads"  or  starts  to  gallop  as 
in  the  canter,  and  may  be  made  to 
"  lead  "  as  described  above. 

In  riding  the  gallop,  the  rider's 
body  is  thrown  slightly  back, 
the  knees  hold  the  horse's  sides 
firmly,  but  not  too  tightly,  and  the 
hands  are  held  low.  In  fast  gal- 
loping the  rider  sometimes  stands 
in  the  stirrups,  holding  by  the  knees 
to  the  saddle  flaps,  and  bending  for- 
ward from  the  waist.  The  canter 
and  gallop  are  easier  for  women,  if 
the  horse  lead  off  with  his  right 


foot ;  but  he  should  be  made  to 
lead  off  sometimes  with  the  right, 
and  sometimes  with  the  left. 


Holding  the  reins,  Fig.  i. 

Holding  the  Reins.  If  only  one 
pair  of  reins  is  used,  they  should  be 
held  in  the  left  hand,  by  placing  all 
the  fingers  between  them  but  the 
forefinger,  and  then  turning  the 
ends  under  that  finger  and  grasping 
them  between  it  and  the  thumb. 
If  it  is  desired  to  shorten  the  hold, 
the  grasp  can  be  loosened,  the  end 
taken  in  the  right  hand,  and  the 
left  hand  pushed  up.  In  holding 
the  reins  thus,  the  thumb  should 
be  pointed  forward,  the  little  finger 
near  the  pommel,  and  the  elbow 
close  at  the  side.  The  right  rein  is 
now  the  upper  one,  and  either  it  or 
the  left  can  be  pulled  at  pleasure  by 
simply  turning  the  wrist,  without 
lifting  the  hand. 

When  the  rider  has  gained  ex- 
perience, and  rides  with  two  pairs 
of  reins,  different  styles  of  holding 
them  are  adopted.  The  follow- 
ing is  one  of  the  most  common: 


c    s 

Holding  the  reins,  Fig.  2. 


RIDING 


579 


RIDING 


The  snaffle  reins  are  held  in  the  left 
hand,  separated  by  the  last  three 
fingers  and  coming  out  between  the 
forefinger  and  thumb,  the  curb  reins 
being  held  in  the  same  hand,  the 
near  rein  between  the  third  and 
fourth  finger  and  the  off  between 
the  second  and  third,  the  ends  com- 
ing out  between  the  ends  of  the 
snaffle  reins.  Some  riders  place  the 
curb  reins  on  the  outside  and  the 
snaffle  reins  inside,  arranging  the 
fingers  as  above.  All  the  reins  may 


Holding  the  Reins,  Fig.  3. 
SS,  Snaffle-reins  ;  CC,  Curb-reins. 

be  carried  in  the  right  hand  in  the 
same  manner  if  desired.  Some 
riders  hold  the  reins  as  in  figure  3. 
If  it  is  desired  to  ride  with  both 
hands,  the  reins  being  in  the  left, 
the  right  hand  (which  holds  the 
whip,  butt  uppermost)  may  be  placed 
in  front  of  the  left  hand  and  take 
the  right  snaffle  rein  between  the 
first  anH  second  fingers,  the  thumb 
under  it,  not  removing  it  from  the 
left  hand.  Or  both  the  right  curb 
and  right  snaffle  may  be  taken  in 
the  right  hand  as  in  Fig.  i,  remov- 
ing them  from  the  left  hand  or  not, 
as  desired.  These  methods  may 
be  practised  with  reins  or  pieces  of 
tape  before  taking  a  riding  lesson. 
After  a  little  practice,  the  rider  can 
pull  on  which  ever  rein  he  wishes. 
Either  the  curb  or  snaffle  may  be 
the  tight,  or  riding,  rein  at  will; 
but  it  is  not  well  to  ride  with  both 
tight  at  the  same  time.  The  reins 
between  the  fingers  should  be  held 


well  up  toward  the  knuckles  and 
the  hands  firmly  closed.  As  a  rule, 
the  hands  should  be  held  low  and 
not  far  forward  :  about  over  the 
pommel  of  the  saddle  will  give  pull 
enough  to  control  the  average  horse 
and  yet  not  look  awkward.  The 
learner  should  avoid  depending  on 
his  reins  to  hold  himself  on  his 
horse,  and  should  be  able  to  keep 
his  seat  without  their  aid. 

Leaping.  A  horse  can  be  taught 
to  leap  by  leading  him  over  a  bar, 
say,  sixteen  feet  long,  supported  in 
any  convenient  manner.  At  first 
the  bar  should  be  held  so  low  that 
he  can  step  over  it,  and  gradually 
raised  until  it  will  be  necessary  for 
him  to  jump.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  force  or  frighten  him.  Four 
or  five  leaps  in  a  day  are  enough. 
When  a  horse  is  well  trained  he  will 
jump  moderate  obstacles  either  from 
a  stand  still  or  a  walk.  After  he  has 
learned  to  jump  with  the  leading 
rein,  he  may  be  mounted  and  put 
through  the  same  course.  He  should 
not  be  punished  for  refusing  unless 
he  be  a  rogue.  A  nervous  horse 
should  be  handled  gently,  and  ca- 
ressed and  rewarded  after  his  lesson, 
which  should  be  ended  after  a  jump, 
never  after  a  refusal.  In  jumping 
from  a  standstill  or  walk,  the  rider 
first  pulls  lightly  upward  on  the  reins, 
speaking,  and  pressing  his  legs  to  the 
horse's  sides  to  force  him  forward. 
As  he  rises,  the  rider  bends  slightly 
forward;  but  when  the  horse  is  in 
the  air,  he  leans  back,  both  to  keep 
his  balance  and  to  receive  the  shock 
of  landing  without  being  pitched 
forward,  resuming  the  erect  position 
as  the  horse's  hind  legs  reach 
the  ground.  This  leaning  back  may 
be  learned  upon  a  gentle  horse  by 
raising-  the  right  hand  and  throwing 
it  back  as  if  to  slap  him  on  the  hind 
quarter  as  he  rises.  The  reins  are 
held  not  too  tightly  till  the  horse's 
fore-feet  strike  the  ground  when 
they  are  tightened  to  give  him  sup- 
port. In  the  leap  from  the  trot 
or  canter  the  rider  takes  nearly 


RIDING 


580 


RIDING 


the  same  position  as  in  the  gallop, 
but  not  leaning  forward  as  in  the 
standing  leap.  The  bit  is  used  only 
to  direct  the  horse  to  the  object 
over  which  he  is  to  jump,  the  ten- 
sion being  eased  just  before  he  rises, 
that  he  may  extend  his  neck,  and 
resumed,  as  he  lands,  to  steady  him. 
If  sluggish,  the  horse  may  be 
touched  with  the  whip  or  spur,  be- 
hind the  girths,  before  he  comes  to 
the  jump,  but  not  at  the  instant  he 
takes  it,  nor  should  he  be  encouraged 
by  a  cry,  or  by  doing  anything  that 
might  cause  him  to  swerve.  Ahorse 
can  make  a  flying  high  leap  best 
when  he  approaches  it  in  a  slow  gal- 
lop, and  the  rider  should  never  at- 
tempt to  make  him  jump  at  so  great 
a  speed  that  he  cannot  collect  him- 
self for  the  leap.  A  high  speed  also 
prevents  the  horse  from  deciding 
where  he  should  begin  the  leap,  and 
confuses  him.  Only  very  expert  ri- 
ders are  warranted  in  interfering 
with  a  horse  in  taking  his  jumps; 
most  horses  jump  best  if  allowed  to 
"  take  off,"  or  leave  the  ground,  as 
they  please,  the  rider  only  steadying 
them  a  little  if  they  rush  at  the  ob- 
stacle. There  is  a  great  deal  of  non- 
sense in  the  idea  that  a  horse  can 
be  "  lifted  "  and  "  helped  "  over  his 
jumps  ;  and  it  is  usually  novices,  or 
very  young  persons,  who  attempt 
these  feats  :  one  might  as  well  try 
to  "  lift  himself  by  his  boot-straps," 
as  to  "  lift "  ahorse  over  a  jump.  If 
the  horse  is  sluggish,  he  must  be 
enlivened  with  whip  or  spur,  or  by 
moving  the  bit  in  his  mouth ;  but 
not  the  instant  he  is  to  "  take  off  " 
the  ground.  The  rider  must  not 
pull  his  horse  as  he  rises,  nor  whilst 
he  is  in  the  air — to  do  so  shortens 
the  jump:  if  the  rider  cannot  sit 
the  jump,  after  a  few  trials,  without 
the  support  of  the  reins,  he  had 
belter  improve  his  seat  before  con- 
tinuing the  sport. 

In  training  a  horse  to  jump,  he 
should  be  made  to  leap  only  a  few 
times  at  first,  as  he  uses  muscles 
not  usually  put  to  a  strain,  and, 


moreover,  will  learn  to  dislike  it  if 
made  tired.  Horses  seem  to  like 
jumping  in  the  field  with  the  excite- 
ment attending  the  hunt,  but  some 
of  the  best  judges  say  they  never 
like  it:  they  certainly  dislike  being 
"  schooled,"  and  jumping  in  cold 
blood.  Always  save  your  horse 
in  hunting:  take  the  fewest  jumps 
necessary,  and  go  through  a  break 
in  the  fence,  or  through  a  gate, 
when  you  can.  Ease  your  hoise  in 
going  over  plowed  ground,  or  up 
hill.  If  waiting  at  a  "  check,"  dis- 
mount and  loosen  your  girths,  and 
shift  your  saddle  an  inch  either 
way 

Balking.  If  a  horse  refuses  to 
move,  or  balks,  wait  quietly  for 
I  a  minute  and  he  will  often  go  on. 
|  Sometimes  he  can  be  made  to  go  by 
i  moving  the  reins  gently,  and  urging 
|  him  with  voice  or  whip  ;  sometimes 
|  by  pulling  him  around  in  the  di- 
i  rection  which  he  least  resists;  or, 
i  often  by  turning  him  around, sharply 
;  andquickly,  a  numberof  times  (thus 
I  confusing  him),  and  then  starting  in 
i  the  desired  direction.  A  little  dirt 
i  from  the  road  put  into  his  mouth 
|  often  so  distracts  a  balky  horse's 
i  attention  from  his  obstinacy  that  he 
I  will  move  on. 

i  Rearing.  The  young  horse  is 
i  apt  to  rear  if  pulled  and  excited. 
;  When  he  rises,  loosen  the  reins,  even 
i  if  you  must  hold  on  by  the  mane  or 
|  neck;  press  the  legs  closely  to  him, 
i  well  back :  this  has  a  tendency  to 
i  bring  his  hind  legs  forward,  and  ex- 
|  perts  often  use  spurs,  applied  well 
i  back,  to  bring  him  down.  Try  to 
I  keep  him  moving  either  forward  or 
j  in  a  circle,  and  pull  his  head  toward 
j  either  side  if  he  is  about  to  rise.  If 
|  he  is  about  to  fall  backward,  try  to 
j  throw  yourself  off  to  one  side.  A 
i  confirmed  rearer  is  too  dangerous 
I  to  ride. 

Shying.  Shying  is  sometimes 
i  caused  by  near-sightedness,  or  other 
\  defect  in  the  eyes,  but  it  is  generally 
\  the  result  of  habit  arising  from  bad 
i  breaking.  If  from  the  latter  cause 


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RIDING 


it  can  usually  be  overcome ;  if  from 
bad  eyesight,  never.  In  riding  a  shy- 
ing horse,  the  first  requisite  is  that 
"  the  rider  shall  not  shy  himself." 
He  should  not  let  the  horse  know 
that  he  is  expecting  him  to  shy,  as 
he  communicates  his  timidity  to  the 
animal,  who  loses  confidence  in  both 
himself  and  his  rider.  Whilst  the 
rider  should  be  on  his  guard,  he 
should  not,  by  change  of  seat  or 
reins,  lead  the  animal  to  think  some- 
thing is  about  to  happen  as  he  ap- 
proaches an  object :  he  should  ride 
straight  ahead,  apparently  paying  no 
attention  to  the  object  or  the  horse. 
If  he  shys  or  sheers  from  freshness, 
keep  him  in  a  straight  line  by  pull- 
ing his  head  toward  the  object  and 
giving  him  pressure  with  the  leg  on 
the  opposite  side.  If  he  stops  or 
turns  around,  make  him  go,  even  if 
you  must  whip  him  (behind  the 
girths),  especially  if  his  shying  be  a 
mere  pretence.  If  the  object  be 
really  frightful  much  kindness 
should  be  used,  with  firmness.  A 
steady  rein  and  plenty  of  "nerve" 
in  the  rider  will  usually  overcome 
shying,  as  the  horse  gains  confi- 
dence in  himself  through  his  confi- 
dence in  his  rider.  He  should  not 
be  forced  to  face  an  object  which 
really  frightens  him.  He  may  be 
gotten  to  pass  it  by  turning  his  head 
from  it.  and  pressing  him  on  the 
side  toward 'which  his  head  is  turned. 
If  the  object  is  moving  toward  the 
horse  it  is  best  to  turn  his  head  from 
it  and  his  side  toward  it,  stopping 
him,  or  moving  gradually,  until  the 
object  has  passed. 

Horses  will  often  pass  an  object 
and  not  shy  at  a  similar  one  again, 
if  given  a  chance  to  examine  it  and 
touch  it  with  the  nose  after  being 
gently  gotten  up  to  it.  Never 
whip  a  horse  for  shying  after  he  has 
passed  the  object,  as  he  will  soon 
acquire  the  habit  of  running  after 
each  shy,  as  he  expects  the  whip. 

A  horse  may  often  be  made  to 
pass  an  object  without  shying  by 
quietly  pulling  his  head  away  from 


it  as  he  begins  to  notice  it,  and 
thus  attracting  his  attention  to 
something  else  :  he  cannot  think  of 
two  things  at  the  same  time. 

If  a  horse  is  evidently  confirmed 
in  the  habit,  he  is  not  fit  to  ride,  and 
should  be  disposed  of  and  put  to 
work  where  he  can  do  no  harm. 

Bolting.  If  a  horse  bolts,  or 
rushes  from  control  of  the  bit, 
loosen  the  reins  a  moment  and 
give  them  a  sudden  jerk,  or  sharply 
"saw  "him:  that  is,  pull  the  reins 
alternately  on  either  side  quickly 
and  sharply,  keeping  his  head  up. 

Some  authorities  say  that  by 
gathering  the  reins  so  short  in  the 
left  hand  that  it  presses  against  the 
mane,  and  then  passing  the  right 
hand  down  (on  either  side  as  close 
as  possible  to  the  bit  and  pulling 
the  horse's  head  quite  around  to 
one  side,  any  bolter  may  be  stopped. 
It  is  best  to  stop  the  horse,  if  possi- 
ble, so  soon  as  he  starts  faster  than 
the  rider  wishes  him  to  go,  before  he 
has  gotten  into  the  running  stride. 
But  if  he  does  run,  try  to  keep  your 
seat ;  and  if  there  is  a  clear  road,  let 
him  go  until  he  begins  to  tire,  and 
then  give  him  the  whip  until  he  is 
run  out  and  glad  to  stop. 

In  most  cases  horses  acquire  vices 
through  being  maltreated,  though 
some  animals  are  vicious  by  nature. 

The  rider  should  seldom  use  his 
whip  to  punish  his  horse,  and  the 
spur  should  never  be  so  used.  But 
when  the  whip  is  used  for  pun- 
ishment, it  should  be  sharply  ap- 
plied two  or  three  times.  If  used  to 
make  the  horse  go  forward  when 
backing,  it  should  be  taken  in  the 
right  hand,  and  a  sharp  cut  be  given 
over  to  the  left  side,  behind  the  sad- 
dle girths,  and  brought  back  very 
quickly  on  its  rebound,  and  struck 
on  the  right  side,  behind  the  girths. 
To  do  this  expertly  requires  some 
practice  off  the  horse,  but  it  is 
worth  the  time,  as  it  does  not 
give  the  pain  on  one  side  only, 
and  cause  the  animal  to  swerve. 
Skilled  riders  advise  that  a  contest 


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582 


RIDING 


between  the  horse  and  his  rider  al- 
ways be  avoided,  if  possible,  by 
turning  the  horse's  attention  to 
something  else.  Never  strike  on 
the  shoulder,  as  the  horse  naturally 
draws  back,  or  swerves,  from  the 
blow. 

A  bad  rider  sometimes  punishes 
his  horse  for  not  understanding  what 
he  is  wanted  to  do,  when  the  fault  is 
with  the  rider  himself,  who  either 
does  not  know  how  to  make  his 
desire  known,  or  does  not  do  so 
clearly.  A  well-trained  horse  is 
always  willing  to  obey,  and  does  so 
the  moment  he  understands.  To 
punish  him  for  not  understanding 
is  usually  one  step  toward  making 
him  vicious.  Authorities  differ 
much  on  the  subject  of  training 
horses,  but  it  is  safest  to  err  on  the 
side  of  kindness.  A  rider  who  does 
not  lose  his  temper  has  a  great  ad- 
vantage. A  nervous  horse  with  high 
courage  may  be  a  perfect  saddle- 
horse  in  the  hands  of  a  self-con- 
trolled rider,  and  useless  in  those  of 
a  cruel,  loud-voiced  one. 

In  country-road  riding,  always 
pick  the  softest  paths ;  and  if  the 
road  be  macadamized,  ride  on  the 
edges.  Ride  slowly  on  descents, 
with  shoulders  back,  and  walk  your 
horse  down  hills. 

Pulling.  Many  horses  pull,  when 
first  leaving  the  stable,  from  lack  of 
work,  and  soon  calm  down.  Some 
horses  of  a  nervous  disposition  pull 
through  anxiety  to  go  ahead  :  such 
animals  can  be  ridden  with  com- 
fort only  through  gentle  treatment 
and  light  hands.  Often  they  will  I 
not  pull  unless  pulled  by  the  rider.  J 
Easy  bits,  such  as  a  snaffle,  bar, 
either  rubber  covered,  should  be 
used  alternately,  every  few  days. 
Horses  with  low,  heavy  shoulders, 
carrying  low  heads,  are  apt  to  pull, 
and  are  not  fit  for  saddle  use.  If  a 
horse  with  a  good  mouth  begins  to 
pull  and  bear  down  upon  the  bit,  it 
will  often  be  found  that  his  feet  are 
becoming  contracted  or  "sore,1'  or 
that  he  is  stiff  in  his  front  legs.  This 


bearing  upon  the  bit  is  an  effort  to 
transfer  a  part  of  his  weight. 

A  good  veterinary  should  be  con- 
sulted in  such  a  case. 

Hands.  A  rider  is  said  to  have 
"  bad  hands  "  when  he  continually 
pulls  at  his  horse's  mouth.  "  Good 
hands,"  or  "  light  hands,"  seem  to 
be  natural  with  some  riders,  and  al- 
most impossible  to  cultivate  in 
others.  Women  oftener  have  good 
hands  than  men,  perhaps  because 
they  are  not  as  strong  and  are 
more  sensitive.  Often  a  woman 
can  ride  with  ease  a  high-strung 
nervous  horse,  which  may  be  a 
puller,  or  even  a  run-away,  under 
a  rough-riding  man.  The  rider 
must  learn  to  "give  and  take" 
with  the  reins.  If  the  horse  pulls, 
use  force  enough  to  bring  him  to 
the  pace  required,  aided  by  a  kindly 
and  quietly  spoken  word,  like 
"  there,"  or  "walk"  (but  not  "whoa," 
which  should  always  mean  stop),  and 
then  gradually  loosen  the  reins. 
Always  hold  the  reins  tightly  in  the 
hands,  whether  pulling  or  not. 

Unless  great  force  is  required, 
hold  the  fore-arms  at  right  angles 
to  the  body,  with  the  hands  down- 
ward at  the  wrist,  as  in  playing  a 
piano.  It  will  be  found  that  there 
is  strength  enough  at  the  wrists  for 
the  control  of  most  horses, — cer- 
tainly for  well  broken  ones, — and 
that  the  hands  will  grow  "light" 
as  they  "give  and  take"  from  the 
wrist  with  the  motion  of  the  horse's 
head  whilst  in  action.  If  a  horse 
bears  down  upon  the  bit,  his  head 
may  be  brought  up  by  raising  the 
hands  and  moving  the  snaffle  reins 
sharply  and  quickly  from  side  to 
side;  or,  if  he  is  persistent,  by  rais- 
ing either  hand  with  a  sharp  pull 
upwards,  ten  or  twelve  inches. 

If  the  tendency  of  the  horse  is  to 
carry  his  head  too  low,  carry  the 
hands  somewhat  high.  If  he  has 
the  opposite  tendency,  carry  the 
hands  low. 

Spurs.  No  beginner  should  wear 
spurs  :  they  are  a  source  of  dangef 


RIDING 


583 


RIDING 


except  when  worn  by  experienced 
horsemen,  and  no  rider  who  turns 
his  toes  outward  should  put  them 
on. 

Stumbling.  A  stumbling  horse 
should  never  be  ridden.  The  fault 
may  arise  from  some  curable  disease 
of  the  feet,  but  usually  from  weak 
knees  or  legs.  If  mounted  on  a 
stumbler,  keep  his  head  up  and 
make  him  move  at  a  lively  pace  by 
aid  of  whip  or  spur. 

Bits.  Most  horses  go  well  with 
the  double  bit;  that  is,  the  curb 
and  snaffle  or  bridoon,  as  shown  in 
the  picture  of  the  bridle.  But  some 
horses  with  very  tender  mouths 
or  nervous  dispositions  go  better 
with  the  snaffle  alone :  it  may  be 
used  with  two  reins,  but  without 
the  extra  head-piece  (B)  in  picture. 
A  few  horses  go  well  with  the  curb, 
but  dislike  the  additional  mouth- 
piece of  the  snaffle.  For  these  the 
Pelham  bit  may  be  used. 


Pelham  Bit. 

Riding  Hints  to  Girls.  A  girl 
should  not  ride  every  day,  and  long, 
until  she  is  sixteen,  unless  she 
have  a  second  saddle,  with  the  pom- 
mels on  the  right  side,  to  enable  her 
to  sit  on  different  sides  of  the  horse 
on  alternate  days.  In  very  young 
girls  the  muscles  are  weak,  and  the 
spine  and  shoulders  may  grow 
crooked.  No  girl  ought  to  ride  un- 
less she  likes  to  and  is  fearless.  A 
horse  quickly  knows  if  his  rider  is 
afraid  and  soon  becomes  master.  A 


woman's  saddle  should  have  a  fiat 
seat  (Martin  &  Martin,  of  5th  Ave- 
nue, New  York,  who  have  their 
workshop  in  London,  or  Peat  &  Co., 
Piccadilly,  London,  make  them). 
The  stirrup  should  be  plain,  or  of 
the  kind  shown  on  the  saddle  illus- 
tration, not  the  old-fashioned  slip- 
per. Riding  should  be  practised 
without  using  the  stirrup:  it  gives 
great  confidence,  balance,  and  free- 
dom. Of  course  it  is  not  intended 
to  recommend  long  rides  without  a 
stirrup ;  but  only  practise  during 
exercise  in  the  school  or  at  some 
safe  spot.  The  rise  to  the  trot  can  be 
done  without  it,  and  should  not  de- 
pend too  much  upon  it:  bygrasping 
the  upright-head  firmly  with  the 
right  leg  and  pressing  the  left  knee 
against  the  leaping-head,  or  lower 
pommel,  the  rise  can  be  accom- 
plished with  the  slightest  aid  from 
the  stirrup,  and  in  fact  should  be 
so  ridden. 

To  make  the  horse  canter,  leading 
with  his  right  leg,  pull  his  head 
slightly  to  the  left  with  the  left 
rein  and  press  him  quickly  with  the 
left  heel.  To  make  him  lead  with 
the  left  foot  pull  the  right  rein  and 
tap  him  with  the  whip,  behind  the 
girths,  on  the  right  side,  where  the 
heel  would  touch  him  if  on  that 
side. 

A  woman  or  girl,  in  mounting, 
should  place  her  right  hand  on  the 
upright-head,  and  her  left  foot  in  the 
left  hand  of  an  assistant,  held  about 
16  inches  from  the  ground.  She 
places  her  left  hand  on  his  right 
shoulder,  and  his  right  hand  is  under 
her  left  arm-pit.  The  assistant 
counts  one,  two,  three.  At  three,  she 
springs  upwards,  the  assistant  aid- 
ing her  by  rising.  Being  on  the 
saddle,  she  places  her  right  knee 
over  the  upright-head.  The  assistant 
sees  that  her  left  foot  is  placed  in 
the  stirrup  and  fastens  the  elastic 
straps  for  holding  the  skirt  in  place. 
In  dismounting,  after  first  releasing 
the  right  leg  and  the  dress  from  the 
pommel  and  turning  from  the  for- 


RIDING 


584 


RING    BALL 


ward  position,  she  holds  her  arms 
at  her  sides  and  simply  slips  off  the 
horse,  her  assistant  placing  a  hand 
under  each  elbow,  thus  bringing  her 
down  lightly.  Women  should  keep 

A 


A,  Upright-head  ;  B,  Leaping-head  ;  C, 
Seat ;  D,  Safe  (corresponding  part  on  right 
of  Saddle  is  the  Flap) ;  E,  Stirrup-leather  ; 
F,  Stirrup ;  G,  Secondary  Stirrup  (which 
turns  down  ?.nd  releases  foot  in  case  of  a 
fall) ;  H,  K,  Girths  ;  I,  Balance  Girth. 

shoulders  and  hips  squarely  to 
the  front,  looking  straight  between 
the  horse's  ears.  The  right  leg 
above  the  knee  lies  flat  on  the  sad- 
dle, while  the  right  knee  grasps 
the  upright-head  firmly.  Below  the 
knee  the  leg  is  drawn  back,  and  the 
toes  are  bent  downward.  The  left 
knee  is  close  to  the  saddle,  and  the 
leg  below  the  knee  hangs  easily 
down.  The  foot  in  the  stirrup  is 
held  parallel  to  the  horse's  side. 

The  rules  of  the  road  in  riding 
are  the  same  as  for  driving,  and 
should  be  followed  very  carefully, 
both  in  the  park  and  on  the  road. 
See  under  article  on  DRIVING. 

RING  BALL,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  or  persons  with  a  soft 


ball  of  rubber  or  stuffed  cloth.  The 
players  form  a  circle,  euch  standing 
near  a  base,  which  is  usually  a  stone. 
The  bases  are  at  equal  distances; 
the  size  of  the  circle  may  be  large 
or  small,  provided  one  stand- 
ing inside  it  can  easily  throw 
to  all  the  bases.  At  the 
beginning  of  the  game  any 
player  takes  the  ball  and 
throws  it  into  the  air.  The 
one  nearest  whom  it  stops 
must  stand  within  the  cir- 
cle. The  one  at  his  right 
now  takes  the  ball  and  throws 
it  at  the  player  in  the  circle.  If  he 
misses,  he  also  must  go  into  the 
circle;  if  he  hits,  all  leave  their 
bases  and  run  where  they  please, 
till  the  one  hit  gets  the  ball,  when 
he  shouts  "  Halt !"  and  all  must  stop. 
In  either  case,  the  one  thrown  at 
throws  the  ball  in  turn  at  some  one 
of  those  on  the  circumference  of  the 
circle,  but  if  he  has  been  obliged  to 
go  out  of  the  circle  to  get  the  ball, 
he  must  return  inside  before  he  can 
throw.  The  one  he  hits  must  join 
those  inside  the  circle.  If  he  hits 
nobody,  all  return  to  their  bases. 
The  one  hit,  or  the  one  nearest  the 
ball,  takes  the  next  turn  at  throw- 
ing it.  So  the  game  goes  on,  till 
all  but  one  are  inside  the  circle. 
This  one  now  takes  the  ball,  and 
running  around  the  circle,  outside, 
where  he  pleases,  tries  to  hit  those 
within,  while  they  strive  to  get  the 
ball  and  hit  him.  The  player  out- 
side has  the  advantage,  for  he  can 
run  back  as  far  as  he  wishes,  while 
they  cannot  leave  the  ring.  Those 
whom  he  hits  are  "dead,"  and  must 
retire  outside  the  ring.  If  he 
"kills"  all  without  being  hit  him- 
self, lie  is  victor.  But  if  he  be  hit, 
he  and  all  he  has  "  killed  "  must  go 
within  the  circle,  while  the  others 
take  their  stand  at  whatever  bases 
they  choose,  and  the  game  proceeds 
as  before. 

This  ball  game  is  played  in  Ger- 
many, where  it  is  called  Krezsball 
(Ring  Ball).  In  Switzerland  it  is 


585 


ROLY-POLY 


named  Eck  und  Krtppe  (Corner  and 
Fence),  the  point  inside  the  circle 
where  the  players  stand  being  the 
"Eck,"  and  the  circle  itself  the 
"  Krippe." 

RING  TOSS.    See  GROMMETS. 

RING  TRICK.  The  following  trick 
requires  the  use  of  a  second  ring, 
similar  to  the  one  borrowed  ;  hence 
it  is  best  to  borrow  only  a  plain  gold 
ring. 

To  pass  a  ring  through  a  table, 
sew  a  ring  to  the  middle  of  a  hand- 
kerchief by  a  piece  of  silk  about 
four  inches  long.  Borrow  a  similar 
ring,  and  pretend  to  wrap  it  in  the 
handkerchief  without  really  doing 
so.  Then  give  the  handkerchief  to 
one  of  the  company  to  hold.  He 
will  feel  the  sewed  ring  and  think 
it  to  be  the  borrowed  one.  If  there 
is  no  light  from  behind  the  per- 
former, he  may  first  hold  up  the 
handkerchief  with  the  suspended 
ring  on  the  side  away  from  the 
company  to  show  them  that  it  is 
empty.  Ask  the  company  to  choose 
at  what  point  the  ring  is  to  pass 
through  the  table,  and,  placing  a 
tumbler  on  the  spot  ask  the  hand- 
kerchief holder,  keeping  his  hand 
on  the  ring  within  it,  to  hold  it  di- 
rectly over  the  tumbler.  Then 
drop  the  handkerchief  over  the 
tumbler,  and  ask  him  to  let  the  ring 
go,  when  it  will  be  heard  to  fall  into 
the  glass.  Borrow  a  high  hat,  and 
take  it  in  the  hand  holding  the  bor- 
rowed ring  in  such  manner  that 
the  fingers,  covering  the  ring  are 
just  inside  the  crown.  The  inside 
of  the  hat  may  then  be  shown  to 
the  company.  Placing  the  hat  on 
the  floor  just  beneath  the  tumbler, 
the  performer  gently  drops  the  ring 
into  it  and  then,  pulling  the  hand- 
kerchief with  its  attached  ring  away 
from  the  tumbler,  invites  one  of  the 
company  to  examine  the  hat,  where 
he  will,  of  course,  find  the  borrowed 
ring. 

ROBIN'S  ALIVE,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  who  sit 


the  game  lights  a  piece  of  twisted 
paper  or  bit  of  wood  and  repeats 
the  verse  : 

"  Robin's  alive,  and  alive  he  shall  be  ; 
If  he  dies  in  my  hand 
My  mouth  shall  be  bridled,  my  back  shall 

be  saddled, 
I'll  be  sent  as  a  slave  to  Barbary." 

As  soon  as  the  verse  is  recited  the 
paper  is  handed  to  the  next  player, 
who  also  repeats  the  lines,  and  so  it 
goes  around  the  ring.  The  one  in 
whose  hand  it  goes  out  must  pay  a 
forfeit.  This  game  is  called  also 
Jack's  Alive,  and  each  player  repeats 
those  two  words  only  as  he  holds 
the  lighted  paper. 

Sometimes  the  last  line  is  sung, 

"  If  it  dies  in  my  hand  you  may  back-saddle 
me." 

"  Back-saddling  "  consists  in  plac- 
ing the  one  in  whose  hand  the  light 
went  out  on  his  back  on  the  floor, 
and  piling  chairs  on  him. 

ROLY-POLY,  or  NINE  HOLES,  a 
game  of  ball  played  by  any  number 
of  persons,  generally  nine.  As 
many  holes  as  there  are  players, 
each  large  enough  to  receive  the 
ball,  are  dug  about  a  foot  apart,  the 
whole  forming  a  square.  Around 
them  a  line  .is  drawn,  about  four  or 
five  feet  from  the  outside  holes,  and 
ten  or  fifteen  feet  from  this  line,  in 
any  direction,  is  marked  the  position 
of  the  Roller.  Each  player  now 
chooses  a  hole,  and  one,  selected  by 
lot  as  Roller,  takes  his  post,  ball  in 
hand.  Each  of  the  others  roust  have 
one  foot  on  the  boundary  line 
around  the  holes.  The  Roller  tries 
to  roll  the  ball  into  one  of  the  holes. 
If  he  make  three  consecutive  misses, 
a  pebble  is  placed  in  his  hole.  If  he 
succeeds,  the  player  in  whose  hole 
the  ball  stops  seizes  it  and  throws  it 
at  any  of  the  others,  except  the  Rol- 
ler. If  he  hit  the  one  at  whom  he 
throws,  the  latterhashishole  marked 
with  a  pebble  and  becomes  Roller; 
if  he  miss,  his  own  hole  is  so 
marked,  and  he  becomes  Roller  in 
turn.  He  who  throws  the  ball  must 


in  a  circle.     The   one  who  begins  I  stand  on  the  boundary  line  as  he 


ROLY-POLY 


586 


ROPE-WAVES 


does  so,  unless  he  chooses  to  hold 
the  ball  and  wait  his  chance,  instead 
of  throwing  itatonce,  in  which  case 
he  may  stand  three  feet  from  the  line. 
The  other  players  must  run  for 
safety;  but  if  the  thrower  hold  the 
ball,  they  may  save  themselves  from 
being  hit  by  running  back  within 
the  boundary  line  before  he  can 
strike  them  with  the  ball.  If  the 
Roller  send  the  ball  into  his  own 
hole,  he  must  run  forward  and  throw 
the  ball  like  any  one  else;  but  as  he 
is  so  far  from  his  hole,  he  is  at  a  dis- 
advantage, and  he  always  tries,  if 
possible,  to  send  the  ball  into  some 
other  one's  hole.  The  first  player 
who  gets  three  pebbles  in  his  hole 
must  stand  with  his  back  to  the 
others,  usually  with  his  face  to  a 
wall,  and  throw  the  ball  as  far  as  he 
can  over  his  shoulder.  The  others 
in  turn,  each  standing  where  the  ball 
stops,  may  throw  it  at  him  as  hard 
as  they  choose ;  but  whoever  hits 
him  in  any  other  part  of  the  body 
than  the  back  must  change  places 
with  him.  Sometimes  he  who  has 
three  pebbles  is  considered  out  of 
the  game,  and  his  hole  is  stopped 
up.  This  goes  on  until  only  one  is 
left.  He  is  the  winner,  and  is 
allowed  to  throw  the  ball  at  each  of 
the  others,  as  described  above,  in  the 
order  in  which  they  went  out.  Each 
throws  the  ball  over  his  shoulder  to 
determine  the  spot  from  which  it 
may  be  thrown  at  him. 

History.  Roly  Poly  is  a  very  old 
English  game.  It  is  sometimes 
played  in  England  with  hats  instead 
of  holes,  and  is  then  often  called 
Egg  Hat.  In  this  case  the  ball  is 
pitched  instead  of  rolled.  The 
French  call  it  Balle  aux  Pots  (Pot 
Ball)  and  it  is  called  also  Roll  Ball. 
The  Germans  have  a  game  called 
Neunloch  (Nine  Holes),  but  the  ob- 
ject of  the  player  is  simply  to  throw 
his  ball  into  the  holes  in  a  certain 
order.  At  Yale  College,  where  the 
game  is  much  played  by  the  Senior 
class,  it  is  called  Nigger  Baby,  or 


African  Infant,  or  sometimes  Niger 
Infans,  which  is  the  same  name  in 
Latin. 

The  scoring  stones  placed  in  the 
holes  are  often  named  "  Babies." 
In  Austria  they  are  similarly  called 
Kinder  (children). 

In  a  variety  called  Scheiben 
schiessen  (Target  Shooting),  the 
nine  holes  are  of  different  sizes  and 
arranged  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  the 
smallest  in  the  centre.  He  who 
hits  the  centre  hole  first  is  called 
the  King,  and  he  who  does-  so  next 
is  called  the  Marshal. 

ROPE-WAVES,  Experiments  with. 
Procure  a  piece  of  rope  from  20  to 
50  feet  long,  the  longer  the  better; 
but,  if  the  experiments  are  to  be 
tried  indoor,  the  rope  cannot  be 
longer  than  the  room  used.  The 
rope  must  not  be  at  all  stiff;  the 
best  kind  is  cotton  window-cord. 

1.  Tie  the  rope  to  some  object, 
such  as  a  door-knob,  if  indoor,  or 
a  tree  or  a  fence  outdoors,  so  that 
it  will    be   pretty  tight.     Hold  the 
other  end  of  the  rope  in  the  hand. 
By  jerking  it  quickly  downward,  a 
downward  curve  or  depression  may 
be  made  to  run  along  the  rope  to 
the  other  end,  where  it  will  be  re- 
flected   and    return   as   an   upward 
curve.     Or  tie  the  other  end  of  the 
rope  to  a  chair,  stretch  it  as  tight  as 
desired,  and  then  sit  on  the  chair 
to  hold  it.    When  the  rope  .is  struck 
with  a  stick,  a  similar  wave  will  run 
along  it,  more  swiftly  the  tighter  the 
rope  is ;  so  it  can  be  seen  better  in 
a  long  rope. than  in  a  short  one. 

2.  Send    a    downward    curve,   as 
before,  and   just   as  it  is  reflected 
send   an   upward   curve.     The  two 
upward  curves  meeting  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  rope  will  be  added,  and 
make  it  swing  violently. 

3.  Send  a  downward  curve,  and 
just  as  it  starts  to  come  back  as  an 
upward  curve,  send  another  down- 
ward  curve.     The  opposite  curves 
meeting  in  the  middle  of  the  rope 
will  destroy  each  other  there,  so  the 


ROUNCE 


587 


ROWING 


middle  of  the  rope  will  remain 
nearly  still,  while  the  parts  on  either 
side  swing  up  and  down.  The  still 
point  is  called  a  "node."  (See 
VIOLIN,  Experiments  on.) 

4.  Try  these  experiments  with 
the  cord  stretched  tight  and  then 
loose.  It  will  be  found  that  the 
tighter  the  cord  the  faster  the  waves 
travel. 

5.'  Send  an  upward  or  downward 
curve,  as  before,  and  as  it  is  reflected 
send  a  curve  to  meet  it  by  striking 
the  rope  sidewise.  The  result  will 
be  to  make  the  rope  move  in  a  cir- 
cle when  they  meet. 

ROUNCE,  a  game  of  CARDS 
played  by  not  more  than  nine  per- 
sons, with  a  full  pack.  The  cards 
rank  as  in  WHIST.  Each  player  is 
dealt  five  cards,  two  and  three  at  a 
time,  as  in  EUCHRE,  and  an  extra 
hand  of  six  cards,  called  "  Dummy," 
is  dealt  in  the  middle  of  the  table. 
If  the  eldest  hand  is  satisfied,  he 
says  "  I  ptay :"  otherwise,  he  says  "  I 
pass,"  and,  throwing  down  his  cards, 
may  either  retire  from  the  game 
during  that  hand,  or  take  up  Dum- 
my. If  he  retire,  the  next  player 
to  the  left  has  the  same  choice,  and 
so  with  the  others  in  order.  After 
Dummy  has  been  taken  up,  the 
others  must  either  play  their  hands 
or  retire.  He  who  takes  up  Dum- 
my discards  one  of  its  cards.  If  the 
dealer  choose  to  play  without  Dum- 
my, he  may  take  the  trump  card 
into  his  hand  and  discard  one  of  his 
own  cards.  Play  then  begins,  the 
eldest  hand  leading.  Suit  must  be 
followed,  if  possible,  otherwise  any 
card  may  be  played.  The  winner 
of  a  trick  must  lead  trumps,  if  he 
can.  At  the  beginning  of  the  game, 
each  player  is  credited  with  15 
points,  one  of  which  is  subtracted 
for  every  trick  that  he  makes.  If 
he  fail  to  make  a  trick,  he  is  said  to 
be  "rounced,"  and  five  points  are 
added  to  his  score.  He  wins  whose 
score  is  first  reduced  to  nothing. 
The  points  are  often  marked  by 
crosses,  as  in  AUCTION  PITCH. 


RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  In  cutting  for  deal,  low  deals, 
and  Ace  is  low. 

2.  The    Dummy   must    be    dealt 
three  cards  at  a  time,  each   three 
being  given  before  the  dealer  gives 
any  to  himself. 

3.  If    there    be    a    misdeal,   the 
dealer    is    rounced,   and    the    deal 
passes  to  the  next  player. 

4.  Whoever  takes  Dummy  must 
play  it. 

5.  If  all  the  players  up  to  the  one 
on  the  dealer's  right  have  refused 
to   play,   that   one    must    play   his 
hand,  take   Dummy,  or  allow   the 
dealer  to  score  5. 

6.  If  a  player   revoke,  expose  a 
card,  or  fail  to  lead  a  trump,  when 
possible,  after  taking  a  trick,  he  is 
rounced. 

In  Germany  this  game  is  called 
Rams,  and  is  played  with  a  Euchre 
pack.  If  a  player  hold  no  trump,  he 
is  allowed  to  play  his  poorest  card 
face  down,  which  calls  for  a  trump 
from  every  other  player. 

ROUND  TAG.  See  Fox  AND 
GEESE,  II. 

ROWING,  the  art  of  propelling  a 
boat  by  means  of  oars.  The  differ- 
ent kinds  of  row-boats  and  oars  are 
described  in  C.  C.  T.,  under  Row- 
boat.  The  oarsman  sits  upright 
on  the  thwart,  or  stationary  seat, 
with  his  feet  against  the  stretcher, 
which  should  be  at  such  a  distance 
that  the  knees  will  be  bent,  but  so 
that  the  hands  will  easily  clear 
them.  The  knees  are  held  about  a 
foot  apart,  the  heels  close  together, 
and  the  toes  turned  out.  The 
handle  of  the  oar  is  grasped  natural- 
ly with  both  hands,  one,  called  the 
inside  hand,  at  the  extreme  end,  the 
other,  or  outside  hand,  from  one- 
and-a-half  to  two  inches  from  it. 
The  thumbs  are  usually  underneath 
though  some  rowers  hold  the  thumb 
of  either  the  inside  or  outside  hand 
above  the  oar.  The  rower  begins 
by  inclining  the  body  forward,  keep- 
ing the  back  straight  and  the  head 
erect,  and  stretching  out  his  arms 


ROWING 


588 


ROWING 


The  Catch. 


as  far  as  possible.  The  oar  is  now 
dropped  into  the  water  (called  the 
"  catch  ")  and  the  rower  begins  to 
pull  at  the  same  time.  He  should 
avoid  both  pulling  before  the  oar 
strikes  the  water  and  waiting  for  an 
instant  afterward.  Some  oarsmen 
hold  the  blade  of  the  oar  at  right 


angles  to  the  water  as  they  dip  it 
and  others  incline  the  front  of  the 
blade  a  little  forward.  The  blade  of 
the  oar  should  be  dipped  just 
enough  to  cover  it,  and  it  should 
be  kept  at  the  same  depth  during 
the  stroke. 

The  learner  should  avoid  pulling 


Middle  of  Stroke. 


the  blade  of  the  oar  through  the 
air  before  it  strikes  the  water,  as  is 
the  usual  way  with  beginners.  The 
result  of  this  fault  is  called  "  clip- 
ping,"or  in  other  words  it  makes  the 


stroke  short.  The  power  should  be 
applied  the  moment  the  oar  touches 
the  water.  The  blade  should  be 
dipped  sufficiently  deep  to  avoid 
its  slipping  through  the  water  as  is 


ROWING 


589 


ROWING 


the  case  with  what  is  known  as  "sur- 
face dipping."  In  stretching  out  the 
arms  they  precede  the  movement  of 
the  body,  both  going  forward  to- 
gether, but  the  hands  moving  faster 
than  the  body. 


After  pulling  steadily,  using  the 
back  and  legs  as  well  as  the  arms, 
the  stroke  is  finished  when  the  body 
is  slightly  inclined  backward  and  the 
knees  nearly  straight.  The  oar  is 
then  lifted  from  the  water,  and  the 


Finish  of  Stroke. 


body  brought  back  to  the  first  posi- 
tion ready  to  begin  another  stroke. 
This  is  called  the  "  recover,"  and 
was  formerly  often  executed  with  a 
sudden  movement  so  as  to  waste  as 
little  time  as  possible.  But  oarsmen 
now  favor  a  slower  recover,  to  avoid 
straining  the  muscles  of  the  abdo- 
men, which  are  used  in  the  move- 
ment. It  has  been  said  that  the 
recover  is  really  the  most  fatiguing 
part  of  the  stroke.  The  hands 
should  move  forward  a  little  faster 
than  the  body.  But  others  make 
the  movement  with  the  arms  first, 
lest  they  should  cramp  the  body. 
At  the  instant  the  body  has  reached 
the  proper  position,  the  oar  is 
dropped  into  the  water  and  the 
second  stroke  begun.  If  an  oarsman 
wait  an  instant  before  "catching," 
he  is  said  to  "hang,"  and  he  should 
equally  avoid  catching  before  he  has 
finished  going  forward,  thus  splash- 
ing water.  The  oar  should  be  carried 
as  low  as  possible  during  the  re- 
cover, the  height  depending  on 


whether  the  water  is  rough  or 
smooth.  When  the  beginner  has 
learned  these  movements  so  that  he 
can  execute  them  without  looking 
at  his  oar,  which  should  never  be 
done  by  the  finished  oarsman,  he 
should  "  feather"  on  the  recover. 
Feathering  is  turning  the  blade  of 
the  oar  parallel  with  the  surface  of 
the  water  during  the  recover,  so  that 
the  resistance  of  the  air  will  be  as 
little  as  possible.  To  feather  prop- 


Fig,  i.  Fig.  2. 

Feathering. 

erly  the  wrist  of  the  inside  hand 
should  be  curved  a  little  upward 
during  the  stroke  (Fig.  i)  and  at  its 


ROWING 


59<> 


ROWING 


close ;  just  as  the  oar  is  lifted  out  of 
the  water,  the  wrist  is  lowered  and 
the  back  of  the  hand  thrown  a 
little  upwards  (Fig.  2)  so  as  to  turn 
the  oar  blade  through  a  right  angle. 
Just  before  the  catch,  the  movement 
is  reversed,  so  that  the  oar  is  ready 
to  take  the  water  again.  As  to  the 
rapidity  of  the  stroke,  opinions  dif- 
fer, but  most  oarsmen  prefer  a  long 
and  steady  stroke,  though  some  of 
the  most  successful  racing  crews 
have  pulled  very  rapidly.  The  rate 
of  stroke  is  determined  to  a  great 
extent  by  the  length  of  the  race, 
being  faster  for  short  races.  A  rapid 
stroke  is  exhausting  and  cannot  be 
kept  up  long,  and  it  is  also  difficult 
to  execute  the  stroke  properly  if  it  is 
very  swift.  The  oarsman  should 
keep  exact  time  with  the  others  in 
the  boat.  To  "back  water,"  or  cause 
the  boat  to  move  in  the  opposite 
direction,  the  oarsman  reverses  his 
oar  and  pushes  instead  of  pulling. 
The  movement  is  made  principally 
by  the  arms,  the  body  resting  in  a 
natural  position.  If  he  is  pulling  a 
pair  of  sculls,  the  same  rules  apply, 
except  that  each  oar  is  pulled  by 
one  hand.  By  holding  the  oars 
firmly  and  in  exactly,  the  same 
manner,  the  oarsman  may  be  sure 
that  the  catch  and  feather  are  made 
at  the  proper  angles  without  look- 
ing to  see.  The  oarsman  should  be 
careful  to  pull  both  sculls  with  the 
same  force,  otherwise  the  boat  will 
turn  toward  the  weaker  side.  If  he  j 
has  no  one  to  steer  he  should  bring  j 
some  point  in  the  stern  of  the  boat  | 
into  line  with  a  tree  or  other  object 
on  shore  and  then  keep  them  in  line. 
If  the  stern  swerves  toward  the  left, 
for  instance,  he  must  pull  a  little 
harder  on  his  right- scull  to  bring  it 
back  again.  If  he  wishes  to  turn 
quickly  he  must  back  water  with 
the  oar  on  the  side  toward  which 
he  wishes  to  turn,  and  row  with 
the  other.  Where  several  row  in 
one  boat,  the  steering  is  often  done 
by  the  bow  oar.  Where  the  boat  is 
steered  with  a  rudder,  the  rudder 


is  managed  either  by  the  bow  oar, 
who  operates  it  with  his  feet,  by  an 
arrangement  of  cords  and  levers,  or 
by  a  coxswain,  who  sits  in  the  stern, 
and  who  also  gives  the  necessary 
orders  to  the  oarsmen,  telling  them 
when  to  begin  to  row  and  when  to 
stop  rowing.  He  does  this  because 
he  is  the  only  one  in  the  boat  who 
faces  in  the  direction  of  motion. 
The  rules  to  be  observed  by  the 
steersman,  whether  he  be  coxswain 
or  one  of  the  oarsmen,  are  generally 
as  follows:  "Inside"  means  to- 
ward the  shore,  "  outside  "  toward 
the  middle  of  the  stream. 

1.  Boats  goingwith  the  stream  or 
tide   take  the    outside,   and    those 
against  stream  or  tide  the  inside. 

2.  Boats    meeting    keep   to    the 
right. 

3.  A    boat     overtaking    another 
must  keep  clear  of  it. 

4.  A  boat  with  a  coxswain  must 
yield  as  far  as  possible  to  one  with- 
out a  coxswain. 

5.  A  row-boat  must  give  way  to 
a  sail-boat. 

6.  A  boat  with  a  less  number  of 
oars  must  give  way  to  one  with  a 
greater  number. 

Sliding  Seats.  Almost  all  racing 
boats  now  use  sliding  seats,  which 
add  greatly  to  the  power  of  the 
oarsman,  enabling  him  to  use  the 
muscles  of  his  legs  in  pulling. 
Other  advantages  are  the  fact  that 
the  body  does  not  need  to  be  bent 
forward  or  backward,  to  a  position 
where  the  muscles  of  the  back  can- 
not be  used  to  advantage,  as  in 
ordinary  rowing  ;  the  prevention  of 
cramp  by  the  alternate  bending  and 
stretching  of  the  leg,  and  the  ability 
to  maintain  a  better  pace  for  a 
longer  time.  In  a  quick  "spurt" 
the  sliding  seat  is  thought  by 
some  oarsmen  to  be  a  disadvan- 
tage, as  it  gains  power  at  the  ex- 
pense of  velocity  ;  but  some  of  the 
best  authorities  do  not  agree  with 
this  conclusion.  The  seats  either 
slide  on  a  sort  of  brass  rails  or  roll 
on  little  steel  balls,  the  object  being 


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591 


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to  make  the  friction  as  small  as 
possible. 

When  the  oarsman  uses  a  sliding 
seat,  the  body  begins  to  swing  first, 
and  then  he  pushes  the  seat  back, 
both  movements  blending  together, 
until  the  legs  are  almost  straight. 
The  swing  of  the  body  and  the  slide 
together  determine  the  length  of 
the  stroke.  The  slide  should  not 
be  made  too  soon,  and  for  a  begin- 
ner should  be  only  a  few  inches, 
being  increased  as  the  oarsman  be- 
comes more  expert. 

The  oar,  in  rowing,  acts  as  a  lever. 
The  principle  is  the  same  as  when 
a  weight  is  lifted  by  the  middle  of  a 
stick,  the  end  resting  on  the  ground. 
In  the  case  of  the  oar  the  end  rests 
in  the  water  instead  of  on  the 
ground,  and  the  boat  is  "prized" 
along,  so  to  speak,  by  t'i »  oarsman. 
The  blade  of  the  oar  does  not  remain 
perfectly  still,  like  the  end  of  the 
stick  on  the  ground,  but  moves 
through  the  water  a  litile,  so  that 
some  power  is  lost.  It  is  evident 
that  the  oar  should  be  held  so  that 
the  water  will  resist  its  motion  as 
much  as  possible. 

The  action  of  the  rudder  is  as 
follows  :  If  the  boat  is  moving 
straight  ahead,  and  the  rudder  is  in 
line  with  it,  there  will  be  no  press- 
ure from  the  water  on  either  side  ; 
but  as  soon  as  the  rudder  is  turned, 
for  instance,  to  the  right,  the  water 
will  press  on  its  right  side  and  push 
the  stern  of  the  boat  over  toward 
the  left,  which  will  alter  the  boat's 
direction  toward  the  right.  In  the 
same  way,  turning  the  rudder  toward 
the  left  causes  the  boat  to  turn  to 
the  left.  Hence  the  rudder  must 
always  be  turned  in  the  direction  the 
boat  is  to  go.  In  a  row-boat  the 
rudder  is  usually  managed  by  means 
of  cords,  one  of  which  is  attached  to 
each  end  of  a  cross-piece  at  its  top. 
The  power  should  be  applied  to  the 
rudder  lines  steadily,  so  as  not  to 
throw  the  boat  to  one  side  or  the 
other,  as  is  the  case  if  the  line  is 
pulled  quickly  and  then  relaxed. 


Ordinary  boats  are  kept  in  the 
water,  but  the  finer  kinds  are  usually 
kept  in  a  boat-house.  The  large 
boat-houses  owned  by  college  row- 
ing associations,  or  city  boat-clubs, 
usually  contain,  besides  space  for 
stowing  away  many  boats,  dressing- 
rooms  for  oarsmen,  with  a  special 
closet  or  locker  for  each  one's 
clothes,  bath-rooms,  a  lounging  or 
reception  room,  and  often  a  work- 
shop for  building  or  repairing 
boats.  The  house  is  of  course  on 
the  edge  of  the  water,  and  in  front 
of  it  is  usually  what  is  called  a 
"float,"  being  a  floating  floor,  or 
raft,  moored  loosely  to  piles  or 
posts,  but  unconnected  with  the 
house,  so  that  it  will  rise  and  fall 
with  the  water.  Such  a  float  is  in- 
dispensable where  there  is  a  tide. 
From  the  boat-house  to  the  float 
lead  one  or  more  gangways,  fastened 
to  the  former,  but  merely  resting 
on  the  latter.  To  launch  a  barge  or 
shell,  the  oarsmen,  each  on  his  own 
side  and  in  his  own  position,  carry 
it  on  their  shoulders  to  the  edge  of 
the  float.  At  the  word  of  command 
from  the  captain,  those  on  the  side 
next  the  water  slip  underneath,  and 
then  all  on  one  side,  holding  by  the 
edge,  let  the  boat  gently  into  the 
water.  The  head  of  the  boat  usual- 
ly points  up  stream  or  against  the 
tide,  though  no  attention  is  paid  to 
this  point  by  many  crews.  The  out- 
side oarsmen  get  in  first  at  the  com- 
mand (for  instance),  "  Hold  Star- 
board, in  Port !"  The  starboard  oars- 
men hold  the  edge  of  the  boat  while 
the  port  oarsmen  get  in,  take  their 
seats,  and  ship  (or  put  in  place)  their 
oars,  which  are  given  them  by  an  as- 
sistant. At  the  order  "  Hold  Port, 
in  Starboard !"  the  port  oarsmen, 
sitting  in  the  boat,  hold  the  edge  of 
the  float  while  the  others  get  in  and 
ship  their  oars.  All  the  oars  being 
held  in  position,  those  on  one  side 
projecting  over  the  water,  and  those 
on  the  other  over  the  float,  one  or 
more  assistants  take  the  latter  and 
push  the  boat  steadily,  sidewise, 


ROWING 


592 


ROWING 


away  from  the  float.  When  the 
oars  are  all  clear,  the  coxswain  be- 
gins to  give  his  orders,  his  first  care 
being  to  turn  the  boat's  head  in  the 
right  direction.  To  this  end  he  com- 
mands "  Pull  Number  2 !"  "Back 
water  number  3 !"  or  any  similar 
order  he  pleases.  When  the  boat 
is  in  the  right  position,  he  commands 
"  Ready  !"  and  an  instant  afterward 
"  Give  Way  !  " 

Boat  Racing,  Boat  races  are 
usually  held  on  lakes  or  large  rivers 
where  the  water  is  smooth.  The 
course  is  either  straight  away,  that 
is,  in  a  straight  line,  or  with  a  turn, 
the  boats  going  and  returning  over 
the  same  course.  The  place  where 
the  race  begins  is  called  the  Start, 
and  that  where  it  ends  the  Finish. 
In  a  course  with  a  turn,  the  Start  and 
Finish  are  at  the  same  point.  The 
course  is  sometimes  marked  by 
buoys  bearing  colored  flags,  and 
each  boat  is  assigned  a  definite 
path,  in  which  it  is  obliged  to  keep, 
so  that  there  is  no  danger  of  one's 
interfering  with  the  other  (called 
"  fouling  ").  Eight-oared  races  are 
rowed,  if  possible,  over  a  straight- 
away course.  If  a  turn  is  necessary, 
each  boat  should  have  its  own  stake 
to  turn,  to  avoid  fouling.  One  of  the 
best  straight-away  courses  in  the 
country — that  at  New  London,  Con- 
necticut, where  the  annual  race  be- 
tween Yale  and  Harvard  is  rowed  — 
is  four  miles  long,  but  the  usual 
length  is  one  and  a  half  miles.  The 
New  London  course  is  on  the 
Thames  River,  which  is  very  broad 
at  this  point,  so  that  there  is  plenty 
of  room  for  yachts  to  anchor  near 
the  Finish.  The  city  authorities 
keep  all  boats  off  the  river  during 
the  race,  so  that  there  is  no  inter- 
ference with  the  crews.  The  only 
craft  allowed  behind  the  racing 
boats  are  the  tugs  bearing  the  re- 
feree and  newspaper  reporters,  and 
the  college  launches,  and  these  are 
all  required  to  keep  so  far  in  the 

ar  that  they  cannot  interfere  with 
the  race.  If  such  boats  come  too 


near  racing  shells,  the  latter  are 
held  back  by  the  suction.  A  rail- 
road runs  along  the  riverside,  and 
a  train  of  platform  cars  fitted  with 
seats,  called  an  "  Observation  train," 
or  "  Moving  Grand  Stand,"  keeps 
abreast  of  the  boats,  so  that  specta- 
tors can  see  the  whole  of  the  race. 

The  following  are  the  rowing 
rules  of  the  National  Association  of 
Amateur  Oarsmen,  adopted  also 
by  the  National  Amateur  Athletic 
Union : 

RULES. 

Starting.  \.  All  boat  races  shall 
be  started  in  the  following  manner  : 
The  starter,  on  being  satisfied  that 
the  competitors  are  ready,  shall 
give  the  signal  to  start. 

2.  If    the   starter    considers   the 
start  false,  he  shall  at  once  recall  the 
boats   to   their   stations ;    and   any 
boat  refusing  to  start  again  shall  be 
disqualified. 

3.  Any    boat  not   at  its   post   at 
the  time  specified  shall  be  liable  to 
be  disqualified  by  the  umpire. 

4.  The  umpire  may  act  as  starter 
if  he  thinks  fit ;  where  he  does  not 
so  act,  the  starter  shall  be  subject  to 
the  control  of  the  umpire. 

5.  Boats  shall  be  started  by  their 
sterns,   and  shall    have   completed 
their  course  when  the  bows  reach 
the  finish. 

Water.  6.  A  boat's  own  water  is 
its  straight  course,  parallel  with 
those  of  the  other  competing  boats, 
from  the  station  assigned  to  it  at  the 
start  to  the  finish. 

7.  Each  boat  shall  keep  its  own 
water  through   the   race,   and   any 
boat  departing  from  its  own  water 
will  do  so  at  its  peril. 

8.  The  umpire  shall  be  sole  judge 
of  a  boat's  own  water  and   proper 
course  during  the  race. 

Fouls.  9.  It  shall  be  considered  a 
foul  when,  after  the  race  has  com- 
menced, any  competitor,  by  his  oar 
boat,  or  person  comes  in  contact 
with  the  oar,  boat,  or  person  of  an- 
other competitor ;  unless,  in  the 


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593 


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opinion  of  the  umpire,  such  contact 
is  so  slight  as  not  to  influence  the 
race. 

10.  No  fouling  whatever  shall    be 
allowed ;  the     boat    committing    a 
foul  shall  be  disqualified. 

11.  The    umpire   may,    during    a 
race,  caution  any  competitor  when 
in  danger  of  committing  a  foul. 

12.  The  umpire  shall   decide   all 
questions  as  to  a  foul. 

13.  A  claim  of  foul  must  be  made 
to   the    umpire   by   the  competitor 
himself,  and,  if  possible,  before  get- 
ting out  of  his  boat. 

14.  In  case  of  a  foul,  the  umpire 
shall  have  the  power — («)  To  place 
the  boats  (except  the  boat  commit- 
ting the  foul,  which  is  disqualified) 
in  che  order  in  which  they  come  in  ; 
(b)  to  order  the  boats  engaged   in 
the  race,  other  than  the  boat  commit- 
ting the  foul,  to  row  over  again  on 
the   same    or   another   day ;   (c)   to 
re-start  the  qualified  boats  from  the 
place  where  the  foul  was  committed. 

Accidents.  15.  Every  boat  shall 
abide  by  its  accidents,  except  when, 
during  a  race,  a  boat  while  in  its 
own  water  shall  be  interfered  with 
by  any  outside  boat,  the  umpire 
may  order  the  race  to  be  rowed  over, 
if,  in  his  opinion,  such  interference 
materially  affected  its  chances  of 
winning  the  race. 

Assistance.  16.  No  boat  shall  be 
allowed  to  accompany  a  competitor 
for  the  purpose  of  directing  his 
course  or  affording  him  other  assist- 
ance. The  boat  receiving  such  di- 
rection or  assistance  shall  be  dis- 
qualified at  the  discretion  of  the 
umpire. 

Umpire.  17.  The  jurisdiction  of 
the  umpire  extends  over  the  race 
and  all  matters  connected  with  it, 
from  the  time  the  race  is  specified 
to  start  until  its  final  termination, 
and  his  decision  in  all  cases  shall  be 
final  and  without  appeal. 

18.  The  judge  at  the  finish  shall 
report  to  the  umpire  the  order  in 
which  the  competing  boats  cross  the 
line,  but  the  decision  of  the  race 


shall  rest  with,  and  be  declared  by, 
the  umpire. 

19.  Any   competitor   refusing  to 
abide  by  the  decision,  or  to  follow 
the  directions  of  the  umpire,  shall 
be  disqualified. 

20.  The     umpire,    if    he    thinks 
proper,   may   reserve   his   decision, 
provided  that  in  every  case  such  de- 
cision be  given  on  the  day  of  the 
race. 

21.  Contestants    rowing    a    dead 
heat  shall  compete  again  after  such 
interval  as  may  be  appointed,  and 
the  contestant  refusing  to  so   row 
shall  be  adjudged  to  have  lost  the 
race. 

Turning  Races.  22.  In  turning 
races,  each  competitor  shall  have  a 
separate  turning  stake,  and  shall 
turn  from  port  to  starboard.  Any 
competitor  may  turn  any  stake  other 
than  his  own,  but  does  so  at  his 
peril. 

Juniors.  An  oarsman  who  has 
never  won  a  race,  nor  pulled  in  one 
with  those  who  have  done  so,  is 
called  a  junior,  and  special  races  are 
sometimes  held  in  which  only 
juniors  are  allowed  to  row.  Com- 
petitions with  members  of  his  own 
club,  however,  are  not  considered 
to  affect  an  oarsman's  standing  as 
a  junior. 

Rowing  Machines.  Many  ma- 
chines have  been  devised  to  give  to 
an  oarsman,  indoors,  the  same  prac- 
tice that  he  would  get  in  a  boat. 
In  the  simplest  of  these  he  sits  on 
a  sliding  seat  and  pulls  on  a  handle 
about  1 8  inches  long,  to  which  is 
attached  a  cord  running  over  a  pul- 
ley and  fastened  to  a  weight  beneath 
the  floor.  This  does  not  exactly 
represent  rowing,  however,  for  the 
weight  exerts  a  constant  pull, 
whereas  the  resistance  of  the  water 
to  the  oar  is  not  the  same  at  all 
points.  The  weight,  too,  assists  in 
the  recover,  while  the  oar  does  not. 
In  the  best  rowing  machines  real 
oar  handles  are  so  arranged  that 
pulling  on  them  operates  a  piston 
in  a  cylinder  filled  with  water,  or 


ROWING 


594 


ROWING 


Rowing  Machine. 


winds  up  a  spring  as  in  the  one 
shown  in  the  illustration.  The  Yale 
and  Harvard  crews  now  practice 
rowing  during  the  winter  in  real 
boats  in  large  tanks  of  water  in 
their  gymnasiums. 

History.  In  ancient  times  the  larg- 
est vessels  were  propelled  with  oars 
arranged  in  rows  called  banks,  one 
above  another.  Boat-racing  was  not 
uncommon  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  Virgil  describes  a  nice 
in  the  fifth  book  of  the  ^Eneid.  The 
illustration  opposite  shows  a  Greek 
rowing  vessel,  or  galley,  as  it  is 
pictured  on  an  ancient  monument. 
In  the  middle  ages  large  galleys 
in  use  on  the  Mediterranean  sea, 
were  manned  by  slaves  and  crimi- 
nals who  had  been  condemned  to 
row  in  them  as  a  punishment.  The 
ancient  Britons  used  boats  of  wicker- 
work  covered  with  skins,  called 
coracles,  which  they  propelled  with 
paddles,  and  similar  craft  are  still 
to  be .  seen  in  Wales.  Alfred  the 
Great  introduced  long  galleys  from 
the  Mediterranean  into  England  for 
use  in  war.  In  early  times,  before  the 
introduction  of  carriages,  rowing 


was  a  very  common  means  of  tran- 
sit for  kings  and  nobles  in  England, 
and  by  the  I2th  century  large  num- 
bers of  men  were  employed  on  and 
about  the  rivers  as  watermen.  In 
1 5 14  they  had  become  so  numerous 
that  laws  were  passed  for  their  reg- 
ulation. At  the  present  time  the 
watermen  are  employed  chiefly  on 
lighters  and  steam-boats.  The  earli- 
est record  of  boat-racing  in  England 
is  of  the  establishment  of  a  prize  by 
Thomas  Doggett,  an  actor,  in  1715, 
to  celebrate  the  anniversary  of  the 
accession  of  George  I.  to  the  throne. 
It  was  to  be  rowed  for  annually  on 
the  Thames  by  six  young  water- 
man's apprentices,  and  consisted  of 
a  red  coat  with  a  large  silver  badge 
on  the  arm.  This  prize,  called 
"  Doggett's  coat  and  badge  "  is  still 
competed  for  by  the  Thames  water- 
men. In  1775  a  rowing-race,  called 
a  regatta  (Italian  r  eg  at  a)  was  held 
on  the  Thames,  in  imitation  of  simi- 
lar contests  or  festivals  held  in 
Venice,  and  since  that  time  rowing 
or  sailing  contests  have  been  com- 
monly called  by  this  name.  Early 
in  the  present  century  clubs  began 


ROWING  MACHINES 


595 


ROWING  MACHINES 


Greek  Galley. 


to  be  formed  for  pleasure  rowing, 
and  about  the  same  time  it  was 
taken  up  as  a  sport  by  the  English 
public  schools  and  universities. 
Eton  had  a  crew  in  1811,  and  in 
1817  beat  the  watermen  in  a  four- 
oared  race.  In  1829  the  first  race 
was  rowed  between  Oxford  and 
Cambridge,  on  the  Thames,  and 
since  1856  these  two  universities 
have  rowed  every  year.  Since  1839 
there  has  been  also  a  great  regatta 
annually  at  Henley-on-Thames.  In 
this  country  amateur  rowing  began 
at  about  the  same  time  as  in  Eng- 
land, but  it  did  not  become  popular 
so  soon.  The  first  recorded  race 
was  between  crews  from  New  York 
City  and  Long  Island,  in  1811,  and 
took  place  with  four-oared  barges 
with  coxswains  on  the  North  River. 
The  New  York  boat,  the  "  Knicker- 
bocker," won.  The  first  regular 
amateur  boat  club  in  America — the 
Castle  Garden  Amateur  Boat  Club 
Association,  was  organized  in  1834. 
At  the  present  time  there  are  hun- 


dreds of  such  clubs,  most  of  which 
are  banded  together  in  rowing  asso- 
ciations for  the  purpose  of  giving 
yearly  regattas.  The  largest  of 
these,  the  National  Association  of 
Amateur  Oarsmen,  was  formed  in 

1873- 

The  first  American  College  boat 
club  was  formed  at  Yale  in  1843, 
and  the  next  at  Harvard  in  1844, 
and  the  two  colleges  rowed  their 
first  race  in  1852.  Since  that  time 
they  have  met  almost  every  year, 
sometimes  alone,  and  sometimes  in 
connection  with  other  colleges.  A 
list  of  all  the  intercollegiate  races 
held  up  to  the  present  time,  with 
the  times  of  the  contending  crews, 
is  given  in  the  Appendix. 

Since  the  introduction  of  boat- 
racing,  the  racing-boat  has  been 
greatly  changed.  At  first  it  was  35 
feet  long  and  6  feet  beam,  and 
weighed  700  pounds.  The  oars 
were  clumsy,  of  great  size,  and  load- 
ed with  lead  at  the  handle,  while  the 
blades  were  wide  and  flat.  As  early 


ROWING   MACHINES 


ROYAL  STAR 


as  1828  rude  wooden  outriggers  were 
attached  to  boats,  but  the  outrigger 
as  it  is  now  used  was  invented  by 
Henry  Clasper,  of  Newcastle,  Eng- 
land, who  built  his  first  boat  with 
them  in  1844.  The  sliding  seat  and 
the  swivel  rowlock  were  both  in- 
vented by  Americans.  The  former 
was  devised  by  J.  C.  Babcock,  who 
put  one,  in  a  sculling-boat  in  1857, 
but  the  device  was  not  perfected 
till  1870,  nor  generally  adopted  till 
several  years  later. 

At  Oxford  and  Cambridge  there 
are  a  large  number  of  boat  clubs, 
which  compete  every  year  for  the 
honor  of  being  what  is  called  "  the 
head  of  the  river."  As  the  rivers 
on  which  they  row  are  too  narrow 
to  allow  boats  to  pass  easily,  the 
shells  are  arranged  in  a  line  at  equal 
distances  apart.  The  object  of  each 
is  to  strike  against,  or  "  bump  "  the 


boat  in  front  of  it,  and  when  this  is 
done,  the  bumped  boat  yields  its 
place  to  the  other.  This  is  repeated 
several  times,  and  the  boat  that 
wins  or  keeps  a  place  at  the 
head  is  the  victor.  This  arrange- 
ment is  not  necessary  in  any  of  the 
American  colleges  where  boating  is 
practised,  for  all  of  them  row  on 
wide  bodies  of  water.  At  Yale  and 
Harvard  each  class  has  its  boat  club, 
and  there  is  a  class  regatta  twice  a 
year.  These  regattas,  like  the 
"  bumping  races"  at  the  English 
universities,  serve  to  train  oarsmen 
for  the  University  crews.  For  an 
eight-oared  University  crew  15  or  20 
men  are  usually  selected  several 
months  before  the  race,  and  the 
necessary  eight  are  picked  out  from 
among  these  afterward,  when  it  has 
been  seen  who  are  the  best. 
Many  substitutes  for  oars,  in  pro- 


French  Velocipede  Boat. 


pelling  a  boat,  have  been  proposed, 
and  some  of  them  actually  used. 
Most  are  on  the  principle  of  the  pad- 
dle-wheel, and  are  worked  like  a 
tricycle.  The  illustration  shows  one 
invented  by  a  Frenchman.  The 
swan-boats  in  Central  Park,  New 
York,  are  propelled  in  this  way,  and 
the  Prince  of  Wales  has  one  of  a 
similar  kind  at  his  estate  of  Sand- 
ringham. 

ROYAL  STAR,  a  game  played  by 
any   nu'mber  of    persons,   with  an 


eight-pointed  wooden  star,  and  eight 
wooden  balls.  The  rays  of  the  star 
are  arranged  so  as  to  fall  out  if 
struck  by  the  balls,  and  each  ray  is 
of  a  different  color,  the  balls  being 
painted  to  correspond.  The  players 
take  turns  in  throwing  the  balls  at 
the  star.  Each  scores  one  point 
every  time  he  hits  a  ray  with  a  ball 
of  a  different  color,  two  points  when 
he  hits  one  with  a  ball  of  the  same 
color,  and  has  three  points  deducted 
from  his  score  when  he  misses  the 


RUSHING    BASES 


597 


SAILING 


star  altogether.  Each  player  throws 
all  the  balls  before  the  next  takes 
his  turn,  and  the  game  ends  after  a 
number  of  rounds  previously  agreed 
oru  The  game  may  be  played  with 
counters,  when,  instead  of  having 
points  taken  from  his  score,  one 
who  misses  is  required  to  place  three 
counters  in  the  middle  of  the  table. 


These,  with  others  paid  in  like 
manner,  form  the  pool,  which  is 
taken  at  the  end  of  the  game  by 
the  player  having  the  highest 
score. 
RUSHING  BASES,  See  PEELA- 

WAY. 

RUSSIAN    BACKGAMMON,      See 

BACKGAMMON. 


s 


SADDLE  MY  NAG,  a  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons.  Sides 
are  chosen,  and  the  leaders  decide 
by  lot  who  shall  have  first  innings. 
The  losers  arrange  themselves  as 
follows :  One  stands  almost  upright, 
but  bending  slightly  forward,  his 
hand  resting  against  a  wall  or  tree  ; 
a  second  puts  his  head  on  the  back 
of  the  first ;  a  third  in  like  man- 
ner on  the  back  of  the  second,  and 
so  on,  till  all  on  that  side  are  in 
line.  Each  player  may  hold  to  the 
clothes  of  the  one  in  front  of  him, 
cross  his  arms  on  his  breast,  or  rest 
his  hands  on  his  knees.  One  of 
the  other  players  now  runs,  places 
his  hands  on  the  back  of  the  one 
at  the  rear  of  the  line,  and  leaps 
as  far  forward  as  he  can.  The  rest 
of  those  on  his  side  follow  in  order, 
until  all  are  on  the  backs  of  the 
other  side.  If  all  can  remain  on 
without  touching  the  ground  with 
any  part  of  the  body  while  the 
leader  counts  twenty;  or  if  any  of 
the  other  party  sink  down  under 
their  weight,  or  touch  the  ground 
to  support  themselves,  the  riders 
keep  their  innings  and  the  game 
is  repeated.  Otherwise  the  sides 
change  places. 

SAILING.  The  hulls  of  boats  are 
of  various  sizes  and  shapes,  but  all 
have  the  forward  end  (called  the 
bow)  sharp,  that  it  may  cut  through 
the  water.  The  after  end,  called 
the  stern,  is  fitted  with  a  rudder, 
with  which  the  boat  is  steered. 
This  rudder,  which  is  the  same  in 
principle  as  that  of  a  row-boat  (see 


ROWING),  is  managed  in  small  boats 
by  means  of  a  handle  or  lever,  called 
a  tiller ;  when  the  tiller  is  pushed  to 
one  side,  the  rudder  turns  to  the 
opposite  side ;  and  (as  explained 
under  ROWING)  as  the  boat  turns  to 
the  same  side  as  the  rudder,  the 
tiller  must  be  moved  to  the  side 
opposite  to  that  in  which  the  steers- 
man wishes  the  boat  to  go.  The 
right-hand  side  of  the  boat,  as 
one  faces  the  bow,  is  called  the 
starboard  side,  and  the  left-hand 
the  port  side  (formerly  called  lar- 
board). To  "  port  the  helm,"  or 
"  put  the  helm  to  port,"  means  to 
push  the  tiller  toward  the  port  or  left 
side,  thus  turning  the  boat  to  the 
starboard  or  right.  Large  boats  are 
generally  steered  with  an  upright 
wheel  connected  with  the  rudder 
by  ropes,  cogs,  or  otherwise.  Small 
boats  are  sometimes  entirely  open, 
but  generally  half-decked,  and  larger 
ones  usually  have  a  covered  cabin. 
The  bottom  of  a  boat's  hull,  called 
the  floor,  may  be  almost  flat,  or  it 
may  be  more  or  less  curved.  The 
depth  of  a  boat  below  the  water's 
surface  is  called  her  "draught."  If 
this  distance  is  two  feet,  for  example, 
she  is  said  to  "  draw  two  feet  of 
water."  Of  course  the  draught  is 
greater  if  the  boat  be  loaded.  The 
difference  of  draught  between  the 
bow  and  stern  of  a  boat  is  sometimes 
called  the  drag.  It  is  the  best  plan 
to  ballast  or  "  trim"  small  boats  so 
that  the  stern  sinks  a  little  deeper 
than  the  bow. 

The  boats  called  cutters  draw  a 


SAILING 


598 


SAILING 


great  deal  of  water,  and  are  narrow 
and  sharp  at  the  bottom.  This 
kind  of  boat  is  much  liked  in  Eng- 
land. Most  American  yachts  are 
broader  and  draw  less  water,  and 


one  kind  of  boat,  the  sharpy,  is  al- 
most flat-bottomed.  Some  sail- 
boats have  a  keel,  or  ridge  of  wood 
running  from  bow  to  stern  on  the 
outside  of  the  hull  at  its  bottom, 


Section  of  Hull  of  an  English  Cutter. 


and  others  have  a  centreboard,  a 
flat  board  which  is  let  down  at  one 
end  through  a  slit  in  the  middle  of 
the  boat.  Still  others,  generally 
small  boats,  have  a  leeboard,  which 
is  let  down  at  one  side.  All  these 
devices  are  meant  to  prevent  the 
boat  from  drifting  sidewise,  so  that 
she  will  move  most  easily  forward. 
Sail-boats  usually  have  rowlocks  at 
the  side  so  that  they  can  be  rowed 
when  there  is  no  wind. 

The  arrangement  of  masts  and 
sails  constitutes  the  "  rig"  of  a  boat. 
The  area  of  the  sail  in  an  ordinary 
boat  should  not  much  exceed  the 
length  of  the  boat  multiplied  by  its 
extreme  breadth.  In  most  boats  the 
sails  are  hung  to  spars  or  poles, 
which  are  raised  and  lowered  on  the 
mast  by  ropes  called  halliards.  If 
the  spar  hangs  across  the  mast,  it  is 
called  a  yard,  and  the  vessel  is  said 
to  be  square-rigged  ;  but  only  large 


craft,  like  ships  and  brigs,  are  rigged 
in  this  way.  Pleasure  boats  are 
generally  fore-and-aft  rigged,  that  is, 
the  spars  are  fastened  to  the  mast 
by  one  end,  and  the  sail  is  therefore 
all  on  one  side  of  the  mast.  The 
bottom  of  the  sail  is  fastened  to  a 
longer  pole,  called  a  boom.  In  all 
boats  the  rope  by  which  the  sail  is 
controlled  is  called  the  sheet.  The 
tackle  by  which  it  is  managed  by 
the  sailor  is 
shown  in  the 
illustration. 

One  of  the 
simplest  rigs  is 
the  spritsail, 
which  is  nearly 
square.  There 
is  no  boom,  and 
in  place  of  the 

.    gaff  alight  pole, 
Tackle  of   Main-Sheet.        n   ^ 

called    a   sprit, 

fastened  at  the  lower  end,  or  "  foot," 


SAILING 


599 


SAILING 


to  the  middle  of  the  mast,  and  at 
the  other  end  to  the  upper  corner 
of  the  sail.  The  side  of  the  sail 
toward  the  mast  (called  the  luff  of 
the  sail)  is  laced  to  it  with  cords, 
and  the  foot  of  the  sprit  rests  in  a 
loop  of  rope.  When  the  foot  is 
taken  from  the  loop,  the  sail  can  be 
folded  up  against  the  mast  and  tied 
to  it.  The  mast  is  usually  made,  in 
this  case,  so  that  it  can  be  taken 
down  or  "unstepped"  and  laid  in 
the  bottom  of  the  boat.  The  sheet 
is  fastened  to  the  lower  outer  corner 
of  the  sail.  Such  a  sail  may  be  used 
on  an  ordinary  row-boat  or  on  a 
CANOE. 

Another  simple  rig  is  the  "leg- 
of-mutton,"  a  triangular  spritsail, 
having  its  sprit  nearly  at  right 


Device  for  Unstepping  Mast. 

angles  with  the  mast,  and  therefore 
taking  the  place  of  a  boom  rather 
than  of  a  gaff,  as  seen  in  the  picture. 
The  mast  used  with  a  sprit-  or  leg- 
of-mutton  sail  is  sometimes  made 
so  that  it  can  be  unstepped  by  the 
boatman  without  his  leaving  his 
seat.  The  device  used  is  plainly 
shown  in  the  illustration.  Another 
simple  rig,  called  the  balance-lug,  is 
shown  in  the  next  illustration^ 


The   most  common   rig  for  ordi- 
nary sail-boats   is  the  cat-rig,  and 


Balance-lug. 

boats  thus  rigged  are  called  cat- 
boats  (in  England  Una  boats).    The 


Cat-boat. 

sail,  which  is  like  an  ordinary  main- 
sail with  gaff  and  boom,  is  hoisted 
to  its  place  by  halliards,  of  which 
there  are  usually  two,  one  to  raise 
the  outer  end  of  the  sail  (called  the 
peak),  and  one  the  inner  corner 
(called  the  throat).  The  sheet  is 
fastened  to  the  boom.  The  sail, 
which  slides  up  and  down  the  mast 


SAILING 


600 


SAILING 


by  means  of  hoops  or  rings,  is  gen- 
erally fitted  with  two  or  three  rows 
of  short  ropes  called  reefing-points, 


Sloop- rig.     Sail,  Plans,  and  Lines. 

by  which  its  size  may  be  lessened 
in   case   the   wind    blows    strong. 


This  is  done  by  letting  down  the 
sail  and  tying  one  or  more  of  these 
rows  of  ropes  on  one  side  of  the 
sail  to  corresponding  ropes  on  the 
other  side.  When  the  lower  row  is 
thus  tied,  the  sail  is  said  to  be  single- 
-reefed  ;  and  when  the  second  row, 
is  used  double-reefed.  Cat-boats 
are  usually  broad,  draw  but  little 
water,  and  have  centre-boards.  As 
they  have  but  one  sail,  they  are 
more  easily  managed  and  safer  than 
other  boats,  and  are  therefore  the 
best  kind  for  boys. 

The  sloop-rig  differs  from  the 
cat-rig  in  having  a  jib  in  addition 
to  a  mainsail.  The  mast  is  set  a 
little  farther  aft,  to  make  room  for 
a  bowsprit,  a  spar  projecting  from 
the  bow,  with  a  rope  called  a  stay 
extending  from  its  end  to  the  top  of 
the  mast.  On  this  stay  the  jib,  which 
is  fitted  with  rings  on  one  edge,  is 
pulled  up  and  down  by  means  of  the 
jib  halliards.  Sometimes  more  than 
one  jib  is  used,  in  which  case  the 
others  are  called  the  jib-topsail 
and  flying-jib.  Sometimes  in  a 
light  breeze  a  large  jib,  called  a  bal- 


Yawl. 


loon-jib,  is  used.  The  jibs  are  also 
called  headsails.  Sometimes  a  spar 
called  a  jibboom  is  fastened  to  the 


end  of  the  bowsprit  and  projects 
beyond  it,  when  many  headsails  are 
carried.  In  addition  to  the  main- 


SAILING 


601 


SAILING 


sail,  sloops  often  carry  above  it  a 
topsail,  called,  from  its  position 
above  the  gaff,  a  gaff-topsail,  and 
in  light  winds  another  triangular 
one  called  a  spinnaker,  fastened  to 
the  mast  and  spread  at  the  foot  by 
a  boom.  All  these  are  shown  in  the 
illustration. 

The  yawl,  in  addition  to  the  sloop- 
rig,  has  a  "  jigger,"  or  small  mast,  at 


Sharpy. 

the  stern.  The  boom  of  the  main- 
sail is  short,  to  make  room  for  this 
new  mast.  As  has  been  said,  the 
English  sloops  called  cutters  are 
narrow  and  draw  a  great  deal  of 
water.  To  keep  them  upright  in 
the  water  they  are  loaded  with  lead 
at  the  keel,  sometimes  with  many 


tons'   weight, 
side   ballast. 


This  is  called  out- 
Nearly  all   boats  are 


obliged  to  carry  ballast  of  some 
sort,  but  it  is  generally  inside  bal- 
last, that  is,  it  is  placed  in  the  bot- 


tom of  the  boat.  It  usually  con- 
sists of  pieces  of  iron  or  lead,  or  bags 
of  gravel  or  sand.  Ballast  helps  to 
prevent  capsizing,  and  permits  the 
boat  to  carry  more  sail.  In  small 
boats  it  is  often  shifted  from  one 
side  to  the  other  in  tacking,  which 
will  be  explained  below.  All  cut- 
ters have  keels,  but  the  ordinary 
American  sloop  may  have  either  a 
keel  or  a  centre-board. 
Cutters  may  have  a  deep 
cabin  entirely  below  the 
deck,  but  in  the  centre- 
board sloop  part  of  the 
deck  must  be  raised  to 
give  the  necessary  depth 
beneath  it,  and  in  cat- 
boats,  except  large  ones, 
there  is  no  room  for  any 
cabin  at  all.  The  cat-boat 
is  decked  at  the  bow  and 
stern  and  around  the 
sides,  having  an  open 
space  in  the  middle  called 
the  cock-pit. 

A  narrow,  flat-bottomed 
boat,  called  a  sharpy,  is 
much  used  on  Long 
Island  Sound  and  about 
New  York,  and  a  similar 
craft,  called  a  pound  boat, 
is  popular  on  the  great 
lakes.  There  are  one  or 
two  masts,  usually  with  a 
leg-of-mutton  sail,  though 
the  pound  boat  has  two 
sails,  like  a  small  sloop's 
mainsail,  Large  sharpies 
with  jibs  and  a  small  mast 
in  thestern  are  called  Ros- 
lyn  yawls,  after  the  home  of  the  de- 
signer, Thomas  Clapham,  of  Roslyn, 
Long  Island.  The  lateen  rig,  which 
is  shown  in  the  next  illustration,  is 
mainsail  and  jib  in  one.  It  is  not 
much  used  except  on  small  boats 
like  canoes.  The  kind  of  sail-boat 
used,  and  its  rig,  depend  much  on  the 
water  in  which  it  is  to  sail.  A  boat 
for  use  on  smooth  sheltered  water 
would  not  be  appropriate  for  the 
open  sea,  and  vice  versa.  For  rivers 
and  small  lakes,  a  boat  of  wide  beam 


SAILING 


602 


SAILING 


and  light  draught  is  needtd,  with  a 
small  sail,  on  account  of  the  sudden 
flaws  of  wind  common  on  such 
waters.  The  sail  may  be  a  leg-of- 


Lateen. 

mutton,  a  balance-lug,  or  something 
similar.  For  bays  and  arms  of  the 
sea  a  larger  boat  of  greater  draught 
is  proper,  with  a  mainsail,  or  jib  and 
mainsail. 

A  vessel  like  a  raft,  which  can 
move  in  any  direction  on  the  water, 
will  always  drift  before  the  wind, 
but  if  the  vessel  have  a  keel,  or  a 
centreboard,  so  that  it  moves  most 
easily  in  one  line,  it  will  move  chief- 
ly in  that  line,  no  matter  in  what 
direction  the  wind  is  blowing.  If 


the  boat  could  not  drift  at  all  side- 
wise,  it  would  not  move  at  all  if 
the  wind  were  at  right  angles  to 
it.  All  boats  drift  more  or  less,  but 
the  object  of  the  keel  and  centre- 
board in  sailing-boats  is  to  reduce 
the  drifting  as  much  as  possible. 
At  first  we  shall  suppose  that  the 
boat  cannot  drift  at  all  sidewise. 
In  Fig.  r.  supposing  a  sail,  S,  to  be 
set  up  directly  across  the  boat ;  if 


F 


\  / 


/  \ 


Fig.  i. 

the  wind  were  blowing  in  the  direc- 
tion A,  B,  or  C,  the  boat  would 
move  forward ;  if  as  at  D,  E,  or  F, 
backward,  since  it  cannot  move  side- 
wise.  Now  the  force  of  the  wind 
always  presses  squarely  against  the 
sail,  no  matter  if  it  is  blowing 
at  an  angle.  Thus,  in  Fig.  2, 


Fig.  2. 


if  the  wind  is  blowing  with  the 
large  arrow,  and  the  sail  is  turned 
as  at  A,  the  wind  will  act  just  as 
if  it  were  blowing  with  the  dotted 
arrow,  only  with  less  force.  As 
the  boat  can  move  only  forward 
or  backward,  it  will  go  forward, 
since  the  force  is  in  the  rear  of  the 
sail.  Now,  if  the  boat  and  sail  be 
turned  as  at  B,  the  effect  of  the 
same  wind  will  be  as  if  it  blew 
with  the  second  dotted  arrow; 


the  boat  will  move  forward  at 
another  angle,  and  by  turning 
to  and  fro,  following  the  dotted 
path,  it  will  make  progress,  on 
the  whole,  in  the  direction  from 
which  the  wind  is  blowing.  This 
turning  from  one  side  to  another, 
in  a  zig-zag  path,  is  called  tack- 
ing, or  beating  to  windward.  When 
a  boat  is  headed  nearly  against  the 
wind,  it  is  said  to  be  sailing  "close 
to  the  wind."  If  a  boat  did  not 


SAILING 


603 


SAILING 


drift  at  all  sidewise,  it  could  thus 
sail  almost  direct!}'  against  the  wind  ; 
but  drifting  prevents  this.  The 
closer  the  course  is  to  the  wind,  the 
more  force  there  is  to  make  the 
boat  drift,  and  the  less  to  move 
it  forward.  To  be  able  to  sail  close 


to  the  wind  is  a  great  advantage 
in  a  boat,  as  will  be  seen  from 
Fig.  3.  The  boat  A,  which  can  sail 
closer  to  the  wind  than  B,  has  to 
tack  less  and  can  follow  a  shorter 
path  in  going  from  X  to  Y. 

When  the  boat  tacks,  the  wind 


strikes  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
sail,  and  swings  the  boom  to  the 
other  side  of  the  boat.  The  more 
closely  to  the  wind  the  boat  is  sail- 
ing, the  more  nearly  in  a  line  with 
the  boat  the  sail  must  be.  This 
is  arranged  l>y  hnuling  aft  the  sheet. 
When  the  boat  is  running  before 
the  wind,  the  sheet  is  so  fastened 
that  the  sail  is  nearly  at  right  angles 
with  the  boat.  When  the  boat  is 
headed  directly  toward  the  quarter 
fiOtn  which  the  wind  blows,  the 
sail  will  swing  directly  to  the  rear 
of  the  mast,  and  the  boat  is  said  to 
"come  to,"  or  "  heave  to."  In  this 
position  the  only  effect  of  the  wind 
will  be  to  drift  the  boat  slowly  back- 
ward. The  art  of  managing  a  sail- 
boat is  best  learned  from  one  who  is 
skilled  in  it.  The  sailor  sits  on 
the  windward  side  of  the  tiller,  so 
as  to  manage  it  better.  (Wind- 
ward means  the  direction  from 
which  the  wind  comes,  and  leeward 
that  toward  which  it  blows.)  If  he 
is  sailing  to  windward  he  must 
watch  the  edge  of  the  sail  next 
the  mast.  If  it  shivers,  or  flaps, 
that  is  a  sign  that  the  boat  is  too 
close  to  the  wind,  and  the  tiller 
must  be  pulled  a  little  to  windward 
(called  putting  the  helm  up).  This 
will  turn  the  head  of  the  boat  a 
little  farther  from  the  wind  so  that 
the  air  will  fill  it  smoothly  again. 
When  ready  to  tack,  or  "  go  about," 
he  should  push  the  helm  to  leeward 


(called  putting  the  helm  down  or 
"  a-lee").  This  will  turn  the  boat's 
head  so  that  she  first  comes  into  the 
wind  r.nd  then  as  she  continues  to 
turn,  the  wind  will  presently  strike 
the  opposite  side  of  the  sail,  and 
it  swings  across  the  boat,  which 
then  starts  away  on  the  other 
tack.  The  helm  must  be  pushed 
down  gently  that  the  boat's  head- 
way may  not  be  stopped,  and  the 
sail  will  swing  over  easily.  The 
learner  should  not  try  to  sail  too 
close  to  the  wind,  nor  have  his 
sail  "trimmed  too  flat,"  that  is,  too 
much  in  line  with  the  boat.  In 
sailing  to  leeward  the  helmsman 
watches  the  outer  edge  of  the  sail 
(railed  the  leech).  If  it  begins  to 
flap  he  should  either  let  the  sail  out 
farther  by  "  paying  out"  the  sheet, 
or  put  up  the  helm.  In  sailing  to 
leeward,  if  the  course  requires  the 
sail  to  be  swung  over  from  one  side 
to  the  other,  it  is  most  safely  done 
by  turning  the  boat  quite  around,  so 
that  the  boat  is  close  to  the  wind 
as  the  sail  swings,  just  as  in  tacking. 
Another  way  is  by  '-jibing,"  which 
is  done  by  hauling  in  the  sail  slowly, 
and  at  the  same  time  putting  the 
helm  up  till  the  sail  is  perfectly  flat, 
then  letting  out  the  sheet  and  al- 
lowing the  sail  to  swing  out  on 
the  other  side.  The  object  is  to 
prevent  the  wind's  catching  the  for- 
ward side  of  the  sail  suddenly  and 
blowing  it  overquickly,  which  might 


SAILING 


604 


SAILING 


capsize  the  boat.  Jibing  is  danger- 
ous because  the  sail  swings  over 
so  violently  that  it  is  apt  to  carry 
away  the  rigging  or  capsize  the 
boat.  It  should  be  avoided  if  the 
wind  is  blowing  hard,  and  it  is  more 
safe  to  loosen  or  "  ease  off "  the 
peak  halliards  a  little  first.  Care 
must  be  taken  that  the  boat  does 
not  jibe  by  accident,  when  sailing 
before  the  wind.  A  change  in  the 
course  without  letting  out  the  sail 
so  as  to  keep  the  wind  at  its  rear; 
or  the  dipping  of  the  boom  into  the 
water  so  as  to  swing  it  back,  may 
have  this  result.  When  the  wind 
is  blowing  fresh,  the  sail  is  often 
reefed,  as  explained  above.  When 
a  sail  is  to  be  reefed  it  has  to 
be  lowered  before  tying  the  reefing 
points.  If  the  wind  blows  very 
hard,  the  boat  should  be  brought 
into  the  wind,  and  sometimes  it 
may  be  necessary  to  lower  the  sail. 
In  reefing,  the  points  of  a  second  or 
third  reef  should  never  be  tied  till 
those  of  the  preceding  ones  are 
secured.  This  is  to  enable  the 
sailor  to  let  out  the  reefs  one  by 
one,  as  soon  as  the  boat  is  able 
to  carry  more  sail. 

Landing.  In  making  a  landing, 
the  boat's  head  is  always  brought 
into  the  wind,  and  the  boatman 
must  therefore  land  on  one  side 
or  another  of  the  dock,  according 
to  the  direction  of  the  wind. 

RULES. 

When  sailing  among  other  craft 
the  following  rules,  which  are  uni- 
versally observed,  must  be  borne  in 
mind : 

1.  Boats  on  the  port  tack  must 
keep  clear  of  those  sailing  on  the 
starboard  tack.    In  all  cases  of  doubt 
the  boat  on  the  port  tack  must  give 
way. 

2.  Boats  sailing  before  the  wind 
must   give   way  to  those  going  on 
either  tack. 

3.  In  case  two  boats  are  sailing 
before  the  wind,  the  one  having  the 
wind  on  the  port  side  must  keep  out 


of  the  other's  way.  (The  side  on 
which  the  boorn  is  settles  the  ques- 
tion as  to  direction  of  wind.) 

4.  If  both  have  the  wind  on  the 
port  side,  the  windwardmost  must 
give  way.      But  in   any   event   the 
overtaking  boat  must  keep  clear  of 
the  one  it  is  overtaking. 

5.  If  two  boats  meet,  both  must 
put  their  helms  to  port. 

6.  In  a  race,  if  two  boats  approach 
a  shore  or  buoy,  and  the  one  to  lee- 
ward has  not  room  to  tack  so  as  to 
clear  the  other,  and  yet  would  be 
in  danger  by  keeping  on  her  course, 
she  must  hail  the  other,  which  must 
tack  at  once.      The  leeward  boat 
must  tack  as  soon  as  there  is  room 
to  do  so. 

NAUTICAL    TERMS. 

In  ordinary  conversation,  these 
should  generally  be  pronounced  as 
spelled  but  sailors  have  their  own 
pronunciation  (indicated  in  paren- 
thesis), which  is  commonly  used  on 
board  a  boat. 

Abaft.  Toward  the  stern. 

About,  Togo.  To  go  on  the  other 
tack. 

Beam.  The  greatest  width  of  the 
boat. 

Beating.  Tacking  to  windward. 

Belay.  To  fasten  a  rope  to  a  cleat 
by  winding  or  twisting  it  around. 

Bend.  To  fasten,  as  a  sail  or  rope, 
to  a  boom  or  yard. 

Bobstay.  A  rope  extending  from 
the  end  of  the  bowsprit  diagonally 
downward  to  the  cutwater. 

Boom.  A  spar  to  keep  the  foot  of 
a  sail  stretched.  The  word  is  the 
same  as  beam. 

Brails.  Ropes  to  assist  in  furling 
sails.  From  the  old  French  bracieul, 
a  leather  breeches-band. 

Broach  to.  To  come  up  quickly 
into  the  wind  when  running  before 
a  heavy  sea. 

Cat's  Paws.  Little  puffs  of  wind. 

Clews.  The  lower  corners  of  sails. 

Cockpit.  The  place  where  the 
passengers  sit  in  a  partly  decked 
boat. 


SAILING 


605 


SAILING 


Combing.  The  raised  board  sur- 
rounding the  cockpit. 

Close-hauled.  Sailing  as  close  as 
possible  to  the  wind. 

Close  to  the  wind.  Nearly  in  the 
direction  from  which  the  wind  is 
blowing. 

Crank.  Easy  to  overturn,  opposed 
to  stiff. 

Cringle.  A  loop  of  rope,  either 
plain,  or  made  around  an  iron  ring, 
and  attached  to  a  sail.  Cringle 
means  a  ring. 

Down,  To  put  the  helm.  To  push 
the  tiller  to  leeward. 

Down-haul.  A  rope  to  pull  down 
a  sail. 

Draught  of  water.  The  depth  of 
the  lowest  part  of  the  boat  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  water. 

Foot.  The  lower  edge  of  a  sail. 

Fore.  Forward. 

Fore-and-Aft.  Lengthwise  of  the 
boat. 

Foremast.  The  forward  mast  of 
/essels  having  more  than  one  mast. 

Foresail  (fore-s'l).  The  principal 
sail  on  the  foremast  of  a  fore-and- 
aft  rigged  vessel. 

Furl.  To  fold  a  sail  and  lash  it  to 
the  boom  or  mast. 

Gaff.  The  spar  to  which  the  up- 
per part  of  a  fore-and-aft  sail  is  fast- 
ened. From  the  French  gaffe,  a 
long  pole  with  a  hook,  used  in  fish- 
ing. 

Gasket,  a  rope  for  lashing  a  furled 
sail  to  the  spar  or  mast.  From  the 
French  garcette. 

Grapnel.  A  small  anchor  having 
several  claws,  ^romgrapple. 

Grommet.  A  ring  of  rope  or  metal, 
Derived  from  the  French  gourmette, 
curb-chain. 

Gunwale  (gun-nel).  The  topmast 
board  or  plank  that  forms  the  side 
of  a  boat. 

Halliard,  or  Halyard.  A  rope  for 
hoisting  a  sail.  Derived  from  haul 
and  yard. 

Hawser,  a  large  rope.  From  the 
German,  haltseil,  hold-rope. 

Hawse-hole,  or  Hawse-pipe.  A 
hole  through  which  passes  the  hagr- 


ser  or  chain  that  holds  the  anchor. 

Head.  The  top  of  a  sail. 

Helm.  The  steering  apparatus. 
From  the  Anglo-Saxon,  helma,  rud- 
der. 

Hoist.  The  part  of  a  fore  and  aft 
sail  that  slides  up  and  down  the 
mast. 

Jibs.  Triangular  sails  set  on  ropes 
reaching  from  the  foremast  to  the 
bowsprit. 

Jibboom.  A  spar  extending  from 
the  end  of  the  bowsprit. 

Jibe.  To  swing  the  boom  from 
one  side  to  the  other,  while  sailing 
before  the  wind. 

Jigger.  The  small  mast  in  the 
stern  of  a  yawl,  also  called  the 
mizzen. 

Keel.  A  timber  running  from  bow 
to  stern  at  the  bottom  of  the  boat. 
From  the  Anglo-Saxon  ceol,  keel. 

Keelson,  (kel-son).  A  timber  run- 
ning over  the  keel  above  the  floor- 
timbers. 

Knot.  A  nautical  mile  (in  the 
United  States  6,o8oJ  feet),  so  called 
because  it  is  the  distance  between 
two  knots  on  the  log  line,  by  which 
distances  at  sea  are  measured. 

Larboard  (lar-burd).  The  left- 
hand  side  of  a  vessel  (looking  for- 
ward) now  generally  replaced  by  the 
word  "  port,"  to  avoid  confusion 
with  "  starboard."  It  is  probably 
contracted  from  lowerboard,  be- 
cause the  left  side  was  considered 
inferior  in  rank. 

Lee,  or  Leeward  (loo-ard).  The 
side  toward  which  the  wind  blows, 
originally  a  place  sheltered  from  the 
wind.  From  the  Anglo-Saxon  hleo, 
a  shelter. 

Leech.  The  after-edge  of  a  fore- 
and-aft  sail.  Probably  from  the 
Latin  licium,  a  thread. 

Luff.  The  forward  edge  of  a  sail. 
To  luff,  or  luff  up,  is  to  steer  close  to 
the  wind.  Luff  may  be  from  the 
German  luft,  air. 

Mainmast.  The  principal  or 
largest  mast. 

Mainsail  (ma.\n-s'\).  The  large  sail 
of  a  cat-boat  or  sloop. 


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606 


SAILING 


Miss  Stays.  To  fail  in  trying  to 
tack. 

Mizzenmast.  The  after-mast  in 
three-masted  vessels. 

Off.  Away  from  the  point  from 
which  the  wind  blows,  as  in  "  Keep 
her  head  off." 

Peak.  The  point  of  the  sail  at  the 
outer  end  of  the  gaff. 

Port.  The  left-hand  side  of  a  boat 
looking  forward  (see  Larboard). 

Rake.  Inclination,  as  "  the  rake 
of  a  mast,"  "a  raking  stern-post." 
Masts  are  usually  given  a  rake  aft 
to  bring  their  weight  and  that  of 
sails  and  rigging  farther  aft.  The 
word  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  rae- 
can,  to  reach. 

Ratlines.  Ropes  fastened  across 
the  shrouds,  making  ladders  by 
which  the  sailors  in  large  vessels 
can  climb  to  the  masts. 

Reef.  To  fold  part  of  the  sail  and 
fasten  it  together  in  order  to  lessen 
the  surface  exposed  to  the  wind. 
The  folded  part  of  the  sail  is  called 
also  the  reef.  From  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  reaf,  a  garment. 

Rig.  The  arrangement  of  masts, 
sails,  and  ropes  in  a  boat.  From 
the  Anglo-Saxon  ivrigan,  to  cover. 

Rigging.  The  ropes  of  a  boat,  di- 
vided into  standing  rigging,  the 
rope  used  to  strengthen  the  masts, 
and  running  rigging,  the  ropes  used 
to  work  the  sails. 

Serve.  To  wind  yarn  or  cloth 
around  a  rope's  end  to  prevent  its 
ravelling,  or  around  any  part  to  keep 
it  from  wearing  away  by  rubbing. 

Sheet.  A  rope  fastened  to  the  low- 
er outer  corner  of  a  sail  or  to  the 
boom,  to  haul  it  in  and  keep  it  in 
place.  From  the  Anglo-Saxon  Sceo- 
tan,  to  cast  or  extend. 

Shrouds.  In  large  vessels,  ropes 
extending  from  the  head  of  the 
lower  mast  to  strong  timbers  at  the 
sides  of  the  vessel.  They  serve  to 
strengthen  the  masts.  See  ratline. 

Slack.  Applied  to  a  boat  with  a 
tendency  to  turn  her  bow  from  the 
wind,  owing  to  improper  construc- 
tion. 


Spar.  A  general  term  for  masts, 
yards,  booms,  gaffs,  and  the  like. 

Spinnaker.  A  large  triangular 
sail  used  by  sloops  in  a  light  wind. 

Splice,  to  fasten  the  ends  of  two 
ropes  by  interlacing  the  strands. 
It  is  nearly  the  same  word  as 
"  split,"  the  strand  being  pulled 
apart. 

Sprit.  A  light  spar  extending 
from  the  middle  of  the  mast  to  the 
outer  corner  of  the  sail,  used  in  place 
of  a  gaff.  From  the  Anglo-Saxon 
spreot,  a  spear  or  pike. 

Starboard  (star-burd).  The  right- 
hand  side  of  a  boat  (looking  for- 
ward). From  the  Anglo-Saxon  ste- 
oran,  to  steer,  and  bord,  a  border. 

Stay.  A  rope  to  steady  a  mast, 
extending  diagonally  forward  from 
its  top.  Stays  also  extend  between 
the  masts  and  from  the  upper  masts 
to  the  sides. 

Staysail  (stay-s'l).  A  sail  spread 
on  a  stay. 

Stem.  The  upright  timber  at  the 
end  of  a  vessel's  bow  to  which  the 
ends  of  the  planking  are  fastened. 

Stern.  The  rear  end  of  a  boat. 
From  the  Anglo  Saxon  steam,  a 
helm,  because  the  helm  is  placed 
there. 

Stiff.  Keeping  upright,  opposed  to 
crank  ;  a  boat  is  stiff  when  the 
wind  makes  her  incline  very  little. 
Applied  to  a  wind  or  breeze,  stiff 
means  strong. 

Tack.  The  lower  fore-corner  of 
a  fore-and-aft  sail,  or  a  rope  attached 
to  that  corner;  also  the  direction  of 
a  boat  when  sailing  to  windward. 
A  boat  is  on  the  starboard  tack 
when  the  wind  is  on  the  starboard 
side;  on  the  port  tack  when  the 
wind  blows  against  the  port  side. 
A  boat  is  said  to  tack  in  changing 
from  one  tack  to  another.  Tack 
means  to  fasten.  The  first  meaning 
is  the  original  one,  the  other  being 
derived  from  it,  as  the  tack  holds 
the  corner  of  the  sail  when  the  wind 
crosses  it  obliquely. 

Taut.     Tight. 

Tarpaulin.    Tarred  canvas,  from 


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607 


SAILING 


tar,  and  pauling,  provincial  English 
for  the  covering  of  a  cart. 

Topsail.  The  second  sail  above 
the  deck. 

Tiller.  The  rudder  handle  ;  from 
the  provincial  English  tiller,  the 
handle  of  anything, 

Trysail  (try-s'l).  A  small  fore- 
and-aft  sail. 

Thro-at.  The  inner  concave  end 
of  the  gaff  or  boom,  which  fits 
around  the  mast. 

Topping-lift.  A  rope  to  hold  the 
end  of  the  boom  clear  of  the  cabin, 
in  a  large  boat. 

Up,  To  put  the  helm.  To  put  the 
tiller  to  windward. 

Vangs.  Ropes  to  steady  the  gaff 
in  a  large  boat,  running  from  its 
peak  to  the  sides  of  the  boat.  From 
the  Dutch  vangen,  to  seize. 

Wear.  To  turn  the  boat  so  that 
the  wind  will  be  on  the  other  side, 
without  tacking,  the  bow  being 
turned  away  from  the  wind,  and  the 
sail  jibed  over. 

Weather.  Windward,  toward  the 
wind. 

Weather-helm.  A  boat  is  said 
to  have  a  weather-helm  when  the 
tiller  must  be  kept  to  the  weather- 
side. 

Wind.  The  direction  from  which 
the  wind  is  blowing ;  used  in  "  bring- 
ing a  boat's  head  into  the  wind." 
"  turning  her  head  out  of  the  wind," 
"toward  the  wind,"  '  away  from  the 
wind,"  etc. 

Windward.  The  direction  from 
which  the  wind  blows. 

Yaw.  To  go  out  of  the  proper 
course.  From  the  provincial  Ger- 
man gagt'ln,  to  totter  or  shake. 

Knots.  Some  of  the  simplest 
kinds  of  knots  are  described  in 
C.  C.  T.  Besides  these,  the  fol- 
lowing are  useful.  They  are  de- 
scribed in  this  article  because  they 
are  used  so  often  on  a  sail-boat ;  but 
every  one  should  understand  how 
to  tie  them. 

In  making  a  knot,  any  bend  or 
loop  in  the  rope  is  called  a  "  bight" 
(^Anglo-Saxon  bige,  a  bending).  The 


part  of  the  rope  not  bent  in  making 
the  knot  is  called  the  "standing 
part."  Some  knots  are  made  pur- 
posely very  tight,  so  that  they  will 
last  forever,  and  others  are  made 
to  be  easily  untied. 

The  Plain  Overhand  Knot  (see  C. 
C.  T.)  may  be  made  at  the  end  of  a 
rope,  either  to  prevent  its  untwist- 
ing, or  to  keep  it  from  passing 
through  a  hole.  For  it  may  be  sub- 
stituted the  Figure  Eight  (see  C. 
C.  T.),  which  is  easier  to  untie  than 
the  plain  overhand. 

Boat  Knot.  An  overhand  knot 
whose  end  is  not  passed  through 
the  bight,  but  secured  by  a  spike  or 
piece  of  wood  on  withdrawing, 
which  the  knot  unties  at  once. 

Square  or  Double  Knot.  This  is 
formed  of  two  overhand  knots,  and 
is  the  most  common  knot  for  fasten- 
ing two  ends  together,  but  it  is 
made  incorrectly  by  most  people. 
The  right  way  to  tie  it  is  shown 
in  Figure  i,  and  the 
wrong  way  in  Figure 
2  ;  it  will  be  seen  that 
in  the  former  the 
bight  on  one  side 
passes  over  both  ropes 
and  on  the  other  side 
Fig.  i.  under  both,  whereas 

in  the  latter,  called  a  "  granny  knot," 
each  bight  passes  over  one  rope  and 
under  the  other. 
When  it  is  tied  pro- 
perly a  strain  on  it 
only  makes  it  hold 
more  tightly,  and  yet 
it  can  be  loosened  at 
once  by  pulling  the 
2-  bights  apart.  It  is 
secure  only  when  the  ends  tied  are 
of  the  same  sized  rope.  This  knot 
is  sometimes  called  a  reef  knot,  as 
it  is  used  for  fastening  the  reef 
points. 

Bowline.  This  forms  a  loop 
which  cannot  slip,  and  is  useful  in 
a  great  number  of  ways.  It  is 
shown  in  C.  C.  T.,  but  as  it  is 
important,  the  method  of  tying  it  is 
described  here  in  more  detail.  A 


SAILI  NG 


608 


SAILING 


loop  is  made  and  the  end  passed  up 
through  it  as  in  Fig.  3,  and  then 
the  end  is  passed 
over  the  rope 
above  the  loop 
and  through  the 
loop  from  behind, 
as  in  Fig.  4. 
When  the  knot  is 
tightened,  it  will 
not  slip.  By 
'£•  4  pulling  the  rope 
in  a  bight  through  the  loop  thus 
formed,  the  best  slip  noose  is  made. 
This  is  called  a  "running  bow- 
line." A  "  bowline  on  a  bight" 
can  be  made  in  the  middle  of  a  long 
rope  when  it  must  be  done  imme- 
diately, and  there  is  no  time  to  find 
an  end,  as  when  a  rope  is  to  be 
thrown  to  a  drowning  man.  The 
rope  doubled  is  first  tied,  just 
as  in  Fig.  3  (see  Fig.  5.),  but  then 
the  end  e  is  pulled 
apart  and  brought 
down  over  the  bight, 
as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines. 

Knots  for  fastening 
ropes       to       hooks, 
spars,  or    rings    are 
often    "  hitches,"  or 
"bends." 
One   of  the   simplest   hitches   is 
a  half  hitch,  shown  inC.  C.  T. 
A  timber  hitch,  shown  in   Fig.  6, 
is   useful    for 
fastening       a 
rope  to  a  post 
in  a  hurry. 

It  holds 
tight  under  a 
strain,  but  it 
loosens  as 
soon  as  it  is 
Fig.  6.  relieved. 

Clove  hitch.  This  is  shown  in 
Fig.  7.  The  coils  thus  made  are 
thrown  over  a  post  and  drawn  tight, 
or  the  end  of  the  rope  may  be 
twisted  around  the  post  as  shown  in 
Fig.  8,  where  the  end  a  is  repre- 
sented as  fastened  to  the  standing 
part  with  a  half  hitch. 


Fig.  5- 


Blackwall  hitch.      This  is  really 
no  knot   at  all,  but  is  useful  for 


Fig.  8. 

hanging  a  weight  from  a  hook.  It 
will  be  seen  from  Fig.  9,  where  it 
is  shown,  that  the 
heavier  the  weight, 
the  tighter  the  end  of 
the  rope  is  jammed 
against  the  hook. 

In      fastening     the 
end  of  two  ropes   for 
hauling,  the   simplest 
Fig.  9.         method  is  to  use  the 
Common  Bend  (C.  C.  T.). 

Splicing*  When  two  ropes  are 
fastened  together,  end  to  end,  with- 
out a  knot,  they  are  said  to  be  spliced. 
Ropes  must  be  spliced  instead  of 
knotted  when  they  are  to  run 
through  a  pulley  over  anything 
on  which  the  knot  might  catch. 
The  appearance  of  a  nicely  spliced 
rope  is  shown  in  Fig.  10.  To  make 


Fig.  10. 

a  "short  splice,"  untwist  the  strands 
at  the  ends  which  are  to  be  joined, 
and  bring  the  ropes  together  so  that 
the  strands  of  one  alternate  with 
those  of  the  other,  as  in  Fig.  u. 


SAILING 


609 


SAILING 


The  strands  must  be  interweaved 
tightly,  but  they  are  shown  loose  in 
the  figure  to  make  it  plainer.  Then 
take  any  strand,  for  instance  that 
marked  a,  pass  it  over/,  and  under 
e,  which  is  lifted  up  for  the  purpose 


Fig.  n. 

with  a  tapering  piece  of  wood  or  iron, 
called  a  marling-spike.  Each  strand 
is  treated  in  the  same  way,  then  each 
is  shaved  down  to  about  half  its 
thickness,  and  the  intertwining  is 
repeated. 

An  "  eye  splice"  is  made  by  mak- 
ing a  bight  and  splicing  the  end  into 
the  standing  part. 


For  a  "  long  splice"  more  of  the 
ropes  must  be  untwisted  than  for  a 
short  splice.  After  the  strands  have 
been  laid  alternately  as  before,  un- 
twist one  strand,  as  a,  still  further, 
for  several  turns,  and  in  the  vacant 
place  thus  left  twist 
the  opposite  strand/. 
At  the  place  where 
they  join,  cut  off  all 
of  each  but  a  few  in- 
ches.shave  both  down 
about  one  fourth,  and 
tie  them  with  an 
overhand  knot. 
Shave  the  ends  down 
another  fourth,  pass  each  over  the 
other  and  under  the  two  next 
strands,  cutting  off  the  ends  as  they 
appear.  One  of  A's  strands  is  then 
worked  into  B  in  like  manner,  and 
the  third  pair  of  strands  is  shaved 
and  knotted  in  the  same  way  at  the 
original  junction.  This  splice,  if 
neatly  made,  does  not  increase  the 


Sailing-car 


SAILING 


6ro 


SALIC    LAW 


thickness    of    the     rope    apprecia- 
bly. 

Parcelling  is  covering  rope  with 
strips  of  tarred  canvas  to  protect 
it.  When  a  rope  is  wound  tightly 
with  spun  yarn,  it  is  said  to  be 
"  served."  Rope's  ends  are  served 
to  keep  them  from  ravelling,  and 
splices  are  often  botli  parcelled  and 
served.  When  the  channels  between 
the  strands  of  a  rope  are  filled,  it  is 
said  to  be  "  wormed."  Parcelling  is 
also  kept  down  by  a  kind  of  chain 
stitch  called  "  marling." 

In  Fig.  12  the  rope  is  "  wormed  " 
at  a  and  "  served"  at  b, 
and  "  marling  ''  is  shown 
at  c. 

Sailing-Cars.  On  some 
western  railways  cars 
propelled  by  the  wind  are 
often  used  instead  of 
hand-cars  to  transport 
laborers  and  their  tools. 
The  car,  which  is  about 
the  size  of  an  ordinary 
hand-car,  is  fitted  with 
one  or  two  masts.  In 
one  car  the  mainmast  is 
eleven  feet  high,  and 
both  masts  together 
carry  about  eighty  square 
feet  of  canvas. 

It"  is  said  that  these  cars  have 
sailed  at  the  rate  of  forty  miles  per 
hour  directly  before  the  wind.  As 
they  are  confined  to  the  rails,  and 
therefore  cannot  tack,  they  cannot 
beat  to  windward,  but  it  is  said  that 
they  can  sail  very  close  to  the  wind. 
An  ancient  sailing-car,  which 
probably  never  existed  except  on 
paper,  is  shown  in  the  last  picture, 
taken  from  an  old  book. 

For  the  history  of  Sailing,  see 
YACHTING. 

SALIC  LAW,  a  SOLITAIRE  game 
of  CARDS,  played  with  two  packs. 
A  King  is  selected  from  the  packs 
before  playing  begins,  and  laid,  face 
upward,  on  the  table.  Cards  that 
cannot  be  used,  as  described  below, 
are  placed  on  this  King  until  an- 
other one  appears,  when  it  is  laid 


-c 


Fig.   12. 


beside  the  first,  forming  the  base 
for  another  pile  of  useless  cards, 
till  its  place  is  taken  by  a  third,  and 
so  on.  In  a  row  just  beneath  these 
piles  the  Queens  are  placed,  as  they 


Ancient  Sail-car. 

appear,  and  below  these  the  Aces. 
On  the  latter  are  placed,  in  order  of 
rank,  the  Twos,  Threes,  and  so  on, 
up  to  the  Knaves,  not  following  suit. 
The  top  card  of  any  of  the  piles 
above  the  Kings  can  be  used  at  any 
time.  When  the  pack  is  exhausted, 
the  top  card  of  any  pile  can  be 
placed  on  any  uncovered  King, 
freeing  the  card  beneath  it.  The 
player  is  allowed  to  draw  one  card 
from  the  interior  of  one  of  the  piles, 
and  may  look  at  any  of  the  piles  to 
see  how  they  are  arranged.  If  the 
player  is  successful,  all  the  cards  of 
the  two  packs  will  be  arranged  on 
the  table  in  three  rows  of  piles  at 
the  end  of  the  game,  a  face  card  at 
the  top  of  each  pile. 

The. Salic  law  is  a  law  that  forbids 
women  to  come  to  the  throne  in 
some  monarchies  of  Europe,  and 
this  game  is  so  called  because  the 
Queens  take  no  part  in  it. 


SALT 


611 


SCALES 


SALT,  Experiments  with.  Make 
a  strong  brine  by  shaking  salt  and 
water  together  in  a  bottle,  until  the 
water  will  dissolve  no  more.  Color 
the  brine  with  any  ink  that  will  mix 
with  water.  Make  a  pile  of  salt  on 
a  plate,  and  pour  the  colored  brine 
gradually  into  the  plate.  It  will 
rise  in  the  pile  of  sale  by  capillary 
attraction  (See  SMALL  TUBES)  till 
the  whole  pile  is  colored.  The 
experiment  will  not  succeed  with 
water,  because  it  will  dissolve  the 
salt  in  the  pile ;  but  the  brine  has  so 
much  salt  in  it  already  that  it  can- 
not take  up  any  more. 

2.  Fill  a  glass  funnel  with  salt, 
packing  it  in  tightly ;  invert  it  on  a 
plate,  and  fit  over  the  narrow  end 
the  mouth  of  an  empty  toy  balloon, 
which  has  been  kept  very  full  of  air 
a  long  time  so  that  it  will  inflate 
with  little  force.  Pour  gradually 
into  the  plate  some  colored  brine, 
prepared  as  before.  It  will  mount 
higher  and  higher  in  the  funnel, 
driving  before  it  the  air,  which  will 
inflate  the  toy  balloon.  The  ex- 
periment will  not  succeed  unless  the 
salt  is  packed  tight  and  unless  the 
balloon  has  been  well  stretched, 
so  as  to  inflate  easily. 

SANCHO  PEDRO.  See  ALL 
FOURS. 

SAND,  Experiments  with.  i.  Fill 
a  toy  rubber  balloon,  or  any  kind 
of  rubber  bag,  with  clean,  dry 
sand  and  shake  it  down  thoroughly. 
Fasten  in  the  neck  a  piece  of  glass 
tubing  which  is  allowed  to  dip 
beneath  the  surface  of  a  glass  of 
water.  Squeeze  the  sand.  It  might 
be  expected  that  it  would  be  pressed 
closer  together,  driving  out  air  into 
the  water,  but  vhis  cannot  be  done 
by  the  hardest  pressure.  On  the 
contrary,  the  bulk  is  actually  in- 
creased by  squeezing,  as  is  shown 
by  some  of  the  water  rising  into  the 
tube.  The  reason  is  that  the  grains 
of  sand  are  closely  packed  and  fitted 
together  so  that  when  they  are 
disarranged  by  squeezing  they  oc- 
cupy more  space. 


2.  Shake  down  the  sand  as  be- 
fore, pour  in  water  till  the  bag  is 
quite  full,  and  tie  up  the  neck  of  the 
bag.  The  bag  will  now  be  found  to 
be  quite  hard  and  rigid,  though  it  is 
full  of  sand  and  water.  The  reason 
is  that  the  sand  cannot  be  squeezed 
without  altering  its  position  and  in- 
creasing the  space  between  the 
grains,  but  as  the  bag  is  closed  and 
nothing  can  enter  to  fill  the  extra 
space,  the  bag  will  not  yield  to  pres- 
sure at  all. 

The  property  of  sand  shown  in 
these  experiments  is  shared  by  shot, 
marbles,  and  almost  any  small 
objects.  It  was  discovered  in  1886 
by  Prof.  Reynolds  of  England,  who 
called  it  "Dilatancy." 

SCALES.  The  different  kinds  of 
scales  are  told  about  in  C.  C.  T.  A 
pair  of  scales  which  will  weigh 
pretty  well  up  to  ten  pounds  or 
so  can  be  made  thus.  Take  a  stout, 
even  stick,  about  three  feet  long, 
and  bore  a  hole  about  an  inch 
from  each  end,  and  a  third  in  the 
middle,  exactly  half  way  between 
them.  Take  two  shallow  tin  pans 
six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter,  and 
make  three  holes  with  an  awl  at 
equal  distances  around  the  edge 
of  each.  Tie  in  each  hole  the  end 
of  a  piece  of  string  about  sixteen 
inches  long,  and  unite  the  three 
strings  at  their  other  ends,  so  that 
the  pan  will  hang  horizontal.  Tie 
each  pan  to  the  stick  by  means 
of  the  end  holes,  so  that  they  hang 
at  the  same  distance.  Hold  the 
scales  by  a  loop  of  string  passing 
through  the  middle  hole.  If  prop- 
erly made,  the  pans  should  bal- 
ance, the  stick  being  horizontal.  If 
they  do  not,  then  either  the  pans 
do  not  weigh  the  same,  or  the  third 
hole  is  not  exactly  in  the  middle. 
Put  sand  in  one  pan  till  it  balances, 
and  then  untie  the  pans  from  the 
stick  and  exchange  them.  If  they 
do  not  balance,  this  proves  that  the 
hole  is  i;ot  in  the  middle,  and  a  new 
stick  must  be  prepared.  If  they 
do  balance,  the  scales  are  now  all 


SCALES 


612 


SCALES 


right,  but  the  sand  must  always  be 
kept  in  the  pan  in  which  it  was  put. 
Even  if  the  scales  balance  perfectly 
at  first,  it  is  just  as  well  to  change 
the  pans.  To  make  weights,  go 
first  to  a  druggist  and  ask  him  to 
weigh  out  some  sand  in  a  glass 
bottle,  so  that  bottle,  sand,  and  cork 
shall  weigh  just,  quarter  of  a  pound 
together.  Place  this  in  one  scale  of 
the  balance,  and  pour  sand  into  the 
other  till  there  is  an  exact  balance. 
Then  put  the  bottle  into  the  same 
scale  with  the  sand,  and  into  the 
other  an  empty  bottle,  its  cork  ly- 
ing beside  it.  Pour  sand  into  this 
bottle  till  it  balances  all  in  the  other 
scale,  when  it  will  weigh,  of  course, 
half  a  pound.  Cork  it  and  label  it, 
and  keep  it  for  the  half  pound 
weight.  In  this  way,  by  using  the 
weights  already  obtained  to  weigh 
new  ones,  as  many  as  desired  may 
be  made.  These  scales  will  do  very 
nicely  for  rough  weighings. 

Steelyards.  To  make  steelyards, 
take  a  stick  about  three  feet  long 
and  bore  two  holes,  one  about  an 
inch  from  one  end,  and  the  second 
about  an  inch  from  the  first.  From 
the  end  hole  hang  a  scale-pan,  as 
shown  above,  and  in  the  other  fasten 
a  loop  to  hold  the  steelyard  by.  Fill 
a  bottle  with  sand  till  it  weighs  about 
half  a  pound — exactness  does  not 
matter.  Suspend  it  by  the  neck  to  a 
short  loop  and  slip  the  loop  over  the 
long  end  of  the  stick.  Put  a  pound 
weight  on  the  scale,  and  slide  the  bot- 
tle along  till  it  just  balances.  Make  a 
notch  at  this  place.  Put  two  pounds 
in  the  scale  and  slide  the  bottle 
along  till  it  balances  again,  making 
another  notch  and  marking  it  "  2  " 
with  a  pencil.  So  go  on  till  you 
have  a  notch  for  every  pound. 
Notches  for  the  half  pounds  can  be 
cut  exactly  half  way  between,  which 
will  not  be  far  out  of  the  way.  To 
weigh  six  pounds,  for  instance,  hang 
the  bottle  in  the  six-pound  notch, 
and  then  put  in  the  pan  whatever 
you  wish  to  weigh,  till  it  balances. 

Spring  Balance.    Take  a  piece  of 


elastic  cord  which  can  be  stretched 
to  a  length  of  six  or  eight  feet. 
Fasten  one  end  to  a  nail  near  the 
ceiling,  and  at  the  other  end  tie  a 
wire  hook,  to  which  are  to  be  hung 
the  articles  weighed.  Tie  a  bit  of 
colored  sewing-silk  around  the  elas- 
tic cord  just  above  the  hook.  Now 
fasten  successively  to  the  hook  the 
different  weights  obtained  by  means 
of  the  scales  described  above,  and 
make  a  pencil  mark  on  the  wall  at 
the  spot  opposite  which  the  silk 
stops,  each  time.  Then  anything 
which  stretches  the  elastic  just  as 
much  as  the  half  pound  weight,  for 
instance,  must  weigh  exactly  half  a 
pound.  To  weigh  many  pounds,  a 
large  and  strong  elastic  must  be 
used. 

Torsion  Balance,  a  weighing  ma- 
chine in  which  the  object  weighed  is 
balanced  by  the  "  torsion  "  of  a  wire, 
that  is,  its  effort  to  untwist.  A  sim- 
ple one  can  be  made  as  follows: 


Torsion  Balance. 

Fasten  an  iron  wire,  A  B,  firmly 
across  a  wooden  standard  like  that 
shown  in  the  picture.  At  its  middle, 
H,  secureone  end  of  a  stripof  strong, 
light  wood,  C  and  D.  This  may  be 
done  by  filing  flat  surfaces  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  wire,  splitting  the 
end  of  the  wood,  fitting  the  cleft 
over  the  wire,  and  then  winding  it  on 
both  sides. of  the  wire  with  strong 
waxed  thread.  The  strip  should 
project  horizontally,  or  point  slight- 
ly upward,  when  at  rest.  About  an 
inch  from  the  end  tack  to  the  strip 
a  light  paper  box,  D,  to  hold  the  ob- 
ject to  be  weighed.  At  the  end  of 
the  strip,  which  must  be  pointed,  an 


SCANDAL 


613 


SECRET   WRITING 


upright  wooden  post,  F  G,  is  fixed 
for  the  scale  to  be  marked  on.  A 
pencil  mark  is  made  on  this,  opposite 
the  point  of  the  lever,  and  then  an 
object  whose  weight  is  known  is  put 
into  the  box.  Suppose  this  to  weigh 
an  ounce.  Mark  the  spot  to  which 
the  lever  falls,  and  then  divide  the 
space  between  the  two  marks  into 
as  many  equal  parts  as  you  wish. 
If  it  be  divided  into  ten  parts,  each 
will  represent  a,  tenth  of  an  ounce. 
The  size  of  the  balance  may  be  large 
or  small,  as  desired.  A  short,  strong 
wire  will  weigh  large  quantities — a 
long,  thin  one,  very  small  ones.  By 
using  a  fine  platinum  wire,  and  a 
wisp  of  straw  for  a  lever,  the  hun- 
dred-thousandth part  of  an  ounce 
may  easily  be  weighed. 

SCANDAL,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  who  sit  in  a  row 
or  circle.  One  of  them  whispers  a 
story  in  the  ear  of  his  neighbor,  and 
he,  in  turn,  whispers  it  to  the  next, 
and  so  on  till  it  reaches  the  last,  who 
relates  it  aloud.  The  first  player 
gives  it  as  he  told  it  at  the  beginning, 
and  it  will  generally  be  found  that 
the  two  stories  are  quite  differ- 
ent. Instead  of  a  story,  a  single  sen- 
tence spoken  very  fast  may  be  used. 
This  game  isnamed  Scandal, because 
it  shows  how  stories  are  often 
changed  in  passing  from  mouth  to 
mouth.  This  game  is  called  also 
Russian  Gossip. 

SCOTCH  WHIST.  See  CATCH 
THE  TEN. 

SECRETARY,  THE,  a  game  played 
with  pencils  and  paper  by  any  num- 
ber of  persons.  A  leader  is  chosen 
called  the  Secretary,  who  gives  to 
each  player  a  slip  of  paper.  After 
each  has  written  his  name  on  the 
slip  and  returned  it  to  the  Secretary, 
the  latter  shuffles  the  slips,  and  gives 
one  to  each  person,  at  random,  tak- 
ing care  that  no  one  sees  any  name 
but  that  on  the  slip  given  him. 
Each  then  writes  under  the  name  on 
his  slip  his  opinion  of  the  person 
bearing  it,  and  then  all  the  slips  are 
given  again  to  the  Secretary,  who 


reads  them,  one  by  one,  aloud.  As 
they  are  read  the  person  about,  whom 
the  opinion  is  written  guesses  who 
its  author  is,  and  if  the  guess  is  cor- 
rect the  author  pays  a  forfeit.  Some- 
times  the  players  are  required  to 
write  their  opinions  in  verse,  and 
sometimes,  when  there  are  few  play- 
ers, each  writes  an  opinion  of  every 
other,  instead  of  only  one.  When 
there  are  few  players,  the  opinions 
may  be  whispered  by  each  one  to  the 
Secretary,  instead  of  writing  them 
down.  That  no  one  may  venture 
to  say  anything  disagreeably  person- 
al, the  Secretary  should  announce 
the  author  of  each  opinion  at  the 
close  of  the  game. 

Another  way  of  playing  is  for 
each  one  to  write  on  his  slip  an  as- 
sumed name,  instead  of  his  real  one. 
After  the  second  distribution  of 
slips,  each  writes  a  description  of  the 
person  he  supposes  to  have  adopted 
the  name  on  the  slip.  The  Secre- 
tary reads  these  one  by  one,  an- 
nouncing the  owner  of  the  name  at 
the  end  of  each. 

SECRET  WRITING,  The  sim- 
plest and  commonest  kind  of  secret 
writing  is  that  in  which  every  letter 
of  the  alphabet  is  represented  by 
some  letter,  figure,  or  mark,  and 
always  by  the  same  one.  The  cor- 
respondents must  each  have  a  key 
consisting  of  th  j  letters  of  the  alpha- 
bet written  in  line,  and  under  each 
the  character  that  is  to  represent  it. 
Thus  abcdefghijklmn 
'rq4b503mzats  9  d 
opqrstuvwxyz  j  j 
wxukihyaf  t  §  I 
ing  a  letter,  the  figures  in  the  lower 
row  are  used  instead  of  those  above, 
and  the  one  who  receives  it  writes 
down  on  a  piece  of  paper  for  each 
character  the  one  just  above  it. 
Thus  the  following  sentence  : 
z  ow/db  r  kwqzdi  d$ih  zd  hm5  rxxs$ 
hk55  means  "  I  found  a  robin's  nest 
in  the  apple-tree."  But  though  this 
kind  of  writing  looks  so  mysterious, 
it  is  easily  read.  For  instance,  sup- 
pose the  key  to  the  above  sentence 


SECRET   WRITING 


614 


SECRET   WRITING 


to  be  unknown.  By  looking  over  it 
carefully,  the  first  and  last  letters  of 
the  third  word  frorr.  the  end  are  seen 
to  be  the  same  as  the  first  and  the  last 
two  of  the  last  word.  Now  as  "  hm5  " 
is  the  only  word  of  three  letters  in 
the  sentence,  it  is  probably  "the." 
The  last  word  then  reads  t.ee  (put- 
ting dots  for  unguessed  letters), 
which  must  be  "  tree."  The  word  be- 
tween "  the  "  and  "  tree  "  very  likely 
is  the  name  of  the  tree.  It  ends  with 
"  e,"  and  its  second  and  third  letters 
are  the  same.  By  tryingthe  names  of 
several  kinds  of  trees,  it  is  found  that 
"  apple  "  is  the  only  one  that  answers. 
Now  the  letters  standing  alone,  "z" 
and  "  r,"  are  probably  "  I  "  and  "  a  ;" 
and  as  the  latter  is  the  first  letter  in 
" apple,"  the  former  must  be  "I." 
The  word  of  two  letters  befoie  "  the" 
must  therefore  be  either  "  it,"  "  is," 
or  "in,"  and  the  word  before  it  is 
te.t,  se.t,  or  ne.t.  The  first  would 
have  to  be  "  tent "  or  "  test,"  neither 
of  which  makes  sense.  The  second  is 
either  "  seat  "  or  "  sent."  and  the  last 
can  only  be  "  nest."  If  it  wer^  "seat," 
the  last  three  letters  of  the  previous 
word  must  be  "  isa,"  if  "sent,"  they 
are  "  isn  ;"  if  "  nest,"  they  are  "  ins." 
The  second  seems  impossible,  and  if 
we  select  the  letters  "  r  .  .  ins  nest," 
it  is  probable  that  "  robin's  nest "  will 
occur  to  us  at  once.  By  trial  in  the 


same  way  the  second  word 
is  found  out,  and  thus 
the  whole  sentence  is 
guessed.  A  long  letter  is 
much  easier  to  guess*  than 
a  single  sentence,  for  then 
the  same  characters  oc- 
cur over  and  over  ayain, 
and  words  like  "the" 
can  be  told  at  once  from 
their  appearing  so  often. 

This  kind  of  writing 
can  be  made  harder  by 
making  no  spaces  between 
the  words,  which  the 
one  who  has  the  key  can 
easily  separate  after  he 
has  written  '  down  the 
right  letters.  But  even 


then  it  is  possible  to  guess  it  by 
patient  work,  remembering  that 
the  letters  occurring  oftenest  are 
the  vowels. 

Another  way  of  varying  this  kind 
of  writing  is  to  agree  on  ten  or 
twelve  signs  which  shall  mean  noth- 
ing at  all,  and  which  may  be  put  in 
anywhere.  Thus,  if  c,  e,  f,  j,  and  1 
were  such,  the  first  three  words 
of  the  sentence  given  above  might 
stand  Cjzowe7dlbfjne.  The  reader 
who  has  the  key  simply  strikes  out 
the  signs  which  mean  nothing,  or 
disregards  them  in  reading. 

Another  kind  of  secret  writing  is 
that  in  which  every  letter  is  repre- 
sented by  a  single  character,  but  not 
always  by  the  same  one.  There  are 
many  ways  of  effecting  this.  For 
instance,  under  the  letters  of  the  al- 
phabet may  be  written  three  or  more 
different  rows  of  characters.  The 
first  time  a  letter  occurs,  it  is  repre- 
sented by  the  corresponding  charac- 
ter in  the  first  row,  the  second  time 
by  the  one  in  the  second  row,  the 
third  time  by  that  in  the  third  row, 
the  fourth  time  by  the  one  in  the  first 
row  again,  and  so  on.  The  charac- 
ters in  the  three  rows  must  be  all 
different,  else  even  the  reader  who 
has  the  key  may  be  confused.  An- 
other way  is  to  form  an  alphabet 
square  like  that  below. 


abcdefghijklmnopq  rstuvwxyz 
bcdefghijklmno  pq  rstuvwxyza 
cde  f  g  h  i  jklmn  o  pqr  s  tuvwx  y  z  ab 
defghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 
eftrhijklmnopq  rstuvwxyz  a 
f  fa  i  j  k  Imnopq  r  s  t  uvwxyz 


bc 

abed 
b   c   dc 


M 

ghi  j  klmnopqr  s  t  uvwxyza  b  c  d  ef 
hi  j  k  Imnopqrs  tuvwxyzab  c  d  c  fg 
ijklmnopqrstuvwxyzabcde  f  p  h 
jk Imnopqrstuvwxyz abed  e  fghi 
klmnopqrstuvwxyzabcde  f 
Imnopqrstuvwxyz  abcdefg 
mnopqrstuvwxyzabcdefi 
n  o  p  q 
opq  r 
PQ 


bed 
bed 


f 

K  h   i  J 

h  i   i  k 

i  i  k  i 

j  k  1  m 


f 
e  f  g  K 

f  gh  i 

E  i  f  i  i 

hijklmnopq 
k   1  m  n  o 


i    j    k    1  m  n 
j    k    I   m  n   d' 

k  1  at  no  p 


s  tuvwxyz 
s  t  uvwxyza 
t  uvwxyzabcd  e 
stuvwxyzabcdef 
r  s  t  uvwxyzabcd  e  f  g 
stuvwxyzabcdef  gh  i  j  k  Imnopq 
tuvwxyz  abcdefgh  i  j  k  Imnopq  rs 
uvwxyz  abcdefg  Ti  i  j  k  lmnop<irst 
vwxyzabcdefghi  j  it  1  mnopqrs  tu 
wxyzabcdefghiiklmnopqrstuv 
xyzabc  d  efghii  klmn  opqrs  tu  vw 
yzabcde  fgh  iJK  imno  pqrst  uvwx 
zabcde  fghijklmno 


stu  vwxy 


SECRET   WRITING 


SECRET    WRITING 


A  word  is  then  agreed  on  by  the 
correspondents  as  "  key-word." 
Let  us  suppose  it  to  be  "  Cyclopae- 
dia." When  a  sentence  is  to  be 
written,  the  key-word  is  first  writ- 
ten under  it.  Thus : 
I  hope  to  see  you  on  Monday  next, 
c  yc  1  o  pa  edi  acy  c  1  o  paedi  acyc. 

To  find  the  letter  representing  any 
given  letter  in  the  sentence,  begin 
at  that  letter  on  the  left  of  the  al- 
phabet square,  and  follow  a  horizon- 
tal line  till  you  come  immediately 
below  the  corresponding  letter  of  the 
key-word.  Thus,  the  first  letter  in 
the  sentence  is  "  I,"  the  correspond- 
ing one  of  the  key-word  is  "  c." 
The  letter  in  the  same  line  with  "  I," 
which  has  "  c  "  at  the  top  of  its  col- 
umn, is  found  to  be  "k."  In  the 
same  way,  beginning  at  "  h  "  and 
running  along  the  line  until  we  are 
under  "y,"  we  find  "f"  for  the  second 
letter.  The  sentence  reads  thus 
when  completed: 
K  fqas  io  whm  yqs  qy  adnhdg  ngvv. 

To  translate  it,  the  one  who  re- 
ceives it  writes  the  key-word  above 
it,  and  then,  beginning  at  the  left  of 
the  square  with  each  key-word 
letter,  follows  the  line  till  he  comes 
to  the  letter  just  under  it  in  the 
cypher.  The  letter  at  the  top  of 
the  column  will  be  the  one  he 
wants.  Evidently  this  kind  of 
secret  writing  cannot  be  translated 
without  the  key- word ;  but  when 
that  is  once  obtained,  the  task  is 
easy.  If  the  sentence  is  separated 
into  words,  some  of  them  may 
often  be  guessed,  after  several 
trials,  and  the  key-word  found  out 
by  the  alphabet  square.  To  avoid 
this,  the  correspondents  may  run 
their  words  together,  or  use  a  long 
sentence  as  a  key- word — a  proverb 
or  quotation,  for  instance.  Many 
Other  ways  of  making  different 
characters  represent  the  same  letter 
at  different  times  may  be  devised 
with  a  little  ingenuity. 

Another  kind  of  secret  writing  is 
that  in  which  each  word  is  repre- 
sented by  a  separate  character,  or 


by  another  word.  If  each  word  is 
to  have  its  own  character,  as  in  the 
Chinese  language,  then  each  corre- 
spondent must  have  for  his  key  a 
list  of  the  words  likely  to  be  used, 
and  the  character  belonging  to 
each.  This  is  awkward,  and  is  sel- 
dom done.  An  easier  way  is  to 
select  some  dictionary  or  vocabulary 
in  which  words  are  arranged  alpha- 
betically, and  agree  that  each  word 
shall  be  represented  by  the  word  in 
the  same  position  a  certain  number 
of  pages  ahead.  This  method  was 
used  in  the  famous  political  "cy- 
pher dispatches"  in  1876.  For  in- 
stance, suppose  Webster's  Diction- 
ary (edition  of  1890)  be  selected,  and 
it  be  agreed  that  every  word  shall  be 
represented  by  the  one  three  pages 
farther  on.  Then  "  day,"  which  is 
the  second  word  on  page  336,  is  rep- 
resented by  "  debit,"  the  second 
word  on  page  339,  and  so  on.  An- 
other way  is  to  select  a  book,  and 
refer  to  a  word  by  giving  its  page 
and  number.  Thus,  153-87  might 
mean  the  87th  word  on  the  i53d 
page.  Of  course  pages  should  be 
chosen  in  which  the  desired  word 
comes  near  the  top,  to  save  count- 
ing. It  may  be  agreed  that  when  a 
line  is  drawn  beneath  the  number, 
the  counting  is  to  be  done  from  the 
bottom. 

But  the  most  secret  kind  of  writ- 
ing is  that  in  which  the  very  fact 
that  there  is  any  secret  message  at 
all  is  concealed.  Any  one  who  sees 
a  letter  written  in  one  of  the  ways 
described  above,  knows  at  once  that 
there  is  something  to  be  concealed, 
and  the  object  is  sometimes  to  hide 
even  that  fact.  This  is  usually  done 
by  writing  what  appears  to  be  an 
ordinary  letter  in  such  a  way  that 
certain  words,  taken  in  order,  form 
the  secret  message.  For  instance, 
it  may  be  agreed  that  every  seventh 
word  in  the  letter  shall  makeup  the 
message.  Suppose  it  is  wished  to 
send  the  message,  "Our  plan  has 
failed."  Some  such  letter  as  the 
following  may  be  written.  "  Dear 


SEEGA 


616 


Fred  :  Will  you  come  to  our  house 
on  Tuesday,  the  3oth  ?  Our  plan  is 
to  have  a  little  picnic.  Has  John 
been  in  town  lately?  He  failed  to 
put  in  an  appearance  yesterday." 
The  seventh  words  of  this  note,  as 
will  be  seen  by  counting,  make  up 
the  desired  message.  Another  way 
to  mark  the  words  forming  the  mes- 
sage, is  for  each  of  the  correspond- 
ents to  have  a  sheet  of  blank  paper 
with  holes  cut  in  various  places,  the 
holes  in  the  two  sheets  matching 
exactly.  The  writer  places  his 
sheet  over  the  paper  on  which  he 
wishes  to  write,  and  writes  the 
words  of  his  message  through  the 
holes.  Then  he  removes  the  sheet 
and  fills  up  the  spaces  with  other 
words,  so  as  to  make  the  whole  read 
like  an  ordinary  letter.  The  one 
who  receives  it  places  his  sheet  of 
paper  over  it,  and  reads  the  message 
at  once  through  the  holes.  Both 
these  methods  require  some  skill. 
An  easier  way  is  to  mark  the  words 
of  the  message  by  writing  them  in  a 
slightly  different  hand,  or  by  placing 
a  minute  dot,  or  other  sign,  under 
each ;  but  this,  unless  done  very 
skilfully,  is  apt  to  betray  the  secret. 

Still  another  kind  of  secret  writ- 
ing is  that  which  is  done,  wholly  or 
in  part,  with  "sympathetic  ink." 
This  is  some  fluid  which  is  invisible 
when  first  put  on  the  paper,  but  is 
brought  out  by  heating  or  applying 
some  chemical.  The  whole  letter 
may  be  written  in  the  ink,  or  it  may 
be  used  simply  to  mark  words  in 
what  appears  to  be  an  ordinary 
letter. 

If  the  letter  be  written  with  water 
in  which  chloride  of  cobalt  has  been 
dissolved,  the  writing  will  be  invisi- 
ble till  it  is  heated.  If  it  be  writ- 
ten with  a  weak  solution  of  boiled 
starch,  it  will  appear  blue  when 
brushed  over  with  iodine.  Words 
written  with  copperas  dissolved  in 
water  appear  brilliant  blue  when 
the  paper  is  dipped  in  a  solution  of 
prussiate  of  potash. 

SEEGA,  a  game  played  by  two 


persons  on  a  checker-board  of 
twenty-five  squares  (five  on  each 
side),  with  twenty-four  men  of  two 
colors,  generally  black  and  white. 
An  ordinary  checker-board  and  men 
will  do  if  the  board  be  reduced  in 
size  by  strips  of  paper.  It  is  played 
alternately  and  consists  of  two  parts 
— placing  the  men  and  moving 
them.  The  player  having  first 
move  places  two  of  his  men 
wherever  on  the  board  he  chooses, 
either  on  adjoining  or  far  separated 
squares.  The  second  player  lays 
down  two  men  in  like  manner,  and 
this  is  continued  alternately  until 
all  the  men  have  been  placed  on 
the  board,  care  being  taken  by  both 
players  to  leave  the  centre  square 
unoccupied. 

When  the  men  are  thus  placed, 
the  first  player  moves  one  of  his 
men  backwards,  forwards,  or  side- 
ways, but  never  diagonally.  Evi- 
dently the  first  move  must  be  into 
the  middle  or  vacant  square.  Each 
player  tries  to  move  so  as  to  catch 
one  of  his  adversary's  men  between 
two  of  his  own  in  horizontal  or  in 
perpendicular  lines,  not  in  a  diago- 
nal. A  man  so  caught  is  removed 
from  the  board.  If,  however,  in 
moving,  one  player  moves  one  of 
his  own  men  between  two  of  his 
opponents,  he  suffers  no  loss ;  a 
capture  must  be  forced  by  the  op- 
ponent. If  the  player  who  has  cap- 
tured one  of  his  adversary's  men 
can  put  a  second  or  a  third  in  danger 
by  moving  his  own  again,  he  has 
the  right  to  do  so ;  but  this  move 
must  be  made  before  he  has  laid 
down  the  captured  man. 

If  one  player  becomes  blocked 
and  unable  to  move,  the  other 
either  continues  moving  until  he 
opens  a  way  for  the  first,  or  he  has 
to  remove  one  of  his  own  men  from 
the  board,  selecting  one  that  per- 
mits the  first  player  to  move.  The 
game  is  continued  until  one  or  the 
other  player  has  lost  all  but  one  of 
his  men. 

The  method  of  placing  the  men 


SEEGA 


617 


SEE-SAW 


and  the  various  moves  will  be  easily 
learned  from  the  following  illustra- 
tive game,  the  diagram  showing 
the  men  as  placed  before  moving  : 


• 

• 

o 

o 

o 

• 

o 

0 

• 

o 

o 

o 

• 

• 

o 

o 

• 

• 

0 

0 

0 

• 

• 

• 

B 


D 


Setting  the  Men. 
White  (Mr.  W.).          Black  (Dr.  B.). 

1  i  C  and  2  C         3  D  and  3  E 

2  3  A  and  36        4  C  and  5  C 
326  and  46         2  D  and  4  D 

4  2  E  and  4  E         I  B  and  5  D 

5  i  D  and  58        2  A  and  4  A 

6  5  A  and  i  E        I  A  and  5  E 

Moves. 

7  2Cto3C      2Dto2Cx2B 

and  3  C 

8  361030       2Ato2B 

X   2  C 

9  3Ato2A      2Bto3Bx3E 

and  to  3  A  x  2 
A 

10  i  C  to  2  C      i  B  to  i  C 

11  2Cto2B      i  A  to  i  B 

12  2Bto2C      3Dto3Cx2C 

13  2Eto2D      30  to  3D 

14  iEto2E      3Dto^Ex4E 
X3E 


and  3  C  to  4  C 

X4B 
i  C  tc  i  D 
5  C  to  5  B 


15  2Dto2C 

16  i  D  to  i  E 

17  5  B  to  4  B 

18  46  to  36      4Cto3Cx3B 

19  2Eto2D      4Dto3Dx2D 

20  iEto2E       iDtoiEx2E 

And  Black  wins 


History.  Seega  is  an  Egyptian 
game,  probably  of  great  antiquity. 
It  is  played  much  by  the  peasantry 
in  Egypt  and  by  the  Bedouins  in 
the  desert,  generally  with  black  and 
white  pebbles  in  holes  made  in  the 
ground.  The  common  game  is 
with  twenty-five  holes  or  squares, 
like  that  described,  but  it  is  some- 
times played  with  forty-nine  squares 
and  forty  eight  men,  or  with  eighty- 
one  squares  and  eighty  men,  though 
the  latter  makes  it  of  tedious  length. 
The  holes  or  squares  in  the  seega 
or  board  are  called  by  the  Egypt- 
ians oyoon  (eyes),  and  the  men  kelb 
(dogs).  Lane,  in  his  "  Modern 
Egyptians "  (3d  ed.,  1842),  says : 
"  Several  Seegas  have  been  cut  upon 
the  stones  on  the  summit  of  the 
great  pyramid,  by  Arabs  who  have 
served  as  guides  to  travellers." 
Dr.  H.  Carrington  Bolton,  of  New 
York,  to  whom  we  are  indebted 
for  an  account  of  the  game,  saw  it 
played  by  Bedouins  in  the  desert 
of  Mt.  Sinai  with  pebbles  in  the 
sand.  The  game  given  herewith 
was  actually  played  by  him  with  a 
friend  on  a  Peninsula  and  Oriental 
steamer. 

SEE-SAW,  a  board  balanced  at 
its  middle  over  a  block  of  wood  or  a 
fence  rail.  A  person  sits  on  each 
end,  and  the  two,  by  pushing  with 
their  feet  against  the  ground,  make 
the  ends  move  up  and  down  alter- 
nately. The  board  should  be  as 
long  as  possible  without  bending, 
and  the  point  on  which  it  is  bal- 
anced should  be  so  high  that  the 
feet  of  the  person  on  one  end  are 
well  off  the  ground  when  those  of 
the  one  on  the  other  end  are  touch- 
ing it.  Sometimes  a  third  person, 
called  the  "  Candlestick,"  stands  in 
the  middle  and  aids  the  motion 
first  with  one  foot  and  then  with 
the  other. 

When  those  who  ride  on  the  see- 
saw are  equal  in  weight,  the  plank 
must  be  balanced  exactly  in  the 
middle,  but  otherwise  it  must  rest 


SENSITIVE   FLAMES 


618 


SENSITIVE   FLAMES 


Ancient  See-Saw. 


on  a  pivot  nearer  the  heavier  per- 
son. The  light  rider,  therefore,  has 
a  longer  ride,  and  moves  faster  than 
the  other. 

See-sawing  is  a  very  old  amuse- 
ment. An  ancient  French  see- 
saw, called  Bascule  Double  (Double 
Swing-down)  is  shown  on  the  fol- 
lowing page.  The  boards  swing  on 
pivots  A  A  in  a  standard  E,  and 
move  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 
B  is  a  cushion,  C  is  a  back  for  the 
rider  to  lean  against,  and  D  a  handle 
for  him  to  hold  on  by. 

SENSITIVE  FLAMES,  Experiments 
witta  Nail  a  block  of  wood.  A,  to  a 
block,  D,  as  shown  intlieillustration, 
and  fasten  at  the  top  of  A  a  wire, 
B,  with  a  ring  five  inches  in  diame- 
ter at  one  end.  Lay  a  piece  of  wire 
gauze,  C,  over  the  ring.  Make  a 
glass  jet,  E  (see  CHEMICAL  EXPERI- 
MENTS), of  tubing  about  quarter  of 
an  inch  in  outside  diameter,  the 
diameter  at  the  opening  being  about 
three  quarters  of  this.  Bend  it  at 
right  angles,  and  stick  it  with  wax 
on  the  block  E  with  its  tip  about 
two  inches  under  the  gauze.  Con- 
nect the  jet  with  a  gas  burner  by 
rubber  tubing,  and  light  the  gas 
above  the  gauze,  where  itshouldburn 
in  a  thin  conical  flame  about  four 
inches  long.  This  flame  is  so  sen- 
sitive to  noises,  that  at  the  sound  of 


a  hiss,  a  whistle,  a  jingling,  or  the 
clapping  of  the  hands,  it  shrinks  at 
once  to  a  small  blue  flame. 


Sensitive  Flame. 


2.  Cover  the  flame  with  a  tube,  T, 
from  seven  inches  to  two  feet  long, 
and  from  three-quarters  of  an  inch 
to  one  and  a  half  inches  in  diam- 
eter. The  best  size  is  about  one  foot 
long  by  one  and  one-fourth  inches  in 
diameter.  The  tube  rests  lightly  on 
the  gauze.  The  flame  is  now  still 
moresensitive  to  high,  sharp  sounds. 


SETTO 


619 


SHADOW   PICTURES 


If  the  gauze  and  tube  be  raised 
slowly,  the  flame  shortensand  finally 
begins  to  "  sing  "  loudly.  The  gauze 
should  now  be  lowered  till  the  sing- 
ing just  ceases,  when  the  flame  be- 
comes very  sensitive,  beginning  to 
sing  at  the  slightest  sharp  sound, 
but  ceasing  when  the  sound  stops. 
The  responses  are  so  quick  that 
when,  for  instance,  the  word  "  sen- 
sitive "  is  pronounced,  the  flame 
sings  twice,  once  for  each  S. 

SETTO.     See  SYNTHESIS. 

SEVENS  AND  EIGHTS,  or  DOM- 
INO WHIST,  a  game  of  CARDS  played 
by  any  number  of  persons  with  a 
full  pack.  The  scoring  is  done  with 
counters,  any  number  of  which  are 
distributed  equally  among  the  play- 
ers at  the  beginning  of  the  game. 
The  whole  pack  of  cards  is  dealt, 
one  at  a  time,  and  th'en  each  plays 
in  turn,  beginning  with  the  eldest 
hand.  The  object  of  the  players  is 
to  place  the  Sevens  and  Eights  in 
two  rows  on  the  table,  and  then  all 
the  other  cards  in  order,  by  suits. 
Thus,  opposite  the  Sevens  of  Hearts 
mrst  be  placed  in  order  the  Six, 
Fhe,  Four,  Three,  Two,  and  Ace  of 
Hearts;  and  opposite  the  Eight,  the 
Nine,  Ten,  Knave,  Queen,  and  King 
of  the  same  suit.  No  card  can  be 
put  down  out  of  its  regular  order 
except  Sevens  and  Eights,  which 
can  be  played  at  any  time.  Only 
one  card  is  played  at  a  time.  Each 
one  must  play  if  he  can,  and  if  he 
cannot,  he  must  place  a  counter  in 
the  middle  of  the  table  to  form 
part  of  the  Pool.  He  who  first  gets 
rid  of  his  cards  takes  the  Pool  and 
in  addition  each  of  the  other  play 
ers  gives  the  winner  a  counter  for 
every  card  left  in  his  hand. 

Of  course  the  first  card  played 
will  be  a  Seven  or  an  Eight,  and  the 
opportunity  for  playing  will  gener- 
ally be  greater  as  the  game  goes 
on.  A  good  player  often  holds 
back  a  Seven  or  Eight  as  long  as 
possible,  thus  preventing  others 
from  playing,  increasing  the  pool, 
and  enabling  him  to  get  rid  of  his 


cards  before  them.  If  there  is  not 
room  enough  on  the  table  for  the 
whole  pack  to  be  spread  out,  the 
other  cards  may  be  piled  on  the 
Sevens  and  Eights. 

The  game  is  sometimes  called 
Domino  Whist  because  the  cards 
are  matched  on  the  table  somewhat 
as  in  DOMINOES,  but  it  does  not  at 
all  resemble  WHIST. 

SEVEN  UP.     See  ALL  FOURS. 

SHADOW  PICTURES,  shadows 
thrown  on  a  wall  or  screen  so  as  to 
form  pictures  in  various  ways.  The 
most  common  shadow  pictures  are 
made  by  holding  the  two  hands  so 
that  their  shadows  will  resemble 
some  animal  or  bird.  To  make 
such  pictures  well  requires  consider- 
able skill.  The  position  of  the 
hands  in  making  several  of  them 
is  shown  in  the  full-page  illustra- 
tions. 

Another  kind  of  shadow  pictures 
is  made  by  cutting  out  figures  from 
sheets  of  paper  and  throwing  their 
shadows  on  a  sheet  hung  in  a  door- 
way, the  spectators  sitting  on  the 
opposite  side.  The  best  size  for  the 
pictures  is  about  three  feet  long  by 
two  feet  high.  They  may  be  made 
by  cutting  out  parts  of  any  large 
woodcut  like  those  in  the  illus- 
trated papers,  but  care  must  be 
taken  that  the  figures  selected  are 
in  profile,  so  that  their  shadows  will 
look  well.  If  the  exhibitor  has  any 
skill  at  all  in  drawing,  a  better  way 
is  to  make  pictures  especially  for 
the  purpose.  They  may  be  drawn 
on  an  ordinary  newspaper,  and  no 
matter  how  crude  they  are,  they 
usually  look  well  in  shadow.  All 
the  pictures  are  made  on  paper  of 
the  same  size,  and  then  the  sheet  in 
the  doorway  is  covered  with  papers 
pinned  to  it,  all  but  a  space  in  the 
middle  just  large  enough  to  show 
the  pictures,  which  will  then  appear 
in  brilliant  white  on  a  dark  back- 
ground. There  should  be  two  ex. 
hibitors,  each  of  whom  holds  a  cor- 
ner of  the  picture  so  that  it  hangs 
close  against  the  sheet.  If  there  is 


SHADOW   PICTURES 


620 


SHADOW   PICTURES 


i.  Old  Man  ;  2.  Elephant ;  3.  Doe ;  4.  Rabbit ;  5.  Horse  ;  6.  Negro ;  7.  Bear  ; 

8.  Walrus. 


SHADOW  PICTURES 


621 


SHADOW  PICTURES 


9,  Chamois;  10.  Hound  ;  u.  Wolf;  12.  Goat ;  13.  Squirrel ;  14.  Bird  Flying; 
15.  Mastiff ;  16.  Mephistopheles. 


SHADOW    PICTURES 


622 


SHADOW    PICTURES 


only  one  exhibitor,  the  pictures 
must  be  fastened  to  sticks,  one  end 
of  which  he  holds ;  otherwise  he 
would  be  obliged  to  stand  between 
the  lamp  and  the  picture.  The 
pictures  must  be  so  drawn  that  no 
part  that  is  to  be  cut  out  completely 
surrounds  a  dark  part,  otherwise 
the  latter  will  have  no  support.  If 
necessary,  however,  such  a  part  may 
be  fastened  by  pasting  very  narrow 
strips  of  paper  from  it  to  other 
parts  of  the  picture.  The  shadows 
of  the  strips  will  not  show  at  a 


little  distance.  After  practice,  these 
pictures  can  be  made  very  rapidly; 
and  as  a  lamp  and  a  sheet  are  the 
only  apparatus  necessary  to  show 
them,  an  exhibition  can  be  prepared 
at  an  hour's  notice.  Some  of  the 
figures  may  be  cut  out  of  separate 
slips  of  paper,  and  arranged  so  that 
they  may  be  moved  about,  which 
will  add  to  the  amusement. 

Shadow  pictures  may  also  be  cut 
out  of  paper  so  as  to  show  as  dark 
figures  on  a  white  ground,  like  sil- 
houettes. Sometimes  they  are  so 


Shadow  Pictures  Cut  from  Papers. 


ingeniously  made  that  it  is  difficult 
to  tell  what  they -represent  till  the 
shadow  is  thrown  on  the  wall.  In 
the  illustration,  Fig.  I  shows  how 
the  paper  is  cut.  Fig.  2  is  a  sharp 
shadow  thrown  by  it,  and  Fig.  3  a 
blurred  shadow.  The  last  gives  the 
proper  effect. 

Portraits  may  be  made  for  exhibi- 
tion by  throwing  the  sitter's  shadow 
in  profile  on  a  sheet  of  paper  pinned 
against  the  wall.  The  outline  of 
the  shadow  is  traced  with  a  pencil 
and  then  cut  with  scissors.  The 
portrait  will  be  light  on  a  dark 
ground  or  dark  on  a  light  ground, 
according  as  the  outside  or  inside  of 
the  paper  is  used  to  cast  the  shadow. 
Such  portraits  may  be  preserved  by 
pasting  them  on  black  paper,  and 
they  may  then  be  framed  or  kept  in 
a  portfolio.  Care  should  be  taken 
in  tracing  the  outline  that  the 
sitter  remains  perfectly  still,  and  in 


cutting  it  out  that  the  scissors  fol- 


Drawing  a  Silhouette, 
low  the  line  exactly.     A  very  small 
deviation  alters  the  expression. 


SHADOW    PICTURES 


623 


SHADOW   PICTURES 


Magic  Dancci  A  second  curtain, 
called  the  magic  curtain,  is  stretched 
about  two  feet  behind  the  white 
sheet  on  which  the  figures  are  to  be 


thrown.  This  magic  curtain  must 
be  perfectly  opaque,  being  made  of 
thick  black  cloth,  or  of  canvas 
painted  black.  In  it  are  several 


holes  which  vary  in  size  according 
to  the  size  of  the  figures  to  be  ex- 
hibited, and  are  arranged  as  the 
figures  are  to  be  grouped.  The  lat- 
ter may  be  cut  out  of  paper  which 
is  pinned  over  the  holes,  or  they 


may  be  painted  in  colors  on  glass 
like  a  magic  lantern  slide.  If  now 
the  exhibitor  stand  behind  the 
magic  curtain  with  a  lighted  taper, 
such  as  are  used  for  Christmas  trees, 
an  image  of  each  figure  will  be 


SHADOW   PICTURES 


624 


SHADOW   PLAYS 


thrown  on  the  screen  in  front.  If 
he  hold  a  taper  in  each  hand,  two 
images  of  each  figure  will  appear, 
and  if  he  move  the  tapers  from  side 
to  side,  or  in  curves,  the  figures 
will  appear  to  move  about  in  like 
manner.  By  multiplying  the  num- 
ber of  tapers,  the  figures  can  be 
made  to  perform  the  most  compli- 
cated kind  of  dance.  The  other 
tapers  should  be  held  by  persons 
whose  movements  are  controlled  by 
the  exhibitor  by  means  of  signals 
previously  agreed  on.  One  may  hold 
several  tapers  by  fixing  them  on 
cross-pieces  nailed  on  a  stick,  but 
the  images  cast  by  those  tapers  will, 
of  course,  always  preserve  the  same 
distance  from  each  other.  The 
effect  is  heightened  if  any  of  the 
figures  can  be  made  to  disappear  at 
will,  as  will  be  the  case  if  the  holes 
can  be  stopped  up.  The  best  plan 
is  to  stretch  the  magic  curtain  in  a 
doorway  and  nail  across  it  thin 
battens,  one  just. above  each  hole. 
Pasteboard  flaps  are  then  sewed  to 
the  curtain  under  each  hole,  and 
when  shut  over  the  holes  are  fast- 
ened to  the  batten  by  a  wooden  but- 
ton; or,  cloth  flaps  may  simply  be 
pinned  over  the  holes  by  an  assist- 
ant. The  following  is  an  example 
of  what  may  be  done  with  this 
arrangement.  Suppose  that  there 
are  four  holes  at  the  corners  of  a 
square,  and  that  the  figures  in  them 
represent  old  women  in  various 
attitudes.  It  is  well  to  have  some 
of  the  figures  so  drawn  that  they 
may  be  made  to  move  either  way 
without  seeming  to  go  backward. 
The  holes  are  all  stopped  at  first,  so 
that  the  screen  is  dark.  One  of  the 
flaps  is  removed,  a  taper  is  lighted, 
and  an  old  witch  starts  out  on  the 
curtain.  By  moving  the  taper  she 
is  made  to  run  back  and  forth,  and 
leap  into  the  air.  The  operator 
must  remember  that  the  figure 
always  moves  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion from  the  taper,  so  that  to  make 
it  leap  up  he  must  move  the  taper 
down.  A  second  taper  is  now 


lighted  and  another  similar  figure 
appears.  The  two  run  forward  and 
backward,  and  leap  over  and  under 
each  other,  finally  running  together 
and  melting  into  one.  Another  flap 
islet  down  and  a  different  oldwoman 
appears.  Thus  by  lighting  and  ex- 
tinguishing the  tapers  and  stopping 
and  unstopping  the  holes,  one  by 
one,  the  figures  can  be  made  to  ap- 
pear, disappear,  and  dance  about  in 
the  greatest  confusion.  In  order 
that  one  figure  may  not  interfere 
with  another,  the  operator  should 
practise  his  movements  first,  while 
some  one  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  screen  tells  him  of  the  effect. 
This  is  necessary,  since  he  cannot 
I  himself  see  the  screen  on  which  the 
pictures  are  thrown. 

SHADOW  PLAYS,  plays,  in  which 
not  the  actors,  but  their  shadows,  are 
seen  by  the  audience.  They  may 
be  spoken  plays  or  pantomime.  In 
any  case,  a  large  sheet  is  hung  in 
a  doorway,  on  one  side  of  which  the 
audience  sit,  while  the  actors  per- 
form on  the  other,  their  shadows 
being  cast  on  the  sheet  by  a  single 
lamp,  which  should  be  as  bright 
as  possible.  With  more  than  one 
lamp,  double  or  triple  shadows  would 
be  cast.  Some  skill  is  required  al- 
ways so  to  act  that  the  shadows  will 
show  the  action  distinctly.  Profiles 
should  be  shown  on  the  sheet  as 
much  as  possible.  Where  the 
shadow-play  is  given  in  a  hall,  the 
shadows  are  thrown  on  a  curtain  of 
white  muslin,  which  must  be  made 
with  tightly-sewed  seams.  The 
shadows  can  be  made  more  distinct 
by  wetting  the  sheet  or  curtain  just 
before  the  performance,  which  may 
be  done  with  a  sponge.  Some  of 
the  most  striking  effects  in  a 
shadow-play  are  produced  by  a  per- 
former's stepping  over  or  under  the 
lamp.  In  the  first  case  he  appears 
to  the  spectators  to  jump  up  through 
the  ceiling,  and  in  the  second  to 
sink  through  the  floor.  In  those 
parts  of  the  play  where  any  one  is 
to  step  over  the  lamp,  it  should  be 


SHADOW  PLAYS 


625 


SHADOW   PLAYS 


placed  on  the  floor  about  six  feet 
from  the  curtain.  Directly  behind 
it  should  be  placed  a  wooden  box  a 
little  higher  than  the  lamp,  on  which 
the  actor  can  step.  This  box  serves 
also  to  protect  the  lamp  from  being 
overturned.  When  a  player  is  to  go 
under  the  lamp,  it  is  slowly  raised 
by  an  attendant,  who  takes  good 
care  to  stand  so  that  his  shadow 
will  not  fall  on  the  screen.  At 
other  times,  the  lamp  should  stand 
on  a  low  table  about  ten  feet  from 
the  curtain.  Some  person  should 
be  given  special  charge  of  it,  and 
should  rehearse  the  pantomime  with 
the  performers,  so  that  he  will  know 
exactly  when  to  move  the  lamp. 
The  position  of  the  light  must  be 
changed  very  gradually  in  all  cases. 


The  performers  should  stand  as 
close  as  possible  to  the  curtain,  as 
the  shadows  will. then  be  nearly  of 
the  natural  size,  and  moving  the 
lamp  has  less  effect  on  them.  The 
arms  must  be  held  at  equal  distances 
from  the  light,  otheiwise  one  will 
appear  larger  than  the  other.  Step- 
ping over  the  lamp  should  be  done 
quickly  and  with  a  single  movement. 

All  small  "properties"  are  made 
of  pasteboard,  and  when  signs  are 
needed  they  are  cut  out  so  that  the 
letters  appear  in  white  on  a  dark 
ground.  Sawdust  or  oatmeal  is  the 
best  representative  of  water  or 
blood.  As  any  two  objects  in  line 
with  the  lamp  throw  shadows  in  the 
same  place,  many  comical  effects' 
may  be  produced.  For  instance, 


Shadow  Plays. — Fig.  i. 


the  shadow  of  a  pasteboard  house 
may  be  thrown  on  the  curtain,  and 
a  man  rising  slowly  behind  it  may 
appear  to  come  out  of  the  chimney 
(Fig.  i).  Or,  in  the  same  way,  a 
man  may  be  shown  leaping  into  a 
crocodile's  mouth,  as  in  Fig.  2.  As 
many  of  these  ridiculous  effects  as 


possible  should  be  introduced  in 
the  play.  The  chief  advantage  of  a 
shadow  pantomime  is  that  these 
effects  are  very  easily  arranged, 
whereas  in  an  ordinary  pantomime 
they  require  the  aid  of  apparatus 
which  is  difficult  to  make  and  often 
expensive. 


SHEEPFOLD 


626 


SHOOTING 


Shadow  Plays. — Fig.  2. 


SHEEPFOLD,  THE,  agame played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  two  of 
whom  are  chosen  as  "Wolf  "and 
"Lamb,"  while  the  others  join  hands 
in  a  circle,  to  form  the  "  Sheepfold," 
inside  of  which  is  the  Lamb.  The 
Wolf  endeavors  to  break  through 
the  joined  hands  so  as  to  reach  the 
Lamb,  but  if  he  does  so,  the  Sheep- 
fold  opens  on  the  opposite  side,  let- 
ting the  Lamb  out,  and  closing  in 
time  to  imprison  the  Wolf.  The 
latter  now  tries,  in  the  same  man- 
ner, to  get  out,  and  if  he  does  so  the 
Lamb  is  admitted  again.  If  the 
Wolf  succeeds  in  catching  the  Lamb, 
the  two  players  between  whom  he 
broke  through  the  sheepfold  last 
become  Wolf  and  Lamb  in  their 
turn. 

SHOUTING  PROVERBS.  See 
PROVERBS. 

SHOEMAKER'S  WAX,  Experi- 
ment with.  Place  a  cake  of  shoe- 
maker's wax  on  three  or  four  small 
corks.  On  the  cake  put  several 
leaden  bullets.  Leave  the  wax 
alone,  and  in  the  course  of  several 


weeks  the  corks  will  work  through 
the  wax  to  the  top,  while  the 
bullets  will  go  to  the  bottom. 
The  reason  is  that  shoemaker's 
wax,  although  very  tough,  has 
some  of  the  qualities  of  a  liquid. 
Hence  the  light  corks  rise  to  the 
top  and  the  heavy  bullets  fall  to  the 
bottom,  just  as  they  would  in  water, 
if  thev  are  only  given  time  enough. 
SHOOTING,  the  firearms  gener- 
ally used  for  sport  are  the  shot- 
gun, the  rifle,  and  the  pistol.  For. 
the  general  description  and  history 
of  guns,  see  C.  C.  T,  under  Rifle. 
The  rifle  and  pistol  are  used  for  tar- 
get shooting.  In  the  field  the  rifle 
is  best  adapted  to  furred  game — 
squirrels,  deer,  etc.;  and  the  shot- 
gun to  bird  shooting.  Shotguns  are 
single-barrelled  or  double-barrelled. 
The  single  is  cheaper  and  lighter; 
the  double  h;is  the  advantage  of 
giving  a  quick  second  shot.  In  a 
muzzle-loader  the  charge  is  inserted 
in  the  barrel  at  the  muzzle  and 
pushed  in  with  a  ramrod ;  in  a 
breech-loader  it  is  inserted  into 


SHOOTING 


627 


SHOOTING 


the  chamber  at  the  breech,  the 
gun  being  opened  or  "broken"  for 
the  purpose.  Muzzle  loaders  are 
now  almost  entirely  superseded  by 
modern  breech-loaders ;  the  former 
cost  less,  but  the  latter  are  more 
convenient  to  handle,  more  safely 
and  more  rapidly  leaded,  and  de- 
cidedly more  effective  in  their 
work.  With  a  breech-loading  shot- 
gun the  sportsman  need  never  turn 
the  muzzle  of  his  gun  toward  him- 
self. The  charge  in  a  gun  consists 
of  powder,  shot,  and  wads,  which  in 
a  breech-loader  are  contained  in  a 
metal  or  paper  case  called  a  shell, 
having  in  its  base  a  cap  or  primer  of 
percussion  powder  which  explodes 


Fig.  i.     Fig.  2. 


Fig.  4. 


when  struck  by  the  hammer  of  the 
gun. 

The  "action"  of  guns,  both  that 
by  which  they  are  opened  or 
"  broken  "  to  put  in  the  cartridges, 
and  that  by  which  they  are  fired, 
usually  differs  with  the  maker. 
Most  guns  must  be  cocked,  before 
shooting,  that  is,  the  hammer  must 
be  pulled  back  ready  to  fall  on  the 
cap;  but  hammerlessguns are  made 
which  are  cocked  by  opening  the 
gun  to  insert  the  cartridge,  and 
which  cannot  be  set  off  accidentally 
by  dropping  them  on  the  hammer, 
as  the  others  can. 

Cartridges  already  loaded  may  be 
obtained  at  gun-shops,  or  shells  may 

Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7- 


Fig.  9. 


Figs.  1-3.  Swabbers. 
Fig.  7.  Recapper. 


Fig.  8. 
Reloading  Tools. 

Fig.  4.  Decapper.      Fig.  5.  Cartridge-holder.      Fig.  6.  Charger 
Fig.  8.  Cartridge-extractor.         Fig.  9.  Charge-measurer. 


be  bought  and  loaded  at  home. 
Metal  shells  may  be  reloaded  as 
often  as  desired  ;  but  paper  shells 
are  commonly  used  only  once. 
The  tools  for  reloading  are  a  de- 
capper,  for  removing  the  old  cap, 
a  recapper  for  putting  in  a  new 
one,  a  funnel  for  pouring  in  the 
powder  and  shot,  a  wad-seater, 
a  block  for  holding  the  shell,  and 
for  paper  shells  a  creaser  or 
crimper  by  which  the  shell  is 
creased,  or  its  edge  turned  over,  to 
hold  the  charge  in  place.  Some  of 
these  are  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. The  new  cap  should  be 


inserter1  before  loading;  for  if  it 
explodes  then  no  harm  can  be  done. 
The  powder  is  then  poured  in, 
then  wads  are  inserted,  then  the 
shot,  and  then  a  lighter  wad.  Wads 
are  bought  ready-made.  If  the  gun 
is  a  muzzle-loader,  the  charge,  in 
the  order  described  above,  is  put 
directly  into  the  gun  instead  of  into 
a  cartridge.  The  quantity  of  powder 
and  shot,  and  the  size  of  shot  used, 
varies  with  the  object  to  be  shot  at. 
Loads  for  different  kinds  of  game 
are  given  in  the  article  on  HUNT- 
ING. The  ordinary  charge  for 
guns  with  nur-^er  10  bore  is  from 


SHOOTING 


628 


SHOOTING 


4  to  4^  drams  of  coarse    powder 
and  ij  ounces  of  shot;  for  12-bore, 
3  to   3$  drams  of   powder  and   i£ 
ounces  of  shot ;  for  J4-bore,  2$  to  3 
drams  of  powder  and  $  to  i  ounce 
of  shot ;    and  for  i6-bore,  2^  to  2| 
drams  of  powder  and  f  to  I  ounces 
of  shot.      The    extreme    load    is  4 
drams  of  powder  in  a  12-bore,  and 

5  drams  in  a  ro-bore  gun. 

The  sizes  of  shotguns  are  des- 
ignated by  numbers  express- 
ing the  gauges  or  diameters  of 
their  bore,  as  10  gauge,  or  10- 
bore,  12-gauge,  etc.  The  origin 
of  these  numbers  was  this  :  A  ball, 
of  which  10  weigh  a  pound,  fits  a 
lo-gauge  ;  balls  weighing  12  to  the 
pound  fit  a  i2-gauge,  etc.  ;  hence 
the  higher  the  number  of  the  gauge 
the  smaller  is  its  diameter.  Bores 
range  from  4  (large)  to  20  (small) ; 
those  in  common  use  are  m's  and 
I2's.  Guns  are  cylinder-bored,  that 
is  with  the  bore  of  the  sama  diam- 
eter from  chamber  to  muzzle ;  or 
choke-bored,  that  is,  having  the 
bore  "  choked  "  or  constricted  at  a 
point  just  back  of  the  muzzle  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping  the  shot 
together  in  their  flight  through  the 
air.  The  constriction  is  from 
of  an  inch  to  y^f  of  an  inch. 

The  relative  merits  of  choke-  and 
cylinder-bores  are  these  :  A  choke- 
bore,  delivering  its  shot  in  a  more 
compact  mass,  will  kill  more  surely 
at  greater  distance;  but  it  requires 
more  careful  aim;  it  is  specially 
adapted  to  wild-fowl  shooting.  A 
cylinder  gun,  because  it  spreads  the 
shot  over  a  wider  circle,  requires  less 
careful  aim,  and  is  preferable  where 
the  game  is  shot  at  short  range. 
Young  sportsmen  usually  prefer  a 
cylinder-bore.  Many  sportsmen 
prefer  to  have  the  right  barrel  of  a 
double-barrelled  gun  cylinder-bored 
and  the  other  choke-bored.  The 
right  barrel  is  used  at  close  range, 
and  the  left  at  long  range,  because 
it  scatters  the  shot  so  little.  Choke- 
bored  barrels  were  described  as 
early  as  1787  by  a  Frenchman 


named  De  Marolles,  but  he  did  not 
approve  of  them  and  they  have  been 
adopted  only  recently.  Jeremiah 
Smith,  of  Rhode  Island,  devised  a 
successful  mode  of  choke-boring  in 
1827,  and  was  perhaps  the  first  to 
do  so,  though  the  credit  is  given  by 
some  to  other  inventors.  The 
merits  of  the  system  were  first  ex- 
explained  to  the  public  in  1879  by 
Joseph  W.  Long,  in  his  book  on 
"  Wild-Fowl  Shooting."  Mr.  Long 
says  that  choke-boring  doubles  the 
closeness  of  the  "  pattern  "  on  the 
target  at  40  yards. 

The  shooting  qualities  of  guns 
are  determined  by  shooting  at  a 
target,  usually  a  sheet  of  paper, 
placed  at  a  distance  of  40  yards 
from  the  muzzle  of  the  gun.  On 
the  paper,  before  or  after  the  gun  is 
fired,  is  drawn  a  circle  30  inches  in 
diameter.  The  marks  made  by  the 
shot  pellets  which  strike  \\  ithin  this 
circle  constitute  the  "  pattern."  If 
a  large  proportion  of  the  entire 
charge  strikes  within  the  3O-inch 
space,  the  gun  is  said  to  "pattern 
closely;"  and  if  the  shot  are  evenly 
distributed,  to  "pattern  evenly;" 
the  pattern  isalso  designated  by  the 
number  of  the  pellets.  The  force 
with  which  the  shot  are  projected 
is  measured  by  their  penetration 
through  the  leaves  of  a  book  or  a 
pad  of  paper.  A  gun  which  gives 
good  penetration  is  said  to  '  shoot 
hard." 

The  stocks  of  guns  vary  in  length, 
and  crook,  bend,  or  "drop,  "to  fit 
different  shooters.  The  length  and 
bend  should  be  such  that  when  the 
gun  is  brought  to  the  shoulder  the 
rib  or  top  of  the  barrels  should  be  in 
line  with  the  eye  and  a  mark  on  the 
same  level  with  the  eye.  A  long- 
armed  shooter  will  require  a  long 
gun-stock  ;  a  long-necked  shooter  a 
stock  with  much  drop.  In  selecting 
a  gun  care  should  be  taken  to  choose 
one  that  fits  the  shooter. 

Safety.  To  avoid  accidents  with 
a  shot-gun  or  rifle,  the  following 
rules  should  be  observed: 


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1.  The    sportsman    must    always 
treat    a    gun    as     though    it    were 
loaded,  even  if  he  knows  it  to  be 
unloaded. 

2.  He    should     never    allow  the 
muzzle  to  point  toward  himself  or 
any  other  person. 

3.  He  should  never  put  his  hand 
over  the  muzzle. 

4.  He  should  take  out  both  cart- 
ridges before  climbing  a  fence,  get- 
ting  into  a  wagon,   or  entering  a 
house.     If  the    gun    is   a    muzzle- 
loader,  the  caps  should  be  removed 
in  like  circumstances,  though  some 
people  think  it  unwise  to   keep   a 
loaded  gun  in  the  house  uncapped, 
because  some  one,  thinking   it   un- 
loaded,  might  then  put   on  a  cap, 
snap  it,  and  so  discharge  the  gun. 
But  if  Rule  i    is   closely  observed, 
this  will  never  be  done. 

Cleaning.  Most  people  clean  their 
guns  after  each  day's  use,  but  some 
think  that  they  should  never  be 
cleaned.  The  best  way  to  clean 
them  is  to  wash  thoroughly  with 
very  hot  water  and  then  oil  lightly. 

Trap  Shooting.  As  shotguns  are 
generally  used  to  shoot  birds  when 
on  the  wing,  the  first  acquirement 
of  the  beginner  should  be  to  aim 
quickly  and  correctly.  To  attain 
this  practice  should  first  be  had  on 
a  mark  at  rest,  and  when,  after  re- 
peated tests,  the  ability  has  been 
acquired  to  bring  the  gun  to  the 
shoulder  with  correct  aim,  the 
learner  should  practise  hitting  small 
objects  thrown  into  the  air,  etc. 
The  best  practice  of  this  kind  is 
trap  shooting.  A  simple  trap  may 
be  made  of  an  elastic  strip  of  wood 
4  feet  long,  3  inches  wide,  and  half 
an  inch  thick,  one  of  whose  ends  is 
nailed  to  a  heavy  board,  which  is  fas- 
tened to  the  ground  by  driving 
stakes  through  holes  in  it.  The  mid- 
dle of  the  strip  is  supported  at  such 
a  height  that  its  other  end  can  easily 
be  bent  down  and  fastened  to  the 
board  by  a  notched  trigger.  The 
end  of  the  strip  that  is  thus  secured 
has  a  small  tin  box-lid  fastened  on  it, 


and  when  the  strip  is  released,  by 
pulling  a  string  tied  to  the  trigger, 
anything  placed  in  the  box-lid,  such 
as  an  apple  or  a  potato,  is  thrown 
into  the  air,  where  it  can  be  shot  at. 
The  traps  sold  by  dealers  in  sporting 


Fig.  10. — Trap. 

goods  (Fig.  10)  are  made  with  steel 
springs,  and  throw  up  artificial  tar- 
gets, generally  called  "  pigeons,"  of 
which  there  are  numerous  patterns, 
in  general  shape  like  a  saucer  (Fig. 
11).  The  clay  pigeon  is  very  thin 
and  brittle,  so  that  a  single  shot 
can  break  it.  When  thrown,  these 
"  pigeons"  imitate  very  closely  the 
apparent  shape  and  flight  of  a  bird, 


Fig.  ii. — Clay  pigeon, 
the  rounded  edge,  which  is  upward, 
looking  against  the  sky  like  the  out- 
line of  the  back  and  wings.  Glass 
balls  were  formerly  much  used  in 
trap-shooting,  but  have  now  gone 
out  of  fashion.  The  moving  targets 
must  be  brittle,  for  it  is  hard  to  tell 
whether  they  are  hit  or  not,  unless 
the  shot  breaks  them.  For  this 
reason  also  very  small  shot  cannot 
be  used,  and  the  gun  must  not 
scatter  its  shot.  The  trap  gives  the 
object  shot  at  great  speed  at  first, 
so  if  the  ball  flies  away  from  the 
shooter  he  must  fire  very  quickly. 

The  shooter  must  stand  so  that 
his  arms  may  be  free  to  move  swiftly, 
His  weight  rests  equally  on  both 


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feet,  the  left  being  somewhat  ad- 
vanced, and  the  upper  part  of  the 
body  bent  forward  a  little.  The 
right  hand  holds  the  pistol-grip  of 
the  gun,  the  forefinger  touching 
the  trigger,  and  the  barrel  rests  in 
the  left  hand,  pointing  slightly  up- 
ward. At  the  word  "  Pull  "  the 
trap  is  sprung  by  an  assistant,  and  at 
the  same  instant  ilie  right  hand  must 
be  raised  so  that  the  gun  comes  to 
the  level  of  the  right  eye,  the  breech 
resting  in  the  hollow  of  the  right 
shoulder.  The  rib  between  the 
barrels  should  be  directly  under  the 
eye.  While  doing  this,  the  shooter 
looks  steadily  at  the  point  toward 
which  he  intends  to  fire,  and  when 
the  gun  is  pointed  toward  it,  he 
pulls  the  trigger.  Long  practice  is 
required  properly  to  bring  the  gun 
into  position,  to  aim,  and  to  fire,  all 
at  once.  Many  skilful  marksmen 
never  take  aim  by  following  the 
mark  with  the  gun  as  it  moves, 
(called  "  making  a  poke  shot,"),  but 
aim  and  fire  instantly,  called  a  "  snap 
shot."  This  is  especially  the  best  way 
in  trap-shooting,  for  a  second's  delay 
enables  the  object  to  get  beyond 
safe  range,  as  it  moves  very  swiftly, 

In  hunting,  besides  the  "snap 
shot,"  there  is  another  method 
called  the  "swing-shot,"  in  which 
the  sportsman  swings  his  gun,  till  it 
is  a  certain  distance  in  front  of  the 
bird,  and  then  fires.  Some  keep 
the  gun  moving  steadily,  some 
stop  it  at  the  moment  of  firing,  and 
others  give  it  a  quick  motion  to 
one  side.  The  distance  of  the  point 
aimed  at  in  front  of  the  moving 
object  depends  on  the  speed  of  the 
latter  and  its  distance  from  the  gun, 
and  must  generally  be  learned  by 
experience.  If  the  object  to  be 
hit  is  a  bird  instead  of  something 
thrown  from  a  trap,  the  rules  for 
handling  the  gun  are  the  same. 
Other  details  will  be  found  in  the 
article  on  HUNTING. 

In  trap-shooting  matches  each 
shot  is  scored  as  a  hit  or  a  miss.  In 
one  style  of  trap-shooting  the  com- 


petitors who  tie  on  their  scores  are 
divided  into  classes,  and  the  several 
prizes  are  awarded  to  these  classes. 
Thus  if  in  a  match  at  no  targets  each, 
with  six  shooters  and  3  prizes,  A  and 
B  hit  10  each,  C,  D,  and  E  hit  9,  and 
\  20yda/ 


\ 


iA 
/ 


Shooter's  score. 
Diagram  A. 


\ 


Shooter's  score. 
Diagram  B. 

F  hits  8,  the  prizes  are  awarded 
thus  :  ist  to  ties  of  10,  2d  to  ties  of 
9,  and  3d  to  F  who  scored  8.  A 
and  B,  who  tied  on  10,  may  divide 
i st.  prize,  or  shoot  off  to  decide 
which  shall  have  it  ;  but  the  one 


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who  is  defeated  in  shootingoff  the  tie 
receives  nothing,  and  cannot  claim 
2d  nor  3d,  even  though  his  score 


Shooter's  scores. 
Diagram  C. 


Shooter's  score, 
Diagram  D. 

is  actually  better  than  those  of  the 
winner  of  the  other  prizes. 

RULES  OF  TRAP-SHOOTrNG. 

The  following  rules  for  matches 
are  selected  from  those  of  the  Amer- 
ican Shooting  Association. 

I.  Judges  and  Referee.  Sec.  I. — 
Two  judges  and  a  referee,  or  a 
referee  alone,  shall  be  selected  to 
judge. 


Sec.  2.  If  the  judges  cannot 
agree,  the  referee  shall  decide,  and 
his  decision  shall  be  final  in  all 
tournament  or  sweepstake  shooting. 

Sec.  3.  In  individual  matches  a 
a  referee,  scorer,  and  puller  may  be 
agreed  upon  and  named  by  the  con- 
testants. 

3.  Special  Duties  of  Referee.  The 
referee  shall  see  that  the  traps  are 
properly  set  at  the  beginning  of  a 
match,  and  are  kept  in  order  to  the 
finish.     He  shall  endeavor  to  make 
the   targets  conform    to   the   flight 
and  direction  indicated  in   Rule  12. 
He  shall  test  any  trap  upon  applica- 
tion of  a  shooter  at  any  time,  by 
throwing  a    trial    bird    therefrom. 
He  may  at  any  time  select  one  or 
more   cartridges   from    those   of    a 
shooter  at  the  score,  and  must  do 
so  when  the  shooter  is  challenged 
by  a  contestant,  and  he  shall  publicly 
test  the  same  for  proper  loading ;  if 
a  cartridge  is  found  to  be  improperly 
loaded,  the  shooter  shall  suffer  the 
penalty  as  provided  for  in  Rule  16. 

4.  Balk.    If    any     contestant    is 
balked  or  interfered  with,  or  there 
is  other  similar  reason  why  it  should 
be  done,  the  referee  may  allow  an- 
other bird. 

5.  Shooter   at    the   Score.    In    all 
contests  the  shooter  must  be  at  the 
score  within  three  minutes  after  his 
name  is  called  to  shoot,  or  he  for- 
feits his  rights  in  the  match. 

6.  Scorer.  A    scorer  shall  be  ap- 
pointed by  the  management  whose 
score  shall  be  the  official  one.     All 
scoring  shall  be  done  with   ink  or 
indelible  pencil.     The  scoring  of  a 
lost  bird  shall  be  indicated  by  a  o, 
and  of  a  dead  bird  by  a  i. 

7.  Keeping  the  Score.  Sec.  i.  The 
call  for  a  broken  bird  shall  be  "  Dead 
bird,"  and  the  call  fora  missed  bird 
shalt  be  "  Lost  bird." 

Sec.  2.  When  two  judges  and  a 
referee  are  serving,  one  of  the 
judges  shall  announce  the  result  of 
each  shot  distinctly,  and  it  shall  be 
called  back  by  the  scorer.  If  the 
second  judge  disagree  with  the 


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decision  of  the  judge  calling,  he 
shall  announce  it  at  once  before  an- 
other bird  is  thrown,  and  the  referee 
shall  decide  it.  In  the  event  of  an- 
other bird  being  thrown  before  the 
referee's  decision,  the  bird  so  thrown 
shall  be  "  No  bird." 

8.  Broken  Birds.  A   bird   to    be 
scored  "  Dead  bird"  must  have  a  per- 
ceptible piece  broken  from  it  while 
in  the  air;  a  "  dusted  "  bird  is  not  a 
broken  bird.     No  bird  shall  be  re- 
trieved for  shot  marks.     If  a  bird 
be  broken  by  the  trap,  the  shooter 
may  claim  another  bird,  as  provided 
for  in  Rule  19;  but  if  he  shoots,  the 
result  must  be  scored. 

9.  Announcing  the  Score.   At   the 
close  of  each  shooter's  score  the 
result  must  be  announced;  if  claimed 
to  be  wrong,  the  error,  if  any,  must 
be  corrected  at  once. 

10.  Screens.  Either  pits  or  screens, 
or    both,    may    be   used,    but   the 
screens  must  not  be  higher  than  is 
actually  necessary  to  fully  protect 
the  trapper. 

11.  Arrangement    of    Traps.  All 
matches  shall  be  shot  from  three 
or  five  traps,  set  level,  five  yards 
apart,   in   the  segment  of  a  circle 
(see  Diagrams  A  and   C),  or  in  a 
straight  line  (see  Diagrams  B  and 
D).     When  in  a  segment  of  a  circle, 
the    radius  of  the  circle  shall   be 
eighteen  yards.     In  all  cases,  the 
shooter's    score   shall   not   be  less 
from  each  trap  than  the  rises  pro- 
vided for  in   Rule   14.    The  traps 
shall  be  numbered  from  No.  i  on 
the  left  to  No.  3  or  No.   5  on  the 
right,  consecutively,  according  to 
the  number  used,  as  shown  in  the 
diagram. 

12.  Adjusting  Traps.  Sec.  i.  All 
traps  must  throw  the  birds  a  dis- 
tance  not  less  than   40  yards   nor 
more  than  60  yards,  and  each  trap 
must  be  tested  for  this  standard  dis- 
tance before  the  shooting  begins. 
If  any  trap  be   found  too   weak  to 
throw  the  required  distance,  a  new 
trap  or  spring,  that  will,  must  be 
substituted. 


Sec.  2.  The  lever  or  projecting  arm 
of  the  trap  shall  be  so  adjusted  that 
the  elevation  of  the  bird  in  its  flight 
at  a  distance  of  10  yards  from  the 
trap,  shall  not  be  more  than  12  feet 
nor  less  than  6  feet,  and  the  angles 
of  flight  shall  be  as  shown  on  the 
diagrams. 

Sec.  3.  After  the  traps  are  set 
for  these  angles,  if  the  bird  for  any 
reason  shall  take  a  different  course, 
it  shall  be  considered  a  fair  bird, 
provided  the  trap  has  not  been 
changed. 

13.  Pulling    the     Traps.    Sec.    I. 
The  puller  shall  be  placed  at  least 
six   feet   behind  the  shooter,    and 
when  the  shooter  calls  "  Pull,"  the 
trap,   or  traps,   shall   be    instantly 
sprung.     In  single  bird-shooting,  he 
shall  pull  the  traps  as  decided  by  a 
trap    pulling    indicator,    if    one    is 
used. 

Sec.  2.  Traps  may  be  pulled  in 
regular  order  from  Nos.  i  to  3,  or  I 
to  5,  or  vice  versa,  if  so  decided  by 
the  management. 

Sec.  3.  If  the  shooting  is  from 
traps  to  be  pulled  in  regular  order, 
the  shooter  may  refuse  a  bird  from 
a  trap  not  so  pulled  ;  but  if  he  shoots 
the  result  shall  be  scored. 

Sec.  4.  If  the  trap  is  sprung  be- 
fore, or  at  any  noticeable  interval 
after  the  shooter  calls  "  Pull,"  he 
can  accept  or  refuse  the  bird ;  but 
if  he  shoots  the  result  shall  be 
scored. 

Sec.  5.  Should  any  puller  not  pull 
in  accordance  with  the  indicator, 
he  shall  be  removed,  and  another 
puller  substituted. 

14.  The  Rise.  In  single  bird  shoot- 
ing the  rise  shall  be  : 

1 8  yards  for  lo-bore  guns. 
16  yards  for  12-bore  guns. 
14  yards  for  14  and  i6-bore  guns. 

13  yards  for  2o-bore  guns. 

In  double  bird  shooting  the  rise 
shall  be  : 
1 6  yards  for  lo-bore  guns. 

14  yards  for  i2-bore  guns. 

12  yards  for  14  and  i6-bore  guns. 
1 1  yards  for  2o-bore  guns. 


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15.  Calibre  and  Weight  of  Gun. 
No  gun  of  larger  caliber  than  a  10- 
bore  shall  be  used,  and  the  weight 
of  all  guns  shall  be  unlimited. 

1 6.  Loads.  Charge  of  powder  un- 
limited.    Charge  of  shot: 

For  lo-bore  guns,  i  1-4  ounces. 
For  12-bore  guns,  i  1-8  ounces. 
For  14  and  i6-bore  guns,  i  ounce. 
For  2o-bore  guns,  7-8  of  an  ounce. 

17.  Loading  Guns.  In  single  bird 
shooting,  only  one  barrel  shall  be 
loaded  at  a  time,  and  the  cartridge 
shall   not  be   placed   in  the   barrel 
until   after  the   shooter  has   taken 
his  position  at  the  score.     In  double 
bird  shooting  both  barrels  shall  be 
loaded    at    the    score.     Cartridges 
must  be  removed  from  the  gun  be- 
fore leaving  the  score. 

1 8.  Position    of   Gun.    Any    the 
the  shooter  may  adopt. 

19.  Allowing      another      Bird. 
(Known  or  Unknown  Angles.) 

Sec.  i.  The  shooter  shall  be  al- 
lowed another  bird  for  the  follow- 
ing reasons : 

A — For  a  bird  broken  by  a  trap. 

B — For  any  defect  in  the  gun  or 
the  load,  causing  a  miss-fire. 

Sec.  2.  When  the  shooting  is  at 
known  angles  he  shall  have  another 
bird  from  the  same  trap;  but  if  the 
shooting  is  at  unknown  angles  he 
shall  have  another  bird  from  an  un- 
known trap,  to  be  decided  by  the  in- 
dicator, except  in  case  it  be  the  last 
trap,  when  the  shooter  has  a  right 
to  know  which  trap  is  to  be  sprung ; 
in  this  case  he  shall  have  another 
bird  from  same  trap. 

20.  Single  Bird  Shooting.  Each 
contestant  shall  shoot  at  three  or 
more  birds  before  leaving  the  score, 
when  the  traps  are  set  in  the  seg- 
ment of  a  circle.     It  two  birds  are 
sprung  at  the  same  time  it  shall  be 
declared  "  No  bird." 

21.  Double  Bird  Shooting.  Both 
traps  must  be  pulled  simultaneously, 
and  each  contestant  shall  shoot  at 
three  pairs  consecutively,  thrown  as 
follows :     If  three  traps  are  used, 
the  first  pair  shall  be  thrown  from 


traps  i  and  2 ;  the  second  pair  from 
2  and  3,  and  the  third  pair  from  i 
and  3.  If  five  traps  are  used,  the 
first  pair  shall  be  thrown  from  traps 
2  and  3,  the  second  pair  from  3 
and  4,  and  the  third  pair  from  2 
and  4.  If  only  one  bird  is  thrown 
it  shall  be  declared  "  No  birds."  If 
a  bird  is  lost  for  reasons  stated  in 
Rule  19,  it  shall  be  declared  "No 
birds."  If  one  be  a  fair  and  the 
other  an  imperfect  bird  it  shall  be 
declared  "  No  birds."  If  both  birds 
are  broken  by  one  barrel  it  shall  be 
declared  "  No  birds."  If  a  shooter 
fire  both  barrels  at  one  bird  inten- 
tionally, it  shall  be  scored  "  Lost 
birds ;"  but  if  the  second  barrel  be 
discharged  accidentally  it  shall  be 
"  No  birds." 

Summary.  A  contestant  must 
shoot  at  two  whole  birds  while  both 
are  in  the  air,  and  breaker  miss  one 
with  each  barrel  to  have  his  score 
count,  and  the  referee  shall  be 
as  prompt  as  possible  in  calling  "No 
birds,"  and  prevent  unnecessary 
shooting  when  a  bird  is  broken  by 
the  trap. 

22.  Rapid  Firing  System.  When 
the  traps  are  set  in  a  straight  line 
and  the  rapid  firing  system  is  to  be 
used,  there  shall  be  a  screen  before 
each  trap  on  which  shall  appear  the 
number  of  the  trap,  from  No.  i  on 
the  left,  and  each  shooter  shall  stand 
at  score  opposite  the  trap  from 
which  the  bird  is  to  be  thrown  for 
him  to  shoot  at ;  after  he  has  shot 
at  his  first  bird  he  shall  pass  to  next 
score  to  the  right,  and  so  continue 
until  he  reaches  the  end  of  score, 
when  he  shall  return  to  the  score 
opposite  No.  i,  and  continue  as  be- 
fore until  his  score  is  finished.  If 
shooters  are  annoyed  or  there  is 
delay  in  shooting  by  the  smoke  of 
previous  shots,  the  traps  may  be 
pulled  in  reversed  order,  commenc- 
ing with  the  trap  on  the  right. 

History  of  Trap-shooting.  Until 
about  1875  live  wild  pigeons  were 
used  for  targets  at  shooting- 
matches.  They  were  thrown  into 


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the  air  by  spring  traps  much  like 
those  just  described,  and  shot  on  the 
wing.  Sometimes  several  thousand 
were  killed  in  one  match.  Those 
that  were  missed  escaped,  but  many 
were  only  wounded,  and  the  sport 
was  a  cruel  one,  so  Captain  Bo- 
gardus,  a  well-known  marksman, 
suggested  that  hollow  glass  balls 
should  be  used  instead.  As  these 
represented  birds  neither  in  shape 
nor  in  manner  of  flight,  George 
Ligowsky,  a  Cincinnati  sportsman, 
invented  the  saucer-like  "clay  pig- 
eons" which,  with  various  other 
artificial  targets,  have  nearly  every- 
where taken  the  place  of  live 
birds  in  shooting-matches.  Skilled 
marksmen  have  shown  wonderful 
accuracy  in  trap-shooting. 

Trap-shooting  is  said  to  have  been 
the  means  of  greatly  improving 
modern  shot-guns,  as  it  lias  shown 
marksmen  that  the  old  guns  were 
not  fit  for  firing  at  such  swiftly- 
moving  small  objects. 

Rifle  Shooting.  The  rifle  is  de- 
scribed in  C.  C.  T.  As  the  range 
of  this  weapon  is  so  great,  even 
more  attention  must  be  paid  to 
holding  and  aiming,  than  with  the 
shot-gun.  In  hunting,  the  rifleman 
often  rests  his  rifle  on  a  tree  or 
fence  to  take  aim,  but  no  such  rests 
are  allowed  in  target  shooting.  In 


firing  a  rifle  from  an  upright  posi- 
tion   the    left   shoulder   is   thrown 


forward,  and  the  right  foot  placed 
a  step  behind  the  left.  The  right 
hand  holds  the  stock  with  the 
thumb  uppermost,  and  the  forefinger 
hooked  around  the  trigger.  The 
left  arm,  with  bent  elbow,  holds  the 
rifle  barrel.  The  marksman  bends 
his  head  to  the  ri»ht,  touching  the 
stock  with  his  cheek,  and  closing 
his  left  eye,  looks  with  the  right 
along  the  barrel,  bringing  both 
sights  into  line.  He  aims  first 
below  the  target,  then  raises  the 
rifle  slowly,  pauses  an  instant  just 
as  the  target  is  in  line  with  the 
sights,  and  then  pulls  the  trigger. 
The  butt  of  the  rifle  should  be  held 
firmly  to  the  shoulder,  to  counter- 
act the  recoil  of  the  weapon.  Nearly 
every  one  holds  his  rifle  a  little  dif- 


ferently. Some  riflemen  kneel  on 
the  ri«ht  knee  in  firing,  and  rest  the 
left  elbow  on  the  left  knee,  sitting 
either  on  the  heel  or  side  of  the 
right  foot.  In  long-range  shooting 
the  marksmen  usually  sit  or  lie  on 


the  ground,  and  there  are  many 
positions,  some  of  which  are  curi- 
ous. Long-range  shooting  is  diffi- 
cult, for  the  marksman  has  to  make 
allowance  for  the  force  of  the  wind, 
the  attraction  of  gravity,  and  the 
drift  or  deviation  of  the  ball  caused 
by  the  twist  of  the  rifling.  To  cor- 
rect the  aim  for  the  wind  and  for 


SHOOTING 


635 


SHOOTING 


drift,  the  rear  sight  is  often  arranged 
so  that  it  can  be  shifted  sidewise, 
and  the  rifleman  must  know  just 
how  much  to  move  it  for  a  given 
range  and  force  of  wind.  Riflemen 
describe  the  direction  of  the  wind 
by  the  numerals  on  a  clock-face. 
The  marksman  is  supposed  to  be 
standing  in  the  middle  of  the  clock- 
face,  and  the  target  is  at  the  figure 
XII.  A  wind  directly  from  right  to 
left  is  then  blowing  from  the  figure 
III.,  and  is  called  a  "  Three  o'clock 
wind."  A  wind  from  a  point  just 
to  the  left  of  the  target  is  called  an 
"  Eleven  o'clock  wind,"  and  so  on. 
Gravity  pulls  the  ball  down  so  much 
in  going  a  long  distance  that  in  fir- 
ing at  a  range  of.  1000  yards  the  rifle 
must  really  be  aimed  at  a  point 
about  80  feet  above  the  target,  but 
the  rear  sight  can  be  moved  up  and 
down,  so  that  the  sights  are  in  line 
with  the  target  while  the  rifle  is 
actually  pointing  above  it.  If  the 
sights  of  a  rifle  get  out  of  line,  the 
rifle  should  be  fixed  in  a  vise  and 
fired  at  a  target.  The  sights  must 
then  be  fixed  in  line  with  the  hole 
made  by  the  bullet. 

Rifle-Matches.  In  a  rifle  match 
the  competitors  shoot  at  several 
different  distances,  called  ranges. 
At  Creed  moor,  on  Long  Island, 
there  are  ten  ranges,  one  at  every 
hundred  yards,  from  looup  to  1000, 
but  all  these  are  not  used  in  the 
same  match.  The  ranges  selected 
depend  on  the  ability  of  the  con- 
testants, and  the  kind  of  rifle  used. 
In  a  beginner's  match  with  Flobert 
rifles,  for  instance,  the  ranges  might 
even  be  10,  2^,  and  50  feet.  The 
targets  are  usually  the  same  for 
each  range,  the  distance  being  regu- 
lated by  the  places  (called  firing- 
points),  at  which  the  marksmen 
stand.  Each  competitor  in  turn 
fires  a  number  of  shots  previously 
agreed  upon,  at  the  shortest  range, 
and  then  the  competitors  go  to  the 
next  firing-point.  When  two  par- 
ties (called  teams)  are  competing 
•one  against  the  other,  the  men  in 


the  opposing  teams  fire  alternately. 
In  skirmish  firing  (introduced  at 
Creedmoor  in  1886),  teams  of  six 
men  fire  '  at  a  time,  advancing 
rapidly  from  one  firing-point  to 
another,  till  they  have  shot  from  all 
of  them,  and  then  retiring  in  the 
same  way.  Targets  to  be  used  in 
only  one  match  may  be  made  of 
wood,  but  permanent  targets  are 
made  of  iron  painted  white,  with 
black  division  lines.  After  each 
shot  an  attendant  (called  the  mark- 
er) notes  where  the  bullet  struck, 
and  then  covers  its  mark  with 
white  paint,  after  signalling  the 
score,  as  will  presently  be  ex- 
plained. While  he  is  so  doing,  a 
danger  signal  is  displayed,  so  that- 
no  one  may  shoot  when  he  is  in 
front  of  the  target.  During  the 
shooting  he  retires  to  a  bullet-proof 
shelter.  Behind  the  target  should 
be  a  bank  of  earth,  so  that  no  shots 
may  do  harm.  In  a  match  not  held 
on  a  permanent  range,  great  care 
must  be  taken  to  set  up  the  target 
against  a  hillside.  With  very  small 
rifles,  many  people  think  it  neces- 
sary only  to  see  that  there  is  a  thick 
high  fence,  or  the  side  of  a  building, 
behind  the  target,  which  may  be 
made  of  paper  pinned  to  the  fence ; 
but  there  are  really  no  rifles  which 
can  be  used  thus  safely.  People 
have  been  killed  by  Flobert  rifle 
bullets  passing  through  a  wall.  The 
targets  are  square  or  oblong,  and 
have  painted  on  them  three  con- 
centric circles.  The  space  within 
the  smallest  is  called  the  Bullseye, 
between  that  and  the  second  the 
Centre,  between  the  second  and 
third  the  Inner,  and  the  remainder 
of  the  target  the  Outer.  Some- 
times the  Inner  is  bounded  by  a 
square  instead  of  a  circle.  The  size 
depends  on  the  range.  At  Creed- 
moor  there  are  three  classes  of 
targets.  The  first  (Fig.  i),  used  at 
ranges  of  more  than  600  yards, 
measures  6  by  12  feet.  The  Bulls- 
eye  is  36  inches  in  diameter,  the 
Centre  54  inches,  and  the  Inner  is  a 


SHOOTING 


636 


SHOOTING 


Fig.  i. 


Plan  of  Targets. 


Fig.  2. 


Fig-  3- 


square  of  6  feet.  The  second  class 
target  (Fig.  2),  used  at  ranges  of 
from  300  to  600  yards,  is  6  feet 
square.  The  Bullseye  is  22,  the 
centre  38,  and  the  Inner  54  inches 
in  diameter.  The  third  class  (Fig. 
3),  used  at  distances  less  than  300 
yards,  measures  4  by  6  feet.  The 
Bullseye  is  8,  the  Centre  26,  and  the 
Inner  46  inches  in  diameter.  For 
very  small  distances  the  size  should 
be  still  further  decreased. 

The  marker  signals  the  hits  to 
the  scorer  in  any  way  that  may  be 
agreed  on.  At  Creedmoor  a  Bulls- 
eye  is  signalled  by  showing  a  white 
disk,  a  Centre  by  a  red  disk,  an 
Inner  by  a  white  and  black  disk,  and 
an  Outer  by  a  black  disk.  When  a 
bullet  hits  the  target  after  striking 
something  else,  it  is  called  ^.ricochet 
(French  for  rebound),  and  is  sig- 
alled  by  waving  a  red  fl»g  twice, 
from  side  to  side,  in  front  of  the 
target.  When  a  shot  strikes  the 
target  support,  the  flag  is  raised 
and  lowered  thrice  in  front  of  the 
target. 

The  scores  of  the  various  hits  are 
as  follows : 

Bullseye,    5 

Centre, 4 

Inner, 3 

Outer, 2 

RULES  OF  RIFLE  SHOOTING. 

The  following  rules  for  rifle 
matches  are  condensed  from  those 
of  the  National  Rifle  Association  : 

I.  Rifle  matches  shall  be  in  charge 
of  an  Executive  officer,  a  scorer,  and 
'a  Range  officer. 


2.  The     Executive    officer    shall 
have  general  control  of  the  conduct 
of  the  match,  and  the  Range  officer 
shall   have  charge  of  all  the  firing 
points. 

3.  The  competitors  will  be   sta- 
tioned not  less   than  four  yards   in 
rear  of  the  firing  points,  until  called 
by  the  scorer  to  take  position  at  the 
firing   point.      The   scorer    will  sit 
close  behind  the  firing-point  stake. 

4.  As  each  shot  is  signalled,  the 
scorer  shall  announce  the  name  of 
the  competitor  and  the  value  of  the 
shot,  and  at  the  end  of  the  score 
announce  in  like  manner  his  name 
and  total  score.     The-score  shall  be 
open  to  inspection  at  all  times  by 
any  competitor. 

5.  No  sights  must  be  used   that 
cover  the  target  so  as  to  conceal 
the  danger  signal. 

6.  No    artificial    rests    must  be 
used. 

7.  A  breech-loader  must  not  be 
loaded,  nor  a  muzzle-loader  capped, 
before   the   competitor    takes     his 
position  at  the  firing  point. 

8.  Any  objection  to  the  record  of 
a  shot  must  be  made  before  the 
next  is  fired. 

9.  When    two    shots    strike    the 
target  simultaneously,  the  shot  hav- 
ing the  higher  value  shall  be  marked 
first,    and    the    competitor    whose 
proper   turn  it  was    to   shoot   will 
be  credited  with  that  value. 

10.  Any  alteration    in   the   score 
must  be  signed  by  the  Range  officer. 

11.  When    the   danger    signal    is 
displayed,  competitors  about  to  fire 
will  be  required  to  open  the  breech- 
lock  of  their  rifles  (if  breech-load- 


SHOOTING 


637 


SHUFFLE-BOARD 


ers).     If  they  leave  the  firing  point, 
they  must  withdraw  the  cartridge. 

12.  No  rifle  shall   be   cleaned   or 
wiped  out  except  between  ranges. 

13.  If  any  competitor  is  not  ready 
to  fire  when  his  name  is  called,  he 
shall  forfeit  his  turn. 

14.  Competitors  will   be  allowed 
one  minute  to  each  shot. 

15.  Ties.     Ties  shall   be  decided 
by  the  total  score  made  at  the  long- 
est distance ;  or  if  those  scores  are 
also  tied,  by  the  total  score  at  the 
second   distance.     If  that   is  a  tie, 
then   by  the  fewest    outers   in   the 
entire  score;   by  the  fewest  inners 
in  the  entire  score ;  and  by  inverse 
order  of  shots,  counting  singly  from 
the  last  to  the  first.     In  team  shoot- 
ing, if  there  be  still  a  tie,  the  com- 
petitor making  the  highest  score  on 
each  side  shall  fire  five   rounds   at 
the  longest  distance. 

16.  Any  competitor  violating  one 
of  the  rules,  or  refusing  to  obey  an 
officer  of  the  match,   shall   not   be 
allowed  to  compete  further. 

17.  Any  competitor    firing  when 
the  danger  flag  is  shown,  or  know- 
ingly discharging  his  rifle  except  at 
his  target,  shall  not  be  allowed  to 
compete    further.      This   does  not 
apply  to  a  person  accidentally  firing 
at  the  wrong  target  when  no  danger 
signal  is  up. 

1 8.  Any  competitor  found  with  a 
loaded    rifle,    except  at  the   firing 
points   when  about  to  shoot,  shall 
not  be  allowed  to  compete  further. 

19.  Any    competitor    firing    his 
irifle  accidentally  may  be  required  to 
withdraw  from   the   match   by  the 
(executive  officer. 

History  of  Rifle  Shooting.  Rifle 
clubs  have  existed  in  this  country 
[for  a  long  time,  but  scientific  rifle 
matches  and  organized  target  prac- 
•tice  began  in  1873.  The  National 
iRifle  Association  was  organized  in 
.1871,  and,  with  the  aid  of  the  State 
<of  New  York,  established  in  1873 
tthe  rifle  range  at  Creedmoor  on 
ILong  Island,  where  many  matches 
ihave  since  been  held.  About  25,- 


ooo  men    now    shoot    there  every 
year. 

SHUFFLE-BOARD,  or  SHOVEL 
BOARD,  a  game  played  by  two  or 
four  persons  with  iron  weights, 
which  are  slid  along  a  board  sprink- 
led with  fine  sand.  The  board  is  30 
feet  long,  with  slightly  raised  edges 
to  keep  the  weights  from  sliding  off 
sidewise.  Lines  are  drawn  across 
the  board  five  inches  from  each 
end,  one  for  a  starting  line  and  the 
other  for  a  finishing  line.  There 
are  eight  weights,  or  "  pieces,"  weigh- 
ing about  a  pound  each,  and  divided 
into  two  sets  of  four  each.  The 
players  are  divided  into  opposing 
sides,  and  each  side  has  one  of 
the  sets  of  pieces.  Each  player  in 
turn,  standing  at  the  starting  line, 
slides  his  pieces  along  the  board. 
Each  piece  that  projects  partly  over 
the  edge  of  the  board  scores  three 
points,  and  each  that  lies  on  the 
finish  line  or  between  it  and  the 
edge  of  the  board  is  said  to  be  "in," 
and  scores  two  points.  If  no  piece 
is  in,  the  one  nearest  the  line  scores 
one.  After  a  round  has  been  played, 
the  players  go  to  the  other  end  of 


6 

1 

8 

7 

5 

3 

2 

9 

4 

x^x' 

Ocean  Shuffle-Board. 

the  board  and  play  toward  what  was 
the  starting  line,  and  they  thus 
change  places  after  each  round.  Or 
the  sides  may  play  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, each  keeping  its  own  end  of 
the  board.  The  side  wins  that  first 
scores  21  points. 

Shuffle- board  is  much  played  on 


SIEGE 


638 


SINGLE-LINE   DRAWING 


the  decks  of  ocean  steamers,  but 
differently  from  the  way  just  de- 
scribed. A  figure  is  chalked  on 
the  deck  like  that  shown  below. 
The  weights  used  are  of  wood,  and 
are  pushed  from  a  distance  of  nine 
or  ten  paces  by  a  long  staff  with  a 
curved  end.  The  players  take  turns, 
but  nothing  is  scored  till  the  end  of 
the  round,  when  each  is  given  the 
number  of  points  marked  in  the 
square  occupied  by  his  piece.  An 
enemy's  weight  may  be  knocked 
out  of  the  figure  altogether,  or 
a  friend's  shoved  in,  by  a  blow 
from  a  succeeding  player.  If  a 
weight  remain  in  the  semi-circular 
space  nearest  the  players,  ten  is 
subtracted  from  its  owner's  score. 
The  winner  must  make  exactly  50 
points  ;  all  in  excess  of  that  number 
are  subtracted  instead  of  added  ; 
thus  if  a  player's  score  be  46  and 
he  make  8  more,  4  points  are 
added  to  bring  him  up  to  50,  and  the 
remaining  4  are  subtracted,  mak- 
ing the  total  still  46.  In  like  man- 
ner 48  and  3  would  make  49,  and  so 
on. 

History.  Shuffle-Board  was  played 
long  ago  in  England,  and  its  origin 
was  probably  similar  to  that  of 
BOWLING,  QUOITS,  and  CURLING. 


It  was  sometimes  played  on  tables 
with  pieces  like  checker-men. 

Shuffle-Board  was  forbidden  by 
law  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  as 
one  of  the  games  that  turned  the  peo- 
ple from  the  practice  of  ARCHERY. 

SIEGE.  See  Fox  AND  GEESE. 

SIMON  SAYS,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons,  who  sit  in  a 
circle,  or  around  a  table.  The  leader 
says,  "  Simon  says  thumbs  up,"  hold- 
ing out  his  clenched  fist  with  the 
-thumb  uppermost ;  "  Simon  says 
thumbs  down,"  reversing  it ;  or 
"Simon  says  wiggle-waggle,"  mov- 
ing his  thumb  back  and  forth.  The 
rest  of  the  players  must  imitate  him 
whenever  he  uses  the  words  "  Simon 
says,"  but  when  he  says  simply 
"Thumbs  up,"  "Thumbs  down,"  or 
"Wiggle-waggle"  no  attention  is 
paid  to  him  and  the  position  of  the 
players'  hands  is  not  changed.  If 
any  one  obeys  the  leader  when  he 
should  not,  or  fails  to  obey  when  he 
should,  he  must  pay  a  forfeit.  The 
leader  tries  to  give  his  orders  in 
such  rapid  succession  that  some 
of  the  players  will  be  confused  and 
make  a  mistake. 

SINGLE-LINE  DRAWING.  Puz- 
zles are  often  given  out  in  which  it 
is  required  to  draw  a  certain  figure 


F 


C        D          G 

Single-line  Drawing. 


H 


without  taking  the  pen  from  the 
paper  or  retracing  a  line.  This 
kind  of  drawing  may  be  called 
single-line  drawing.  Given  any  fig- 
gure  whatever,  the  following  rule 
will  tell  whether  it  can  be  thus 
drawn,  and  if  not,  with  how  few 
lines  it  can  be  drawn. 

Count  all  the  points  in  the  figure 
where  an  uneven  number  of  lines 
meet.  There  will  always  be  an  even 
number  of  such  points,  if  there  are 
any  at  all.  Half  this  number  will 


be  the  fewest  number  of  lines  with 
which  the  figure  can  be  drawn. 
Thus,  of  the  four  figures  shown,  the 
first  has  no  points  where  an  uneven 
number  of  lines  meet,  the  second 
has  two,  namely  A  and  C  (BC  and 
CD  counting  as  separate  lines)  the 
third  has  four,  E,  F,  G,  and  H,  and 
the  fourth  six. 

Therefore,  when  a  figure  is  given 
to  be  drawn  in  a  single  line,  the  first 
thing  to  do  is  to  see  whether  it  be 
possible  so  to  draw  it.  Then,  if  it 


SIPHON 


639 


SIPHON 


be  possible,  begin  at  one  of  the 
points  where  an  uneven  number  of 
lines  meet,  but  if  there  are  no  such 
points,  any  point  may  be  taken  as 
the  starting-point.  When  a  crossing 
is  reached,  it  is  better  always  to 
adopt  some  one  plan  and  to  follow  it 
on  all  similar  occasions  to  avoid 
confusion.  For  instance,  the  line 
to  the  right  of  the  one  you  are 
on  may  be  taken,  supposing  that 
you  are  facing  the  direction  of  mo 
tion  of  your  pencil.  Or,  you  may 
plan  so  as  always  to  cross  a  line, 
never  taking  the  adjoining  one. 
But  if  there  is  no  system  and  you 
sometimes  take  one  way  and  some 
times  the  other  you  will  often  find 
that  you  have  left  part  of  the  figure 
undrawn. 

SIPHON,  an  instrument  for  draw- 
ing liquid  out  of  a  vessel  over  the 
side.  It  consists  of  a  U-shaped 
tube,  one  of  whose  branches  is  long- 
er than  the  other,  The  tube  is  first 
filled  with  the  liquid  and  then  the 
shorter  arm  is  dipped  in  the  vessel, 
when  the  liquid  will  flow  over  the 
bend  and  out  of  the  longer  arm.  A 
simple  siphon  may  be  made  by  bend- 
ing a  glass  tube  (see  CHEMICAL 
EXPERIMENTS)  or  of  a  piece  of  rub- 
ber tubing.  Instead  of  first  filling 
the  siphon  with  the  liquid,  the  short 
end  may  be  placed  in  the  vessel  and 
the  mouth  applied  to  the  long  end. 
The  liquid  is  brought  over  by  suck- 
ing it,  and  when  it  has  started  it 
will  continue  to  flow.  The  action 
should  not  be  started  thus,  of 
course, unless  the  liquid  is  harmless. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

i.  Using  a  bent  rubber  tube  for 
a  siphon,  raise  and  lower  the  outer 
end  while  the  water  is  running. 
It  will  be  found  that  the  water 
will  run  faster  the  lower  the  'end 
is,  and  will  stop  when  the  end  is 
just  on  a  level  with  the  surface  of 
the  water.  The  reason  is  that  the 
difference  of  weight  of  water  in  the 
two  branches  of  the  tube  makes  the 
Water  flow.  The  greater  the  differ- 


ence, therefore,  the  faster  the  water 
will  run,  and  when  there  is  no  dif- 
ference at  all,  it  will  stop.  The  part 
of  the  small  end  that  is  under  water 
does  not  count  as  part  of  the  tube. 

2.  Plug  the  lower  end  of  an  ar- 
gand  lamp-chimney  with  a  cork  or 
rubber  stopper  through  which  passes 
the  long  branch  of  a  glass  tube 
bent  into  the  form  of  a  siphon,  the 
bend  and  short  branch  being  inside 
the  chimney.  Let  water  flow  into 
the  chimney  through  a  tube  much 
smaller  than  that  used  for  the 
siphon.  As  soon  as  the  level  of  the 
water  reaches  the  bend  of  the 
siphon  it  will  fill  the  siphon  and  be 
at  once  discharged.  Then  the  supply- 
tube  will  fill  the  vessel  again,  and  so 
on,  the  discharges  taking  place  at 
regular  intervals.  This  arrange- 


Exp.  2.    Tantalus's  Cup. 

ment  is  often  called  "the  cup  of 
Tantalus,"  from  the  old  Greek 
legend  of  Tantalus,  who  was  said  to 
be  doomed  to  stand  up  to  his  chin 
in  water,  which  receded  every  time 
he  tried  to  drink  it.  The  illustra- 
tion shows  the  form  of  the  toy  sold 
by  makers  of  chemical  apparatus. 
Cups  are  sometimes  made  contain- 
ing figures  of  Tantalus,  in  which  a 
siphon  is  concealed.  Water  is  allow- 
ed to  run  in  till  it  reaches  the  mouth 
of  the  figure,  when  it  suddenly  runs 
out.  It  is  supposed  by  some  people 
that  intermittent  springs,  which 
flow  at  regular  intervals,  are  natural 
siphons  of  this  kind.  The  arrange- 
ment is  used  practically  to  "  flush  " 
or  wash  out  sewer-pipes  at  regular 
intervals. 


SIREN 


640 


SIREN 


Cloth  Siphon,  Cut  a  strip  of  cloth 
an  inch  or  two  wide  and  about  a 
foot  long.  Let  one  end  dip  in  a 
glass  of  water  raised  six  or  eight 
inches  above  the  level  of  the  table 
by  means  of  books,  and  let  the 


other  hang  down  into  an  empty 
glass  standing  on  the  table.  The 
cloth,  acting  as  a  siphon,  will  in 
a  short  time  transfer  the  water  from 
the  upper  to  the  lower  glass. 
SIREN,  an  arrangement  for  show- 


Sfren. 


ing  that  musical  notes  are  made  up 
of  a  regular  succession  of  noises.  A 
simple  one  can  be  made  by  having 
cut  out  a  disk  of  sheet-iron  about  a 
foot  in  diameter,  with  holes  large 
enough  to  admit  a  lead-pencil 
around  the  edge.  A  similar  row 
containing  half  as  many  holes  is 
made  a  little  nearer  the  centre.  The 
holes  in  each  of  these  rows  must 
be  at  equal  distances  apart.  The 
disk  has  also  a  hole  in  the  middle 


so  that  it  can  be  fastened  to  a 
TWIRLER.  A  glass  tube,  drawn  out 
at  one  end  to  a  jet  (see  CHEMICAL 
EXPERIMENTS),  is  fixed  to  the  end  of 
a  rubber  tube.  The  other  end  of  the 
tube  is  held  in  the  mouth,  while  the 
jet  is  held  pointing  toward  one  of 
the  holes  in  the  disk.  The  twirler 
is  now  turned,  and  by  blowing 
through  the  tube  a  succession  of 
puffs  is  heard  as  the  stream  of  air 
passes  through  the  holes.  By  turn- 


' 


SIXTY-SIX 


641 


SKAT. 


ing  faster  this  series  of  noises  can 
be  made  to  pass  into  a  musical  note, 
though  in  this  rough  form  of  siren 
it  is  mixed  with  a  whistling  or  hiss- 
ing sound.  The  faster  the  disk 
twirls  the  higher  the  note  is,  and 
the  smaller  row  of  holes  always 
gives  a  note  an  octave  lower  than 
the  other.  If  the  disk  is  large 
enough,  the  notes  of  the  musical 
scale  can  be  formed  by  making  sight 
rows  of  holes  containing  successive- 
ly the  following  numbers,  or  num- 
bers proportional  to  them  :  24, 
27,  30,  32,  36,  40,  45,  48.  If  a 
glass  tube  having  a  cork  in  one  end 
be  placed  with  its  mouth  toward  the 
disk,  as  in  the  illustration,  the 
sound  will  grow  suddenly  louder 
when  the  disk  reaches  such  a  rate 
of  speed  as  to  give  the  note  to 
which  the  tube  responds,  and  this 
may  be  varied  by  pushing  the  cork 
backward  or  forward  in  the  tube. 

SIXTY-SIX.     See  BEZIQUE. 

SKAT,  a  ga-ne  of  CARDS,  played 
by  three,  four,  or  five  persons,  with  a 
EUCHRE  pack.  Only  the  three  at  the 
dealer's  left  take  active  part  in  the 
game  at  a  time.  The  dealer  gives 
five  cards  to  each  active  plaver,  lays 
two  cards  face  downward  on  the 
table  to  form  what  is  called  the 
"Skat,"  and  then  deals  five  more 
cards  to  each.  The  cards  may  also 
be  dealt  three,  four,  and  three  at  a 
time,  or  two  at  a  time,  in  which 
case  the  skat  may  be  laid  out  be- 
tween any  two  of  the  rounds. 

The  privilege  of  playing  any  one 
of  several  different  games  is  now 
sold  to  the  highest  bidder,  as  follows: 

The  eldest  hand  first  decides  on 
the  game  that  he  can  play  best,  de- 
pending on  the  cards  in  his  hand, 
and  says,  "  I  ask."  (The  names  of 
the  different  games,  and  the  values 
of  the  corresponding  bids,  are  given 
below.) 

The  player  on  his  left  then  makes 
his  bid,  by  mentioning  the  kind  of 
game  he  can  play  best,  and  the  eld- 
est hand,  if  its  value  is  larger  than 
his  own  estimated  bid,  says, "  I  pass." 


If  his  own  bid  is  the  larger,  he  says 
"Yes,"  and  then  the  other  may  bid 
again  or  pass.  This  is  repeated  till 
one  or  the  other  passes.  The  third 
active  player  then  bids  against  the 
one  that  did  not  pass,  in  like  man- 
ner. When  bidding  is  over,  the 
highest  bidder  announces  the  name 
of  his  bid  and  playing  begins.  The 
object  of  the  highest  bidder  is  to 
make  61  points  in  the  hand.  If  he 
does,  he  scores  the  amount  of  his 
bid  ;  if  not,  each  of  the  others,  in- 
cluding the  silent  players,  if  there 
are  any,  scores  that  amount.  (An 
exception,  in  the  case  of  the  bid 
called  "  Nuil,"  is  explained  below.) 
In  playing,  suit  must  be  followed, 
but  if  that  is  impossible  any  card 
may  he  played.  In  reckoning  the 
necessary  61  points,  the  cards  count 
as  follows  for  the  player  taking  the 
trick  containing  them  : 

Ace,  n. 

Ten,  10. 

King,  4. 

Queen,  3. 

Knave,  2. 

The  Nines,  Eights,  and  Sevens 
have  no  counting  value. 

In  the  lay  suits  the  rank  of  the 
cards,  beginning  with  the  highest, 
is  Ace,  Ten,  King,  Queen,  Nine, 
Eight,  Seven.  The  four  Knaves, 
which  are  always  the  highest  trumps, 
are  called  "  Matadores."  and  their 
rank,  beginning  with  the  highest,  is 
Knave  of  Clubs,  Knave  of  Spades, 
Knave  of  Hearts,  Knave  of  Dia- 
monds. (The  bid  "  Null"  is  an  ex- 
ception to  this  also,  as  explained 
below.)  All  trumps  count  as  Mata- 
dores in  bidding. 

The  Bids.  In  some  of  the  bids 
the  suit  on  which  they  are  based 
must  be  mentioned,  and  the  value 
depends  on  the  trump  and  on  the 
number  of  Matadores  held,  as  will 
be  explained.  The  bids  are  as  fol- 
lows: 

i .  Simple  Game,  or  Simple.  When 
the  highest  bidder  has  bid  a  simple, 
the  suit  named  in  his  bid  becomes 
trumps,  unless  he  chooses  to  change 


SKAT 


642 


SKAT 


it  to  a  higher  suit.  (The  suits  rank 
is  the  same  order  as  the  Matadores.) 
The  successful  bidder  takes  the  Skat 
into  his  hand,  and  then  discards  two 
(including  one  or  both  of  the  Skat 
cards  if  he  wishes). 

2.  Tourne  (too r- nay).     The   suc- 
cessful maker  turns  up  as  trump  one 
of  the  Skat  cards,  and  then,  taking 
the  Skat   into  his  hand,  discards  as 
in    simple.      But   if  the   turned-up 
card  is  a   Matadore  or  a  Seven  he 
may   change   his   bid  as    explained 
under    Grand    Tourne",    and    Null 
Tournd. 

3.  Solo.     The  trump  is    the   suit 
announced  by  the  highest  bidder  in 
his  bid,  or  he  may  change   it  to   a 
higher  suit.     The  Skat  is  not  looked 
at  till  the  close  of  the  hand,  when 
the  value  of  its  cards  is  added  to 
the  lone  player's  count. 

4.  Grand  Solo.     This  is  like  Solo, 
except  that   no   suit   is  announced 
with   the  bid,  and  the   only  trumps 
are  the  four  Matadores. 

5.  Grand   Ouvert.      Like    Grand 
Solo,  but  after  the  first  trick  is  taken 
all  play  with  their  cards  lying  face 
upward  on  the  table. 

6.  Grand     Tojtrne".      When    the 
highest  bidder  has  bid   Tourne,  and 
turns  up  a  Matadore,  he  may  change 
his  bid  to  Grand,  still  taking  up  the 
Skat  cards,  but  he  may  not  change 
if  he  has  looked  at   the  other  Skat 
card. 

7.  Null  Solo.     The  player  making 
this  bid  undertakes  to  win  no  trick 
at  all,  otherwise  he  loses.     No  points 
are  reckoned,  the  Knaves  cease  to 
be  Matadores,  and  the  cards  rank 
as  in  whist.     There   is   no   trump, 
and  the  lone  player   plays  without 
the  Skat. 

8.  Null  Ouvert.      The    same   as 
Null  Solo,  except  that  after  the  first 
trick  the  hand  of   the  bidder  is  laid 
face  upward  on  the  table,  while  his 
opponents  play  as  usual. 

9.  Grand  Null  Ouvert,  or  Revolu- 
tion.    The  cards  of  all  the  players 
are  turned  face  upward  on  the  table 
before  the  first  card  is  led.    The 


opponents  of  the  highest  bidder  can 
exchange  what  cards  they  please 
before  playing  begins,  and  can  also 
consult  during  the  game.  The  lone 
player  takes  the  Skat  into  his  hand 

10.  Null  Tourne.     When  the  bid 
derof  Tourne  turns  a  Seven  he  may 
change  his  bid  to  Null,  before  look- 
ing at   the   other   Skat   card.     He 
takes  the  Skat  into  his  hand  as  be- 
fore, but  there  is  no  trump. 

11.  Null    Tourne"  Ouvert.     After 
taking  up  the  second  Skat  card  in 
Null   Tourne  he  can  again  change 
his  bid  and  play  as  in  Null  Ouvert. 

It  will  aid  the  learner  to  remem- 
ber these  bids  if  he  recollects  : 

1.  That  in   Tourne  bids  (French 
Tourne",  turned)  the  Skat  cards  are 
taken  into  the   hand,  and  that  one 
of  them  is  turned  for  trump  (though 
in  Grand  Tourne  and   Null  Tourne 
it  does  not  count  as  such) ; 

2.  That  in  Solo  bids  (Italian  Solo, 
alone)  the  Skat  is  not  looked  at  till 
after  playing  is  ended  ; 

3.  That   in  Grand   bids  the   four 
Matadores  are  the  only  trumps  ; 

4.  That  in  Ouvert  bids   (French 
Ouvert,  open),  one  or  more  hands 
are  exposed  while  playing;  and, 

5.  That  in  Null  bids  the  rank  of 
the  cards  and  method  of   counting 
is  changed. 

It  will  be  noted  that  with  some  of 
these  bids  it  is  much  easier  for  the 
bidder  to  make  his  61  points  than 
with  others,  and  they  are  accord- 
ingly given  different  values,  which 
the  winner  adds  to  his  score  as  be- 
fore stated.  The  value  of  any  bid 
is  calculated  by  multiplying  its  unit- 
value  (given  below)  by  a  number 
depending  on  the  Matadores  in 
hand  and  other  things,  as  explained 
farther  on.  The  unit-values  are  as 
follows : 

In  Diamonds,  Hearts,  Spades,  Clubs. 

Simple,  i  234 

Tourne,         5678 
Solo,  9         10         ii       12 

Grand  Tourne,  12;  Grand  Solo,  16; 
Grand  Ouvert,  24.  Null  Tourne 


SKAT 


643 


SKAT 


16;  Null  Solo,  24;  Null  Tourne 
Ouvert,  32 ;  Null  Solo  Ouvert,  48. 
Revolution,  72. 

It  will  now  be  explained  how  the 
numbers  are  obtained  by  which  the 
unit-values  must  be  multiplied. 

Matadores.  In  announcing  any 
bid  except  a  Null  bid,  the  bidder 
must  say  how  many  Matadores  he 
has  in  unbroken  order,  beginning 
with  the  highest.  In  bidding,  all 
trumps  count  as  Matadores.  If  he 
has  not  the  highest  Matadore 
(Knave  of  Clubs)  he  can  announce 
none.  If  he  has  the  highest  but  not 
the  next,  he  bids  "  with  one  Mata- 
dore," no  matter  how  many  lower 
ones  he  has.  If  he  has  the  highest 
three,  but  not  the  fourth,  he  must 
bid  "  with  three  Matadores,"  and 
so  on.  In  the  bids  where  the  Skat 
cards  are  not  looked  at  till  the  play- 
ing is  over,  any  Matadores  in  the 
Skat  count  in  reckoning  the  value 
of  the  hand.  Thus  if  a  player  bid 
"with  three  Matadores,"  having 
also  the  fifth,  and  the  fourth  is  in 
the  Skat,  his  bid  is  reckoned  as  if  it 
had  been  "with  five  Matadores." 
Absence  of  Matadores  counts  the 
same  as  their  presence,  as  without 
these  cards  the  difficulty  of  winning 
is  increased.  Thus,  if  a  player  has 
not  the  highest,  he  can  bid  "  with- 
out one  Matadore;"  if  the  highest 
three  are  wanting,  "  without  three 
Matadores"  and  so  on.  In  forming 
the  multiplier  of  the  unit-value, 
bids  with  or  without  I  Matadore 
count  i  ;  with  or  without  2  Mata- 
dores count  2  ;  with  or  without  3 
Matadores  count  3  ;  and  so  on. 

Schneider  and  Schwartz.  If  a 
player  make  91  points  in  playing 
he  makes  his  opponents  Schneider 
(German  Schneider,  a  tailor),  and  if 
he  makes  all  the  points  (120)  he 
makes  them  Schwartz  (German 
schwartz,  black).  In  these  cases  he 
is  also  said  to  win  Schneider  or 
Schwartz.  If  he  lose,  and  his  op- 
ponents make  91  or  120  points,  they 
win  Schneider  or  Schwartz. 

A    player     may     bid    to     make 


Schneider  or  Schwartz,  in  which 
case  he  loses  altogether  if  he  does 
not  do  so.  The  value  of  these  points 
differs  according  as  they  are  made 
when  bid  or  not  bid.  They  count 
toward  forming  the  multiplier  as 
follows : 

Schneider  made,  not  bid,         I. 

Schneider  bid  and  won,  2. 

Schwartz  made,  not  bid,          3. 

Schwartz  bid  and  won,  4. 

(The  loss  of  a  player  when  he  bids 
and  loses  Schneider  or  Schwartz  is 
told  below). 

The  value  of  a  bid  is  found  by  tak- 
ing its  unit-value,  and  multiplying 
by  the  sum  of  the  points  for  Mata- 
dores and  Schneider  or  Schwartz, 
plus  one.  Thus,  to  find  the  value  of 
a  Spade-Tourne  bid,  without  four 
Matadores,  in  playing  which  a 
Schneider  is  won: 

The  Unit  Value  is  7. 

Four  Matadores  count  4. 

Schneider  won,  not  bid,  counts  I. 

We  must  therefore  multiply  7  by 
4+1  +  i,  or  6,  and  obtain  42  as  the 
value  of  the  bid.  This  seems  diffi- 
cult at  first,  but  with  a  little  prac- 
tice the  value  of  any  bid  can  be  told 
very  quickly. 

If  a  player  bid  to  make  Schneider 
and  fails  to  make  his  91  points,  his 
opponents  score  what  he  would 
have  scored  had  he  won.  If  he 
fails  to  make  even  31  points,  mak- 
ing himself  Schneider,  they  score 
in  addition  what  his  bid  would  have 
been  worth  without  his  announced 
Schneider. 

In  the  case  given  above,  if  the 
player  had  bid  to  make  Schneider 
and  won,  he  would  have  made  49. 
If  he  had  lost,  his  opponents  would 
score  49.  If  he  was  made  Schneider 
in  addition,  they  would  score  49  + 
35,  or  84. 

The  game  of  Skat  differs  accord- 
ing to  the  bid  that  is  made,  and  to 
give  an  example  of  each  would  take 
too  much  space.  The  following 
hints  may  aid  the  beginner: 

The  highest  bid  on  which  61 
points  are  likely  to  be  won  should 


SKAT 


644 


SKAT 


be  made.  Making  61  points  de- 
pends not  so  much  on  the  counting- 
cards  in  hand  as  on  those  that  are 
likely  to  be  captured. 

In  those  bids  where  the  trump  is 
turned,  not  made,  the  player  should 
have  high  Matadores  and  other 
high  cards  to  begin  with. 

Solo  bids  require  stronger  cards 
than  bids  where  the  Skat  is  taken 
into  the  hand. 

Null  should  not  be  bid  unless  the 
player  has  three  Sevens,  and  no 
commanding  card  in  his  hand. 

Grand  should  usually  not  be  bid 
without  four  Matadores,  unless  the 
other  cards  are  very  high. 

In  playing,  the  highest  bidder 
should  remember  that  all  cards  not 
in  his  own  hand  are  against  him 
(except  when  the  Skat  is  not  taken 
up).  On  the  contrary,  each  of  the 
opponents  is  in  doubt  as  to  whether 
his  friend  or  his  enemy  holds  any 
card  that  is  not  in  his  own  hand. 
The  opponents  of  the  bidder  can 
assist  each  other  in  many  ways.  It 
is  better  for  the  one  at  the  left  to 
get  the  lead,  for  then  the  other  will 
play  last,  and  can  put  on  a  counting- 
card  or  not,  according  as  his  part- 
ner or  the  lone  player  has  taken  the 
trick. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  Before  the  game  begins,  each 
player  draws  a  card  from  the  pack. 
He  who  draws  the  lowest  is  dealer, 
and  the   others  sit   at   his   left   in 
order,  beginning  with  the  holder  of 
the  next  to  the  lowest,  and  ending 
with  the  holder  of  the  highest  card. 
If  two  players  draw   cards   of  the 
same  value  they  must  draw  again. 

2.  The  deal  passes  in  order  to  the 
left,  but  if  more  than  three   play, 
the  dealer  is  never  an  active  player, 
cards  being  dealt  only  to  the  three 
in  order  at  the  dealer's  left  hand. 

3.  Each   player   must   count   his 
cards    before    he    raises    them,   to 
make  sure  he  has  the  right  number. 

4.  If  a  misdeal  is  discovered  be- 
fore a  card  is  led,  there  must  be  a 


fresh  deal  by  the  same  dealer;  but 
if  play  begins  while  a  player  has  the 
wrong  number  of  cards,  his  side 
forfeits  the  game. 

5.  If  players  on  both  sides  begin 
to  play  with  the  wrong  number  of 
cards,   that   hand   does   not  count, 
and  the  deal  passes  to  the  next. 

6.  If  a  player  deal  out  of  turn  and 
play   has   begun,  the  deal   is  good, 
and   the   next  deal   passes  to  the 
player  on  his  left. 

7.  In  case  of  two  bids  of  equal 
value,   the   elder  hand  has  prefer- 
ence. 

8.  The    successful     bidder     may 
change  his  bid  to  a  higher,  but  not 
to  a  lower  one. 

9.  If  a   player   revoke,   his    side 
loses   the  hand,  unless  the  revoke 
is    corrected  before  the  next  lead. 

10.  If  a  card  be  led,  or  played, 
out  of  turn,  it  must  be  withdrawn, 
unless  all  have  played. 

11.  A  card  so  withdrawn,  or  ex- 
posed   in   any   other  way,  must  be 
played   afterward  at  the  command 
of  an  opponent,   unless   such    play 
would  be  a  revoke. 

12.  Only  the   last  trick   may  be 
looked  at. 

13.  If  either  or  both  of  the  Skat 
cards  are  lifted  by  one  who  is  not 
entitled  to  do  so,  his  side  loses  the 
game. 

14.  If  the  bidder,  after  the   first 
trick   has   been  played,  and  before 
the  next  lead,  sees  that  he  is  sure 
to  be  beaten,  he  may  throw  down 
his  cards  and   give  his   opponents 
their  points,  thus  securing  himself 
against   being  made   Schneider  or 
Schwartz. 

History.  Skat  is  a  German  game. 
It  is  said  to  have  originated  in 
Altenburg  in  the  present  century, 
and  is  probably  a  mixture  of  Hom- 
bre,  Solo,  and  other  games.  It  is 
very  popular  in  Germany,  where 
many  different  kinds  of  Skat  are 
played.  The  kind  described  here, 
which  is  played  in  America,  is 
called  in  Germany  Reichskat  (Regu- 
lation Skat). 


SKATING 


645 


SKATING 


SKATING.  Skates  are  ground 
either  perfectly  flat  on  the  bottom, 
or  with  a  slight  groove,  so  that  the 
sharp  edge  holds  the  ice.  The  bot- 
tom may  be  straight,  or  slightly 
curved  like  a  rocker.  They  were 
formerly  always  secured  to  the  foot 
by  straps,  but  now  usually  by 
clamps,  fastening  with  a  screw  or 
lever. 


Strap  Skates. 

In  the  strap  skate,  if  a  strap  breaks 
it  can  be  replaced  in  an  instant  or 
mended  at  any  harness-maker's, 


Clamp  Skates. 

whereas  a  broken  clamp  skate  can 
usually  be  mended  or  replaced  only 
with  great  trouble,  unless  the  wearer 
lives  in  a  city,  and  even  then  he 
must  wait  some  time.  But,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  strap  skate  can  be 
buckled  securely  to  the  foot  only  by 
pulling  the  straps  so  tight  that  they 


interfere  with  the  circulation  of  the 
blood,  making  the  feet  cold  and  un- 
comfortable. It  also  takes  much 
time  to  put  it  on  properly.  Any 
clamp  skate  can  be  put  on  in  a  few 
seconds,  but  all  are  apt  to  come  off 
under  great  strain  unless  the  clamps 
have  been  properly  adjusted.  Those 
in  which  the  clamps  are  fitted  with 
spikes  sometimes  tear  off  part  of 
the  sole  of  the  shoe.  Screw  skates 
are  simple,  and  can  be  tightened 
easily  ;  but  the  screw  is  apt  to  loosen, 
and  in  those  where  the  strain  comes 
directly  upon  it,  it  often  breaks. 
Taking  all  things  into  considera- 
tion, a  lever  skate  is  best  if  it  is 
properly  used,  but  skaters  with  weak 
ankles  should  use  a  heel-strap  in 
addition.  Shoes  with  thick  soles 
must  be  worn,  that  the  pressure  of 
the  clamps  may  not  bend  them,  and 
the  clamps  should  be  properly  ad- 
justed to  the  shoes  once  for  all,  so 
that  the  skates  may  be  fastened  by 
simply  moving  the  lever,  without  a 
series  of  trials  to  see  when  the 
clamps  fit  properly. 

The  beginner's  chief  difficulty 
usually  is  to  keep  the  ankles  stiff. 
When  this  has  been  overcome,  he 
may  try  walking  on  the  ice  on  his 
skates.  He  will  see  that  it  is  nec- 
essary to  turn  the  foot  that  remains 
on  the  ice  a  little  to  one  side  to 
prevent  its  slipping  back  while  he  is 
advancing  the  other,  and  also  that 
the  less  he  lifts  the  forward  foot  the 
better,  it  being  easier  to  slide  it 
along  the  ice,  while  the  rearward 
foot  pushes.  At  the  end  of  the 
slide,  or  stroke,  the  rear  foot  is 
brought  for  ward  ready  to  make  a 
stroke  in  its  turn.  The  skate-marks 
will  be  something  as  in  Fig.  I.  (In 
the  diagrams,  the  full  lines  show 
the  track  of  the  left  foot,  the  dotted 
ones  tha'i  of  the  right.  The  foot- 
print shows  always  the  position  of 
the  skate  at  the  beginning  of  the 
stroke.)  At  the  end  of  each  stroke, 
the  foot  which  is  about  to  leave  the 
j  ice  gives  a  sidewise  push  to  give 
,  impetus  to  the  other.  The  body 


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646 


SKATING 


must  be  inclined  so  as  to  throw  its 
weight  on  the  advancing  foot.  The 
rear  foot  may  now  be  held  in  the 
air  till  the  forward  one  has  finished 
its  stroke,  and  the  stroke  may  be 
lengthened  by  giving  a  more  vigor- 
ous push,  as  in  Fig.  2.  Plain  skat- 
ing of  this  kind  may  be  varied  in 
several  ways.  Thus  it  may  be 
changed  to  a  motion  resembling 
running,  the  strokes  being  nearly 
straight  ahead  and  the  push  given 
by  turning  the  toe  slightly.  This  is 


Fig.  i. 


Fig.  2.  Fig.  3. 


an  awkward  motion,  but  much  used 
in  playing  running  games,  where 
quick  dodging  is  necessary.  The 
pushing  foot,  instead  of  being  lifted 
from  the  ice,  may  remain  on  it,  the 
push  being  given  gradually  so  that 
the  skate-marks  are  like  Fig.  3. 

A  push  is  given  by  the  left  foot  at 
2,  and  by  the  right  foot  at  i,  but 
after  the  stroke  has  been  learned 
this  push  is  scarcely  perceptible  even 
to  the  skater.  The  body  is  inclined 
in  the  direction  of  the  stroke,  as  in 
ordinary  skating. 

From  this  point  the  skater  should 
practise  with  a  view  to  using  the 
outside  edge.  If  in  making  the 
stroke  the  opposite  shoulder  should 
be  thrown  a  little  forward,  and  the 
body  inclined  toward  the  advancing 
side,  the  skate  will  rest  on  its  outside 


edge  and  the  skate-mark  will  be 
more  of  a  curve,  as  in  Fig.  4  or  Fig. 
5.  To  avoid  changing  to  the  inside 
edge  of  the  skate,  in  giving  the 
push  for  the  next  stroke,  the  rear 


Fig.  4.  Fig.  5. 

foot  may  be  crossed  over  the  ad- 
vancing one  in  beginning  the  stroke, 


Fig.  6. 


Fig.  7. 


after  being  swung  slowly  around  to 
aid  the  advancing  foot  in  making 


Fig.  8. 

the    curve.       Skilful    skaters    can 
easily  make  a  complete  circle  on 


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647 


SKATING 


the  outer  edge  of  one  skate,  and 
another  on  the  other  in  an  opposite 
direction,  as  in  Figs.  6  and  7,  thus 
moving  over  and  over  on  a  figure  8. 
Inside  Edge.  Figs.  8  to  n  show 
the  same  strokes  made  on  the  inside 
edge  of  the  skate,  which  is  some- 
what more  difficult. 


Fig.  10.  Fig.  ii. 

Combinations.  By  using  the  out- 
side edge  always  with  one  foot  and 
the  inside  with  the  other,  a  circle  is 
described  on  the  ice  in  the  direction 
of  the  foot  that  skates  on  the  out- 


Fig.  12. 


Fig.  13. 


side  edge.  Each  foot  must  be 
crossed  over  the  other  at  the  begin- 
ning of  its  stroke,  but  the  foot  on 
the  outside  of  the  circle  must  be 
crossed  farther  than  the  other.  Figs. 
12  to  15  show  other  combinations  of 
inside  and  outside  edge. 

To  skate  backward,  the  learner 
must  reverse  the  directions  given 
above  for  skating  forward,  begin- 
ning by  trying  to  walk  backward 
slowly  on  his  skates.  By  combining 


the  inside  and  outside  edges,  for- 
ward and  backward,  a  great  variety 


Fig.  16.  Fig.  17. 

of  fancy  steps  can  be  executed,  of 
which  hints  for  several  are  given  in 


Fig.  18.  Fig.  19. 

the  diagrams.     Figs.  16  to  22  show 
backward  motions  alone.     Figs.  23 


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648 


SKATING 


to  26,  combinations  of  forward  and 
backward.  The  simpler  ones  may 
be  understood  without  explanation1 
In  Fig.  13  the  feet  follow  nearly  the 
same  path,  the  left  leading.  In  Fig. 
25  the  feet  both  move  forward  at 


Fig.  20. 


Fig.  22. 


first,  the  left  on  the 
outer  edge  from  i 
to  2,  and  the  right 
on  the  inner  from 
4  to  5,  then  both 
change  to  the 
backward  stroke, 


the  left  taking  the  inner  and  the 


Fig.  25. 

right  the  outer  edge.  In  Fig.  26 
there  is  a  change  from  forward  to 
backward,  or  the  reverse,  at  each 


angle  in  the  curve.     Fig.  27  shows 
attitudes  in  skating. 


Fig.  26. 

Stopping.  When  the  skate  run- 
ners are  not  curved  up  behind,  the 
easiest  way  to  stop  is  to  rise  on  one 
or  both  heels,  thus  digging  them 
into  the  ice.  When  the  skates  are 
curved  behind,  one  skate  may  be 
held  at  right  angles  to  the  forward 
direction  and  tipped  slightly,  so  that 
its  edge  will  scrape.  Another  way 
is  to  place  both  feet  in  nearly  a 
straight  line,  the  heels  toward  each 
other,  so  that  the  skater  describes 
a  circle,  till  his  motion  is  spent,  or 
the  feet  may  be  held  firmly  at  a 
slight  angle  with  the  toes  pointing 
a  little  inward. 

Safety.  A  skater  may  glide  over 
unsafe  ice  by  motion  previously 
gained  where  it  would  be  dangerous 
to  make  a  stroke.  Ice  will  also  sup- 
port one  lying  flat  on  it  when  it 
would  break  if  he  stood  upright,  be- 
cause when  he  is  lying  down  his 
weight  is  distributed,  instead  of 
pressing  all  on  one  spot.  The 
strongest  ice  is  that  generally 
known  as  "black"  ice,  being  per- 
fectly clear  and  free  from  air  bub- 
bles. It  is  not  really  black,  but 
perfectly  transparent,  and  the  skater 
over  it  can  sometimes  see  objects 
at  the  bottom  of  the  stream  dis- 
tinctly at  a  depth  of  fifteen  or  twen- 
ty feet.  It  appears  black  because 
it  does  not  reflect  the  light  of  the 
sky,  as  bubbly  or  snow-ice  does. 
Black  ice  half  an  inch  thick,  which 


SKATING 


649 


SKATING 


rests  directly  on  the  water,  will  bear 
a  skater.  It  is  very  tough,  and 
bends  greatly  before  it  breaks,  little 
cracks  running  through  it  in  all  di- 
rections. Ice  filled  with  bubbles  is 


Fig.  27. 

not  so  tough,  and  ice  which  has 
snow  mixed  with  it  is  weakest  of  all. 
Snow  ice  two  inches  thick  is  no 
safer  than  black  ice  half  an  inch 
thick.  It  bends  very  little  and 
cracks  suddenly.  In  general,  it  is 
best  not  to  venture  on  ordinary  ice 
till  it  is  three  or  four  inches  thick, 
and  to  examine  carefully  in  a  thaw. 
When  the  water  in  a  pond  or  river 
falls  after  the  ice  has  formed,  the 
ice  falls  with  it  in  the  middle,  but 
is  held  up  by  the  shore  on  the  edges. 
Near  the  shore,  therefore,  it  is  not 
supported  by  the  water,  and  is  more 
apt  to  break.  It  often  parts  from 
the  shore  by  its  own  weight,  or 
long  cracks  run  along  the  banks 
with  a  loud  noise,  called  "  boom- 
ing." Ice  on  any  water  is  safe  in 
some  places  and  unsafe  in  others. 
Springs  or  currents  of  slightly 
warmer  water  may  prevent  the 
water  from  freezing,  making  "air- 
holes," or  even  large  open  spaces. 
The  channel  of  a  river,  or  the  parts 
of  a  lake  near  the  inlet  or  outlet, 
usually  freeze  last,  because  the  wa- 
ter there  is  in  motion  ;  and  when 
they  freeze,  they  usually  become 
covered  with  black  ice,  so  that  it  is 
difficult  to  tell  at  a  distance  whether 
they  are  open  or  not.  No  skater 
should  venture  on  such  a  place  till 


he  knows  it  to  be  safe.     On  lakes 
surrounded  by  hills,  gusts  of  wind 
often   blow   continually    in    certain 
places,  keeping   the  water   in    mo- 
tion, so  that  it  does  not  freeze,  and 
there  are  there- 
fore  large  open 
spaces.    When  a 
skater      is      in 
doubt      as      to 
whether  ice  will 
bear  or  not,  the 
best  way   is    to 
test  it  by  throw- 
ing     a      heavy 
stone      on      it. 
Should  the  skat- 
er find  that   he 
is     on    a    weak 
spot,  he  should 

not  stop,  but  turn  in  a  sweeping 
curve  and  get  off  as  quickly  as 
he  can,  without  straining  the  ice 
by  taking  a  stroke,  if  he  is  going 
fast  enough.  If  necessary,  he 
may  lie  down  and  roll  to  a  place 
of  safety.  If  he  go  through  the  ice 
and  the  water  be  over  his  head, 
there  is  nothing  to  do  but  to  seize 
the  edge  of  the  hole  and  cry  for 
help.  As  he  goes  in  he  should 
stretch  out  his  arms  on  either  side 
as  far  as  possible.  If  he  has  slipped 
into  an  air-hole,  the  surrounding  ice 
may  be  strong  enough  to  let  him 
climb  out  unaided.  His  compan- 
ions should  get  a  board  or  fence- 
rail  and  shove  it  out  to  him.  If 
none  is  at  hand,  one  skater  should 
lie  flat  on  the  safe  ice  and  one  lying 
behind  should  push  him,  holding 
his  feet,  as  near  the  hole  as  possible; 
another  may,  if  necessary,  lie  be- 
hind the  second,  and  so  on  until 
the  line  reaches  safe  ice.  So  long 
as  each  holds  tightly,  no  one  can  be 
carried  under  the  ice  even  if  it  break 
again. 

Unless  the  weather  is  very  cold 
the  skater  should  not  wear  his  over- 
coat. He  may  wear  a  knit  woollen 
jacket  under  his  coat.  Skaters  often 
build  fires  on  the  ice,  which,  es- 
pecially at  night,  adds  much  to  the 


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650 


SKATING 


sport.  A  fire  may  be  built  on  mod- 
erately thick  ice  without  danger,  for 
the  layer  of  ashes  that  forms  beneath 
it  is  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  and 
prevents  the  ice  from  melting. 

Skating  Contests,  These  are  of 
two  kinds — races  and  contests  of 
skill  in  fancy  skating.  The  former 
are  usually  governed  by  the  same 
laws  as  running  races  (see  ATHLET- 
ICS), and  the  latter  are  regulated  by 
the  rules  given  below,  or  similar 
ones.  The  programme  of  events  is 
made  out  beforehand,  and  includes  a 
number  of  well-known  movements, 
ending  with  an  exhibition  of  "  spe- 
cialties," in  which  each  skater  per- 
forms such  other  figures  as  he 
wishes.  When  a  skater  begins  to 
execute  his  figure  he  is  said  to  "  take 
the  surface."  The  judges  decide  at 
the  opening  of  the  contest  on  a  scale 
of  marking,  which  may  range  from 
o  for  the  poorest  up  to  10  for  the 
best. 

RULES  OF  SKA  TING  CONTESTS. 

1.  The  judges  shall,  at  the  com- 
pletion of  each  movement  in  a  con- 
test, mark   on   a  slip  of  paper  the 
number  of  points  for  each  contest- 
ant, and  deposit  the  slip  in  a  closed 
box ;  these  slips  shall  not  be  referred 
to  till  the  close  of  the  contest,  when 
the  judges  shall  foot  up  all  the  slips, 
and  the  number  of  points  gained  by  i 
each    contestant    shall     constitute 
their  award,   which  shall  be  final. 
In  case  of  a  tie  the  contest  shall  be 
decided  by  a  general  display  of  com- 
bined movements  at  the  option  of 
the  contestants. 

2.  The  order  of  taking  the  sur- 
face by  each  contestant  shall  be  de- 
cided by    lot,    and    the  number    of 
figures  to  be  executed  shall  be  de- 
termined  as  nearly  as  possible  by 
the  number  of  contestants. 

3.  No  point  shall  be  given  for  a 
movement  under  the  head  of  spe- 
cialties, if  the  skater  who  executed 
it  has  executed  the  same  movement 
during  the  programme;  but   if  the 
skater,  under  a  particular  figure  ex.- 


ecutes  a  movement  which  the  judges 
rule  to  belong  to  another  figure,  or 
to  specialties,  the  skater  shall  have 
the  right  to  execute  that  figure  in 
its  proper  place. 

4.  In  specialties,  the  leading  con- 
testant shall  execute  one  specialty, 
which  his  opponent  shall  then  exe- 
cute if  he  can  ;  the  second  contest- 
ant shall  then  execute  another,  to 
be  copied  by  his  opponent,  if  he  can, 
and  so  on,  leading   alternately  till 
the  contestant  whose  turn  it  may 
be  to  lead  shall  not  be  able  to  exe- 
cute  any  more,  when    he  shall  sit 
down,  and  the  judges  shall  score  on 
the  merits  up  to  that  point. 

5.  When   the   contestant   falls  in 
executing  any  movement   he  sliall 
forfeit   one  point;  if,  however,  the 
judges    unanimously    consider  the 
fall  to  have  been  occasioned  by  un- 
avoidable accident  (such  as  an  ob- 
struction   in   the    surface,    or  the 
breaking  of  a  skate),  they  may  allow 
him  to  recommence  the  figure  with- 
out  forfeit.      In   specialties,   a   fall 
only  counts  against  the  skater  in  the 
particular  specialty  in  which   it  oc- 
curs.    When  any  part  of  the  person 
except  the  feet  or  hands  touches  the 
surface,  the  skater  is  considered  to 
have  fallen. 

Skier  or  Snow  skates.  These  hold 
a  middle  place  between  ice-skates 
and  SNOW-SHOES.  They  are  much 
used  by  the  Norwegians,  who  are 
very  skilful  with  them.  Formerly 
regiments  of  soldiers  in  Norway 
were  equipped  with  skier,  on  which 
they  performed  many  remarkable 
evolutions;  but  the  last  body  of  this 
kind  was  disbanded  in  1860.  The 
ski  is  a  strip  of  wood  5  feet  long, 
2j  to  3J  inches  wide,  and  i  to  i£ 
inches  thick,  tapering  toward  the 
ends,  and  having  the  toe  turned 
up  to  the  height  of  about  4  inches. 
The  movement  of  the  snow-skater 
is  a  sort  of  shuffle,  and  the  skilful 
wearer  can  go  on  these  skates  very 
swiftly  along  a  level  surface  of  hard- 
ened snow,  or  even  up  a  steep  in- 
cline, by  zig-zaggmg.  Down-hill 


SKATING 


651 


SKATING 


motion  requires  no  effort,  the  skater 
simply  coasting,  as  on  a  sled. 

Roller-skating.  In  1819  skates 
having  three  rollers  of  copper  in 
place  of  the  runner  were  used  in 
Paris,  but  they  were  not  popular. 
On  April  16,  1849,  they  were  used 
in  the  same  city  in  the  skaters' 
ballet  in  Meyerbeer's  opera  of  "  The 
Prophet."  But  the  first  successful 
roller-skate  was  invented  in  1869 
by  James  L.  Plimpton,  of  New 
York.  It  rests  on  four  wooden 
wheels,  two  at  the  toe  and  two  at 
the  heel,  so  hinged  that  they  remain 
flat  on  the  surface  even  when  the 


foot  is  inclined  to  one  side.  The 
principle  is  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion, in  which  AB  represents  the 
foot-piece,  RR  two  of  the  rollers,  e 
an  inclined  pivot  on  which  the 
roller-axle  turns,  and  which  is  fast- 
ened to  the  foot-piece  at  a.  If  the 
body  inclines,  turning  over  in  the 
direction  of  the  lower  arrow,  the 
foot-piece  tips  up  as  shown  at  vx, 
and  the  wheels  are  thrown  around 
so  that  the  skater  moves  off  in  the 
direction  of  the  arrow  z.  The 
curve  described  by  the  skater  is 
thus  toward  that  side  on  which  he 
inclines  his  body,  just  as  in  skating 


Principle  of  the  Roller-skate. 


on  ice.  Roller-skating  began  to 
be  popular  in  the  United  States 
about  1875,  and  from  188410  1886  it 
amounted  to  what  is  often  called  a 
"craze."  Every  town  had  its  rink, 
and  there  were  few  persons  who 
did  not  at  least  try  the  sport;  but 
since  that  time  it  has  declined  in 
favor.  Many  games  were  played 
on  skates  in  the  rinks,  especially 
POLO.  The  principal  difference  be- 
tween ice-skating  and  roller-skat- 
ing is  that  the  later  requires  more 
exertion,  since  the  friction  is  great- 
er ;  but  the  motion  is  not  quite  the 
same,  and  a  good  ice-skater  is  often 
unable  to  use  roller-skates  the  first 
time  he  tries  them  on. 

History.  Skating  probably  origi- 
nated in  the  north  of  Europe,  where 
skates  have  long  been  used  to  travel 
from  place  to  place  on  the  ice;  but 
skating  as  a  sport  has  been  devel- 
oped in  temperate  countries  where 
there  is  less  snow,  such  as  England, 
Germany,  Holland,  and  the  United 


States.  In  Holland,  where  there 
are  many  canals,  skates  are  widely 
used. 

The  earliest  skates  were  of  bone 
fastened  to  the  feet  with  cords. 
Such  skates  were  used  in  London 
in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.,  but  the 
sport  first  became  common  in  Eng- 
land in  1662,  after  the  restoration 
of  the  Stuarts.  It  was  not  until 
1830  that  the  first  club  devoted  to 
figure-skating  was  formed  in  Eng- 
land, but  since  that  time  the  art  has 
been  greatly  developed,  and  hun- 
dreds of  new  figures  invented,  some 
of  which  require  the  co-operation 
of  as  many  as  eight  skaters.  Ameri- 
can skaters  also  are  very  skilful  in 
figure-skating,  and  they  hold  the 
best  records  for  fast  skating.  The 
fastest  times  for  various  distances 
are  given  in  the  appendix. 

In  1886  the  National  Skating  As- 
sociation was  organized,  and  it  has 
since  held  annual  contests  for  the 
championship  in  or  near  New  York 


SKATING 


652 


SKATING 


City.  The  events  in  these  contests 
are  races  for  one  hundred  yards, 
one  furlong,  quarter  mile,  half  mile, 
one  mile,  five  miles,  ten  miles,  and 
twenty-five  miles,  and  a  trial  of 
skill  in  figure-skating. 

Skate-sailing,     On  a  windy  day  it 
is  possible  to  move  very  rapidly,  let- 


Skate-sailing. — Fig.  i. 

ting  the  wind  blow  the  skater  along, 
especially  if  he  hold  out  his  overcoat 


on  both  sides,  or  carry  an  open  um- 
brella; but  to  get  back,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  skate  against  the  wind. 
If  the  skater  carries  a  frame  fitted 
with  a  sail,  so  that  he  may  turn 
it  at  an  angle  with  his  course,  he 
may  with  practice  "tack"  back  like 
a  sail-boat  (see  SAILING). 


Skate-sailing. — Fig.  2. 

There  are  several  forms  of  skate- 
sails.     The  oldest  is  stretched  on  an 


Skate-sailing.— Fig.  3. 


oblong  frame  about  three  feet  high 
by  six  feet  long,  and  carried  by  a 
spar  running  horizontally  along  the 
middle.  The  "  Cape  Vincent"  rig 
(Fig.  i)  is  triangular,  the  longest 
side  being  from  eight  to  fifteen  feet 


long.  The  "  Norton  rig  (Figs.  2,  3) 
invented  by  Col.  Charles  L.  Norton 
(late  president  of  the  Canoe  Club), 
of  New  York,  consists  of  two  sails, 
each  about  three  feet  three  inches 
square,  fastened  together  corner- 


SKATING 


653 


SKATING 


wise,  about  a  foot  apart,  by  a  spar 
made  of  two  strips  of  wood,  as  seen  in 
the  illustration.  The  skater  stands 
between  the  sails  (Fig.  3),  thus 
having  nothing  to  obstruct  his  view. 
The  sails  are  kept  stretched  by  being 
buttoned  to  the  ends  of  the  spar  and 
yards,  and  are  connected  by  a  short 
rope.  Any  of  these  rigs  may  be 
made  of  light  wood  and  stout  cot- 
ton cloth.  The  rig  is  held  firmly  in 
the  hands  or  under  the  arms,  and 
any  one  who  understands  SAILING 
a  boat  will  be  able  to  move  in  any 
direction  by  its  aid,  if  there  is  plenty 
of  wind. 

The  English  Rig  is  a  small  lateen 
sail  (see  Sailing)  fastened  to  a  mast 
which  rests  in  straps  bound  around 
one  of  the  skater's  legs.  He  holds 
the  rig  by  passing  one  arm  around 
the  mast,  and  grasping  the  upper 
spar  with  the  other  (Fig.  4).  It  has 


Skate-sailing. — Fig.  4. 


the  disadvantage  of  being  fastened 
to  the  sailor,  so  that  he  cannot  eas- 
ily get  loose  in  case  of  accident. 

Skate-sails  have  long  been  in  use 
in  Norway,  Denmark,  and  other 
northern  countries  (Fig.  5  shows 
one  of  the  rigs  used  there),  but  they 
have  only  recently  been  introduced 
into  this  country.  The  sport  has  be- 
come popular  in  some  towns. 

The  following  rules  are  suggested 
by  Colonel  Norton  for  the  govern- 
ance of  skate-sailing  regattas.  The 


nautical  terms  are  explained  in  the 
article  on  SAILING. 


Skate-sailing. — Fig.  5. 


RULES  OF  SKATE-SAILING. 

1.  Those  on  the  port  tack  must 
give  way  to  those  on  the  starboard 
tack. 

2.  When  moving  side  by  side,  or 
nearly  so,  on  the  same  tack,  those 
to  windward  must  give  way  to  those 
to   leeward   when  requested  to  do 
so,  if  there   is   an   obstacle  in  the 
course  of  the  leeward   most.     But 
the   leeward   skate-sailor   must    go 
about  or  change  his  course  at  the 
same  time  as  the  windward  skate- 
sailor,  or  as  soon  as  he  can  without 
coming    into  collision.      The   new 
direction  must  be  kept  at  least  un- 
til the  obstacle  has  been  cleared. 

3.  When  side  by  side,  as  in  Rule 
2,  and  approaching  a  windward  ob- 
stacle, the   leewardmost  must  give 
way  when  requested  to  do  so.     But 
the  windwardmost  must  change  his 
course  at  the  same  time  as  the  lee- 
wardmost, or  as  soon  as  he  can  do 
so   without   coming   into   collision, 
and  the  new  direction  must  be  kept, 
at  least  until  the  obstacle  has  been 
cleared. 

4.  When    running  free,   it    rests 
with  the  rearmost  ones  to  avoid  col- 
lision. 

5.  Those  running  free   must  al- 
ways give  way  to  those  on  either 
tack. 

6.  Violators  of  any  of  the  forego- 
ing rules   in   the   course  of  a  race 
shall  forfeit  all  claim  to  victory. 

7.  A  touch,  whether  of  person  or 
of  rig,  constitutes  a  collision,  either 
with  another  skate-sailor  or  with  a 
mark   or   buoy,  and  he  who  is  re- 
sponsible  for   it,   under    the   rules, 
forfeits  all  claim  to  the  victory. 


SKIPPING   ROPE 


654 


SLINGING 


8.  No  means  of  locomotion  other 
than  that  afforded  by  the  wind  are 
permissible  during  a  race. 

SKIPPING  ROPE.  See  JUMPING 
ROPE. 

SKIPPING  STONES.  See  DUCK 
AND  DRAKE. 

SLAP-JACK,  a  game  played  by 
not  more  than  ten  persons,  with  a 
full  pack  of  cards.  The  cards  are 
dealt  and  placed  as  in  EVERLAST- 
ING, but  each  player  plays  only  one 
card  at  a  time.  When  a  Knave  or 
"Jack"  is  thrown  on  the  table,  all 
the  players  try  to  slap  it,  and  the  one 
who  does  so  first  takes  all  the 
cards  in  the  middle  of  the  table  and 
adds  them  to  his  pile.  The  object 
is  to  obtain  all  the  cards,  and  he 
who  does  so  is  the  winner. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  Each     player    must    turn    his 
cards    face    outward    so    that   the 
other  players  will  see  them  first. 

2.  No    one,    except    the    player, 
shall   touch  the  table,  or  raise  his 
hands  above  it  till  before  seeing  the 
face  of  the  card  that  is  being  turned, 
and  the  player  may  do  so  only  so 
much  as  may  be  necessary  in  turn- 
ing and  playing  his  card. 

3.  If  one  or  more  players  slap  a 
card  that  is  not  a  Jack,  the  one  that 
slaps  first  shall  receive  a  card  from 
each    of    the    other    players    from 
the  bottom  of  their  piles. 

SLINGING,  the  art  of  sending  mis- 
siles with  the  sling.  The  simplest 
sling  consists  of  an  oblong  piece 
of  leather  with  a  slit  in  the  middle 


Sling. 

and  a  string  fastened  to  each  end. 
The  end  of  one  of  the  strings  is 
looped.  The  slinger  places  on  the 
leather  a  pebble  which  the  slit  holds 
in  position,  and  holds  the  ends  of 
the  strings  in  his  hand :  one  tightly, 


aided  by  the  loop,  through  which 
he  passes  his  middle  finger,  and  the 
other  loosely.  After  whirling  the 
sling  around  his  head,  he  releases 
the  loose  string,  and  the  stone  flies 
off.  Slings  are  made  also  entirely  of 
leather.  Practice  is  required  to 
send  the  stone  accurately,  for  unless 
the  loose  string  is  let  go  exactly  at 
the  right  time  it  will  fly  off  in  the 
wrong  direction.  The  best  missiles 
to  use  are  perfectly  smooth  and 
round  clay  marbles. 

A  kind  of  sling  can  be  made  by 
slitting  a  stick  at  the  end  so  that  it 
will  hold  a  pebble  securely,  but  not 
too  firmly.  The  stick  is  held  by  the 
other  end,  and  with  it  the  pebble 
can  be  thrown  to  a  great  distance. 
Apples  are  sometimes  thrown  in 
this  way,  but  they  are  usually  stuck 
on  the  end  of  the  stick,  which  is 
sharpened  instead  of  being  cleft. 
The  reason  why  missiles  can  be 
thrown  swifter  and  farther  with  the 
aid  of  a  sling  than  with  the  hand  is 
that  the  sling  or  stick  adds,  as  it 
were,  to  the  length  of  the  arm. 
The  longer  the  sling  or  stick,  the 
swifter  the  pebble,  provided  it  is 
not  too  long  for  the  strength  of  the 
slinger's  arm. 

Throw-Stick,  a  sort  of  sling  for 
throwing  a  lance  or  long  arrow. 
It  is  cut  from  a  flat  piece  of  wood, 


SIDE  VIEW. 


Throw-Stick. 

and  has  a  projecting  tooth  at  one 
end,  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 
The  thrower  takes  the  throw-stick 
by  the  end  opposite  the  tooth,  and 
placing  the  butt  of  the  hmce  against 
the  tooth,  supports  it  with  the 
thumb  and  first  finger  of  the  hand 
which  holds  the  stick.  Releasing 
it,  he  propels  it  at  the  same  time 
by  a  slinging  motion  of  the  throw- 


SLINGING 


655 


SLINGING 


stick,  which  can  be  learned  only  by 
practice.  With  one  of  these  sticks, 
a  skilled  thrower  can  send  a  javelin 
much  farther  than  with  the  hand 
alone.  They  are  the  invention  of 
the  natives  of  Australia,  who  use 
them  in  war  and  the  chase. 

Catapult,  a  kind  of  sling  in  which 
the  missile  is  shot  by  force  of  a 
stretched  elastic  cord.  Catapults 
may  be  bought  at  toy-stores,  or 
made  by  selecting  a  forked  stick  in 
the  shape  of  the  letter  Y,  the  prongs 
being  about  two  inches  apart,  and 
fastening  to  each  one  end  of  a  stout 
India-rubber  band.  The  stem  of  the 
Y  is  held  in  the  left  hand,  and  a  small 
pebble  or  shot  being  placed  in  the 
middle  of  the  band,  it  is  drawn  out 


Catapult. 

as  far  as  possible  and  then  let  go. 
The  band,  snapping  back,  sends  the 
missile  with  great  force.  The  size 
of  the  rubber  band  used  depends  on 
the  strength  of  the  shooter  and  the 
size  of  the  missile.  The  weapon  is 
improved  by  fastening  a  concave 
piece  of  leather  in  the  middle  of  the 
band,  to  hold  the  missile.  In  this 
way  a  volley  of  bird-shot  may  be 
sent  at  once.  Catapults  may  be 
used  by  skilled  shooters  with  almost 
as  much  effect  as  fire-arms,  and  they 
are  nearly  as  dangerous,  not  to  the 
shooter,  but  to  other  people.  Their 
use  is  usually  forbidden  by  law  in 
the  streets  of  large  towns  and  cities, 
but  in  the  country  they  may  be 


made  the  source  of   much  amuse- 
ment. 

Solas,  a  kind  of  sling.  One  to 
catch  birds  may  be  made  as  follows  : 
Six  marbles,  round  stones,  or  leaden 
bullets  are  wrapped  tightly  in  cloth, 
forming  a  sort  of 
bag  around  each, 
and  to  each  is  fas- 
tened a  piece  of 
string  about  two 
and  a  half  feet 
long.  The  other 
ends  of  the  strings 
are  tied  together. 
The  bolas  is  held 
by  the  tied  end, 
whirled  around 
the  head,  and 
thrown  into  the 
air,  when  the 
heavy  ends  will 
fly  apart,  so  that 
the  whole  spreads 
over  a  space 
about  five  feet  in 
diameter.  A 
bolas  thrown  into 
a  flock  of  birds 
generally  brings 
Bird  Bolas.  one  down,  either 
by  stunning  or  by  entangling  it. 

History.  The  use  of  slings  is  prob- 
ably older  than  that  of  bows  and 
arrows.  In  the  Bible,  it  is  related 


Saxon  Slinger. 

that  in  the  time  of  the  Judges  there 
were  700  men  of  the  tribe  of  Ben- 
jamin who  were  so  expert  with  the 
sling  that  they  "could  sling  stones 


SLING  THE   MONKEY 


656 


SMALL   TUBES 


at  a  hair-breadth  and  not  miss,"  us- 
ing their  left  hands.  The  sling  was 
early  known  in  Europe,  and  the 
Romans,  who  used  it  as  a  military 
weapon,  probablv  introduced  it  into 
Britain.  The  picture  represents  the 
manner  of  using  it  among  the  Sax- 
ons in  the  8th  century.  Slings 
used  with  very  large  stones  were 
sometimes  attached  to  a  staff  three 
or  four  feet  long,  and  whirled  with 
both  hands.  As  late  as  the  isth 
century  an  English  poet,  writing 
on  "  Knyghthode  and  Batayle " 
(Knighthood  and  Battle),  advises 
every  warrior  to  learn  the  use  of  the 
sling,  because  it  could  be  easily 
carried  and  stones  could  be  picked 


Ancient  Slingers. 

up  anywhere.  The  last  illustration 
shows  ancient  slingers  in  a  tower. 

SLING  THE  MONKEY,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
one  of  whom  takes  the  part  of  the 
Monkey.  He  is  fastened  to  a 
branch  of  a  tree  by  a  rope,  tied 
around  his  waist,  of  such  a  length 
that  his  feet  can  just  reach  the 
ground.  All  the  players,  including 
the  monkey,  are  armed  with  knotted 
handkerchiefs.  The  monkey  is 
"  basted,"  or  struck,  by  the  others, 
and  tries  to  baste  them  in  his  turn. 
If  he  succeeds  in  striking  any  one, 
that  one  must  take  his  place. 

The  monkey  should  swing  him- 
self about  by  the  rope  from  one  side 
to  the  other,  and,  that  he  may  have 
free  play,  the  branch  from  which  he 
is  suspended  must  be  at  consider- 
able height.  Sling  the  monkey  is  a 
favorite  game  on  shipboard. 

Fox,  a  game  resembling  that  just 
described,  except  that  the  monkey 


is  called  the  Fox,  and  can  neither 
strike  nor  be  struck  while  he  is  in  his 
"  den,"  represented  by  a  circle 
marked  on  the  ground.  Even  when 
he  is  out  of  his  den  he  can  strike 
only  when  he  is  standing  on  one  leg, 
and  if  he  put  the  other  to  the 
ground  he  must  retire  to  his  den 
before  trying  to  strike  again. 

Baste  the  Bear,  a  kind  of  Fox, 
in  which  the  player  attacked,  called 
the  Bear,  has  no  handkerchief,  but 
is  defended  by  another  player,  who 
takes  the  part  of  his  keeper.  The 
Bear  must  remain  on  his  hands  and 
knees  and  must  keep  some  part  of 
his  body  inside  the  den.  The 
keeper  holds  one  end  of  a  rope, 
about  four  feet  long,  which  is  tied 
to  the  Bear's  leg,  and  must  not  let 
go  of  it.  The  Bear  may  aid  the 
keeper  in  any  way,  so  long  as  he 
keeps  on  all-fours  and  does  not  go 
entirely  outside  of  the  den.  Any 
player  struck  by  the  keeper's  hand- 
kerchief must  take  the  Bear's  place. 
Each  Bear  is  allowed  to  choose  his 
own  keeper. 

SMALL  TUBES,  Experiments  with, 
i.  Take  a  number  of  small  glass 
tubes,  varying  in  size  from  a  ther- 
mometer tube  to  one  quarter  of  an 
inch  thick.  Thrust  the  ends  into 
water  (Fig.  i),  and  the  water  will 
rise  in  each,  but  higher  in  the 
smaller  tubes.  The  water  also  rises 


Fig.  i.  Fig.  2. 

higher  at  the  side  of  the  tubes  than 
in  the  middle. 

2.  Put  the  tubes  into  mercury 
(see  Fig.  2).  The  mercury  will  be 
lower  inside  the  tubes  than  outside. 
It  will  sink  lowest  in  the  smallest 
tubes,  and  will  be  lower  at  the  sides 
of  the  tubes  than  in  the  middle. 


SMOKE   RINGS 


657 


SMOKE   RINGS 


mercury. 


3.  Hold  two  pieces  of  glass  to- 
gether like  a  wedge,  and  dip  them 
sidewise  into  water  and  then  into 
The  water  will  rise  higher 
where  the  plates 
are  close  together, 
and  the  mercury 
will  fall  lower 
there.  In  each 
case  the  surface 
of  the  liquid  will 
form  a  curve. 
Fig.  3  shows  how 


Fig.  3- 


two  pieces  of  glass 
may  thus  be  held 
together  by  a  rubber  band,  being 
kept  apart  at  the  wide-open  side 
by  two  bits  of  wood.  The  curve 
made  by  the  water  surface  within 
the  wedge  is  also  shown. 

SMOKE  RINGS,  Experiments 
with.  I.  Cut  in  the  bottom  of  a 
pasteboard  box  a  foot  square  a 
round  hole  about  as  large  as  a  silver 
dollar.  Over  the  open  top  of  the 
box  pin  a  handkerchief  tightly.  Fill 
the  box  with  smoke  by  burning 
touch-paper  in  the  hole  (see  AIR 
CURRENTS),  or  in  any  other  way.  ] 
Then  by  tapping  on  the  handker- 
chief, as  the  box  stands  on  its  side, 
smoke  rings  will  issues  from  the 
hole,  like  those  which  smokers 
sometimes  blow  from  their  mouths. 
The  experiments  described  below 
may  be  performed  with  a  box  like 
this,  but  it  is  better  to  make  a  larger 
one  as  described  in  the  next  experi- 
ment. 

2.  Take  a  dry-goods  box  about  two 
feet  square,  and  saw  a  hole  about 
three  inches  in  diameter  in  the  bot- 
tom (see  Fig.  i).  Tack  tightly  over 


monia  in  one  flask  or  bottle  and 
hydrochloric  acid  in  another,  and 
support  them  so  that  they  can  be 
heated  beneath  with  alcohol  lamps. 
Fit  the  corks  with  short  tubes  of 
bent  glass  or  rubber  whose  ends 
pass  through  small  holes  into  the 
box.  By  heating  the  flasks  the 
fumes  of  the  ammonia  and  the 
acid  are  thus  led  into  the  box  where 
they  mix,  making  a  dense  white 
smoke.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to 
heat  the  flasks  all  the  time,  but  only 
at  intervals  when  the  smoke  gets 


Fig.  i.    Box  for  Smoke  Rings. 

the  top  a  piece  of  heavy  muslin,  and 
stand  the  box  on  its  side.  To  keep 
it  full  of  smoke,  place  strong  am- 


Fig.  2. 

thin.  By  tapping  on  the  muslin 
large  and  beautiful  smoke  rings  are 
driven  out  of  the  hole  in  the  box. 

3.  Tap  lightly  on  the  box  ;  the  ring 
will  move  slowly.     Give  a  hard  tap  ; 
it  will  go  swiftly,  thus  the  speed  of 
the  rings  can  be  regulated  at  will. 

4.  Hold   the   hand  or  the  face  in 
front  of  one  of  the  rings.     Even  if 
it  be  moving  slowly  a  puff  of  air  will 
be   felt.      The   reason    is  that  the 
particles  of  air  in  the  ring  are  mov- 
ing around   and  around,   those  on 
the  outside  backward  and  those  on 
the   inside  forward.      These  latter 
make  the  puff  of  air,  for  though  the 
whole  ring  may  be  moving  forward 
slowly,  its  particles  may  be  revolv- 
ing quite  fast.     See   Fig.  2,  where 
the  small  arrows  show  the  motion 
of  the  smoke  in   the  ring,  and  the 
large   one   that   of   the    ring   as   a 
whole. 

5.  Send  a   ring  across  the  room 
against  a  lamp  or  candle.     It   will 
be  put  out. 

6.  Try  experiments  4  and  5  with- 
out  any   smoke   in  the  box.     The 
result  is  the  same.     This  is  so  be- 
cause  the  rings   are  made   of  air. 
The  only  use  of  the  smoke  is  to 


SMOKE   RINGS 


658 


SMOKE   RINGS 


make  them  visible.  Where  it  is 
desired  to  blow  out  a  candle  with 
an  invisible  ring  it  is  best  to  try  first 
with  a  visible  one,  and  then  keep 
the  box  and  the  candle  in  the  same 
positions  so  that  the  ring  will  be 
sure  to  strike  the  candle. 

7.  Send  two  rings  from  the  box, 
one  close  after  the  other.     If  they 
are   close   enough   the  one  in  the 
rear  will  contract  and  go  through 
the   front   one,   which   then,  being 
itself  in  the  rear,  will  do  the  same 
thing   in   turn.      This   will   be    re- 
peated till  the  rings  are  broken  up 
by  rubbing  against  each  other.     In 
practice  it   is   hard  to  make  them 
do  it  more  than  once  each. 

8.  This  requires  two  smoke  boxes. 
Send  rings  from  both   so  that  they 
will  strike  at  various  angles.     They 
will  bound  from  one  another  as  if 
made  of  India-rubber.     But  if  one 


Fig.  3- 

ring  strike  another  flatly,  as  they 
move  in  exactly  opposite  directions, 
the  two  will  simply  grow  larger  and 
larger  till  they  break,  remaining  in 
the  place  where  they  strike. 

9.  Rings  similar  to  these  can  be 
formed  in  water  by  dropping  into  it 
a  solution  of  permanganate  of  pot- 
ash or  some  other  bright-colored 
salt.  As  each  drop  descends  in  the 


water  it   takes   the  form  of  a  ring, 
which  soon  breaks  up  into  several. 

10.  Another    way   of    producing 
them  is  to  drop  hydrochloric   acid 
into  a  weak   solution  of  mercuric 
nitrate.     The  two  liquids  act  on  one 
another     chemically,  producing    a 
cloud  of   mercuric   chloride  which 
descends  into  the  vessel  in  the  form 
of  a  vortex  ring. 

11.  Smoke  rings  can  be   formed 
in  water  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.     Bore  a 
hole  in  the  side  of  a  glass  jar  close 
to  the  bottom.     Pass  througli  the 
cork  a  glass  tube  reaching  nearly  to 
the  bottom  of  the  jar,  bent  at  right 
angles  near  the  top,  and  drawn  out 
to  a  jet  at  its  upper  end.     Half  fill 
the  jar  with  water,  place  the  thumb 
over  the  hole,  and  hold  the  end  of 
the  jet  in  a  candle  flame.     On  re- 


Fig.  4- 

moving  the  thumb  so  that  a  little 
water  may  run  out,  some  smoke  will 
be  drawn  down  into  the  bottle  and 


Fig.  5. 

rise  in  a  ring  to  the  surface.  If 
this  be  repeated  a  series  of  rings 
will  be  formed  like  those  in  Fig.  4. 
Fig.  5  shows  a  curious  "  collar  "  of 


SMUT 


659 


SNAP  THE   WHIP 


smoke  formed  around  the  bottom 
of  the  tube.  In  Fig.  3  the  jar  has 
a  faucet  in  the  hole  at  the  side,  but 
it  can  be  stopped  with  a  wooden 
plug  just  as  well. 

SMUT.'   See  MUGGINS. 

SNAKE'S  TAIL,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons,  one  of  whom 
is  selected  as  Catcher,  and  the  oth- 
ers form  in  single  file  to  represent 
a  snake,  the  last  player  being  called 
the  Snake's  Tail.  Each  player  in 
the  file  places  his  hands  on  the 
shoulders  of  the  one  in  front  of 
him.  At  the  opening  of  the  game 
the  Catcher  stands  about  twenty 
feet  from  the  head  of  the  file,  facing 
him,  and  at  a  signal  tries  to  catch 
the  Tail  without  pushing  any  one  in 
the  row.  The  Snake  defends  its 
tail  by  moving  about  in  any  way, 
but  if  the  row  breaks  itself  it  is  a 
foul,  and  the  Tail  is  considered  as 
caught.  When  the  Tail  is  caught, 
he  becomes  Catcher  in  turn,  and  the 
Catcher  takes  his  place  at  the  head. 

Another  way  of  playing  the  game 
is  to  allow  the  Catcher  to  name  any 
one  in  the  row  as  the  one  he  in- 
tends to  catch.  If  he  catches  the 
one  named,  they  change  positions. 
The  player  at  the  head  of  the  line 
may  stretch  out  his  hands  to  im- 
pede the  Catcher's  progress,  but  is 
not  allowed  to  push  him. 

History.  This  is  a  Japanese  game. 
Its  name  in  Japan  is  Hebi  no  o  wo 
toro  (Catching  the  snake's  tail). 
The  second  form  of  the  game  is 
called  Ko  wo  toro  (Will  catch  a 
child).  The  head  of  the  row  in  this 
case  is  called  the  Mother  and  the 
other's  children.  The  game  begins 
by  the  catcher's  shouting  "Will 
catch  a  child."  The  Mother  asks 
"Which  child  do  you  want?"  and 
when  the  Catcher  names  his  choice, 
she  replies  "  Try  to  catch  if  you 
can,"  when  the  game  begins. 

SNAP,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons  with  36  cards. 
Each  card  bears  a  figure  or  design, 
and  every  design  is  on  three  cards. 
The  cards  are  distributed  equally, 


and  each  player  places  his  share, 
without  looking  at  them,  in  a  pile, 
face  downward,  before  him.  Each 
in  order  then  turns  over  his  top 
card  and  places  it,  face  upward, 
as  the  beginning  of  another  pile. 
When  a  player  turns  a  card  having 
the  same  design  as  one  on  the  top 
of  another  player's  exposed  pile, 
both  must  say  "  Snap,"  and  he  who 
says  it  first  takes  the  exposed  pile 
of  the  other.  When  a  player's  cards 
are  all  turned,  he  reverses  his  ex- 
posed pile.  Cards  taken  from  oth- 
er players  are  placed  underneath 
the  back -upward  pile.  He  who 
gets  possession  of  the  whole  pack 
wins  the  game. 

SNAP  THE  WHIP,  an  out-door 
game  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons, who  stand  side  by  side  in  line, 
holding  hands.  The  line  is  usually 
formed  in  order  of  size,  the  largest 
players  at  one  end,  and  the  smallest 
at  the  other.  All  run  forward  till 
three  or  four  at  the  large  end  sud- 
denly stop,  causing  the  rest  of  the 
line  to  swing  around  sharply  like 
the  lash  of  a  whip  when  it  is 
snapped.  The  strain  is  so  great 
that  usually  two  or  more  of  the 
players  are  forced  to  let  go  their 
hands,  and  those  at  the  smaller  end 
are  thrown  down  if  they  are  not 
careful.  The  game  is  best  placed 
on  skates.  In  this  case,  when  the 
line  breaks,  the  fragments  shoot  off 
with  great  velocity,  like  stones  from 
a  sling.  The  best  way  to  hold 
hands  in  this  game  is  to  form  a  sort 
of  hook  by  bending  all  the  fingers 
of  one  hand,  and  hold  the  neighbor- 
ing player's  hand  as  in  the  picture. 


Butcher's  Grip. 

This  arrangement  (sometimes 
called  the  "Butcher's  Grip  ")  enables 
the  player  better  than  any  other  to 
resist  a  straight  pull. 


SNEEZING 


660 


SNOW   IMAGES 


SNEEZING,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons.  A  leader  is  ap- 
pointed who  gives  to  each  a  syllable 
ending  in  "sh,'  or  some  similar  one 
sounding  like  part  of  a  sneeze,  as 
"  ash,"  "  esh,"  "  ish,"  "  osh,"  "  oush," 
"aish,"or  "ashoo."  At  a  given  sig- 
nal from  the  leader,  all  the  company 
pronounce  their  syllables  together. 
The  effect  is  amusing,  sounding  like 
a  sneeze  if  it  is  properly  produced. 

SNOWBALL  FIGHTS,  contests  be- 
tween two  parties  armed  with  snow- 
balls. The  object  of  one  of  the 
parties  should  be  to  drive  the 
others  from  some  position,  which 
the  latter  strive  to  hold.  This  is 
generallv  a  fort  built  of  snow,  and  a 
snow  fight  should  usually  be  the 
siege  of  a  snow  fort.  One  kind  of 
fort  is  built  of  great  balls  of  snow, 
made  by  rolling,  which  are  placed 
in  the  desired  form,  and  then  ce- 
mented together  with  snow.  To 
give  such  a  fort  a  finished  look,  it 
should  be  smoothed,  the  wall  being 
made  sloping  on  the  outside  and 
perpendicular  inside.  Another  way 


to  make  a  snow  fort  is  to  dig  it  from 
a  drift,  piling  up  on  every  side  the 
snowtaken  out.  If  the  drift  is  firm- 
ly packed,  snow  may  often  be  taken 
out  in  great  square  blocks,  with 
which  a  regular  wall  can  be  built. 
In  making  a  fort,  care  should  be 
taken  to  shape  it  so  that  the  be- 
siegers will  be  exposed  to  fire  at  all 


points.  The  simplest  form  is  a 
square,  but  if  the  besiegers  advance 
close  to  the  fort  at  the  middle  of 
one  of  the  sides,  it  is  not  easy  to  fire 
at  them  except  at  the  corners,  and 
then  the  defender  has  to  lean  far 
over  the  wall,  exposing  himself  too 
much.  This  fault  can  be  remedied 
by  making  the  fort  the  shape  in  the 
figure.  In  this  way  every  point  in 
the  outside  wall  of  the  fort  is  ex- 
posed to  fire  from  the  inside.  Here 
the  best  place  for  the  besiegers  to 
assault  is  on  one  of  the  sides  of  the 
points,  for  these  are  exposed  to  fire 
from  one  side  only ;  whereas  the 
part  between  two  points  is  under 
fire  from  both  sides.  These  princi- 
ples are  the  same  that  have  to  be 
taken  into  consideration  in  building 
real  forts.  Snowballs  should  be 
made  so  they  will  sting  when  they 
strike,  without  doing  any  injury. 
They  should  therefore  never  be 
soaked  in  water,  nor  allowed  to 
freeze.  To  use  such  missiles  is  like 
throwing  stones,  and  a  snowball 
fight  with  them  ceases  to  be  a 
sport.  When  the  garrison  of  a  fort 
is  closely  besieged,  the  best  throw- 
ers are  often  statiqned  at  the  walls, 
while  others  make  snowballs  for 
them.  The  snowball  makers,  how- 
ever, should  be  changed  as  often 
as  possible  to  give  them  a  share 
of  the  real  sport.  As  soon  as  a  cer- 
tain number  of  besiegers  succeed  in 
getting  into  the  fort,  the  victory 
should  be  given  to  them  and  the 
parties  should  change  sides. 

SNOW  IMAGES.  Images  may  be 
made  of  snow  in  two  different  ways: 
by  sticking  together  balls  or  lumps 
of  snow,  or  by  making  a  mass  of 
snow  and  then  carving  the  image 
out  of  it.  The  former  is  the  usual 
way,  but  better  images  can  be  made 
bv  the  other  method.  The  snow 
should  be  slightly  moist,  when  a 
large  mass  may  be  collected  by  roll- 
ing a  ball  till  it  has  gathered  a  great 
quantity.  Another  similar  ball  is 
then  rolled  and  lifted  to  the  top  of 
the  first.  For  a  tall  figure,  a  third 


SNOW-SHOEING 


661 


SOAP 


will  be  needed.  The  best  tool  to 
cut  and  shape  the  mass  is  a  mason's 
trowel,  but  a  shingle  or  other  thin 
flat  piece  of  wood  may  be  used 
instead.  In  this  way,  figures  of 
men,  birds,  and  animals  may  be 
made. 

If  the  arms  of  the  image  are  to 
be  extended,  a  stick  should  be 
thrust  through  the  body  so  as  to 
project  on  each  side,  and  the  sriow 
moulded  over  it.  An  image  often 
made  by  boys  is  that  of  a  man  fitted 
with  an  old  hat,  with  cinders  for 
eyes  and  a  clay  pipe  in  its  mouth, 
and  then  used  as  a  target  for  snow- 
balls. A  snowballing  match  may  be 
held  with  such  a  figure,  as  in  the 
game  of  AUNT  SALLY. 

SNOW  SHOEING,  walking  on  soft 
snow  by  means  of  snow-shoes,  or 
wooden  frames  strung  with  thongs. 
Snow-shoes,  which  are  shown  in  the 
illustration,  are  usually  made  each 


Snow-Shoer. 

of  a  single  light  strip  of  hickory  or 
ash,  whose  ends  are  bent  until  they 
meet,  and  then  bound  together  for 
from  6  to  10  inches.  Thin  pieces 
of  flat  wood  are  fitted  across  this 


frame  to  strengthen  it,  and  it  is  then 
woven  with  thongs  or  tendons,  so  as 
to  make  a  sort  of  basket-work. 
The  shoe  is  from  three  to  six  feet  in 
length,  and  from  12  to  20  inches 
wide.  It  is  fastened  to  the  foot  by 
a  toe-strap  and  two  thongs  that 
pass  over  the  instep.  The  toe  of 
the  foot  points  toward  the  rounded 
end  of  the  snow-shoe.  That  the 
foot  of  the  wearer  may  not  be  ham- 
pered, the  heel  is  left  free  to  rise 
and  fall  without  the  shoe,  and  a 
hole  is  left  in  the  basket-work  under 
the  toe-strap,  into  which  the  wear- 
er's toe  sinks  at  every  step.  It  is 
difficult  to  walk  on  snow-shoes,  and 
to  attain  skill  requires  much  prac- 
tice. The  shoe  is  not  lifted  as  in 
ordinary  walking,  but  rather  slipped 
over  the  snow.  Skilled  snow-shoers, 
however,  walk  with  as  much  ease 
over  deep  drifts  of  soft  snow  as  on 
hard  ground,  the  basket-work  bear- 
ing the  weight  of  a  man  in  places 
where  without.it  he  would  sink  out 
of  sight.  Experts  raise  the  shoe  a 
little  with  the  toe  at  the  beginning 
of  the  step,  letting  the  end  trail, 
keep  head  and  shoulders  erect,  and 
glide  the  shoes  one  over  the  other. 
Beginners  are  apt  to  catch  the  toe  of 
one  shoe  under  the  edge  of  the  oth- 
er, and  so  trip  themselves  up.  The 
Norwegian  snow -skates,  or  skier, 
which  are  half  skate  and  half  snow- 
shoe,  are  described  in  the  article  on 

SKATING. 

SOAP,  Experiments  with.  Soap  is 
described  in  C.  C.  T.  i.  To  make 
hard  soap  as  an  amusement,  a  few 
ounces  of  castor-oil  and  half  a 
dozen  sticks  of  caustic  soda  are 
needed.  The  caustic  soda  should  be 
handled  very  little  and  kept  in  a 
tightly  corked  bottle.  Dissolve  half 
an  ounce  of  the  soda  in  a  gill  of  soft 
water,  and  pour  into  it  an  equal  vol- 
ume of  the  oil  ;  on  stirring,  the  mix- 
ture becomes  turbid.  Boil  it  gently 
for  half  an  hour,  then  add  about  a 
gill  of  water,  bring  it  again  to  the 
boiling  point  and  put  in  a  large  tea- 
spoonful  of  fine  salt.  After  the 


SOAP    BUBBLES 


662 


SOAP  BUBBLES 


mixture  has  cooled  an  hour  or  two 
the  soap  will  be  found  collected  in 
a  layer  at  the  top,  from  which  it  is 
easily  removed.  To  make  soft-soap 
caustic  potash  must  be  used  instead 
of  caustic  soda. 

2.  Dissolve    shavings   of  castile- 
soap,   or  any   pure  white  soap,   in 
boiling  water,  and  add  to  part  of  it 
a  teaspoon'ful  of  sulphuric   or   hy- 
drochloric   acid,  diluted  with  con- 
siderable water.      A   greasy   white 
substance  rises  to  the  top.     This  is 
stearine,   which    is    often   used     in 
making  candles. 

3.  To   another   part   of  the  soap 
solution  made  in  experiment.  2  add 
some  lime-water.     The  mixture  be- 
comes white  and  nearly  solid  after  a 
time.     This  is  because  "lime  soap" 
is  formed,  which  water  will  not  dis- 
solve.    It  is  this  which   is  formed 
when  soap  is  used  with  hard  water. 

SOAP  BUBBLES,  bubbles  made 
by  blowing  into  a  film  of  soap  solu- 
tion. The  solution  may  be  made  by 
dissolving  any  kind  of  soap  in  warm 
water,  but  better  bubbles  will  be 
made  if  glycerine  be  added.  One' 
of  the  best  solutions  for  making 
bubbles  is  formed  after  the  following 
recipe : 

Into  a  pint  bottle  half  filled  with 
distilled  or  rain  water,  put  one  ounce 
of  white  castile-soap  shavings. 
Shake  the  bottle  till  the  soap  dis- 
solves, and  if  it  will  not  do  so  add 
more  water.  Then  add  one  gill  of 
glycerine,  shake,  and  allow  to  settle. 

The  bowl  of  a  common  clay  to- 
bacco-pipe is  dipped  into  the  liquid 
so  that  the  rim  just  touches  the  sur- 
face, till  on  raising  it  a  film  is 
stretched  across  the  bowl.  By  blow- 
ing carefully  into  the  stem  of  the 
pipe  the  film  will  stretch  out  into  a 
bubble  and  then  by  a  quick  jerk  of 
the  pipe  to  one  side  the  bubble  will 
be  detached  and  will  float  away,  its 
elasticity  closing  at  once  the  hole  by 
which  the  air  entered  it.  If  it  is 
strong  it  will  bound  on  the  floor  or 
table,  and  can  be  rolled  along  by 
blowing  it  with  the  breath.  Finally, 


evaporation  makes  it  very  thin  and 
it  bursts  into  spray.  If  the  solution 
is  not  strongenough,  the  bubbles  are 
weak,  and  burst  before  they  are 
fully  blown.  The  better  the  solu- 
tion, the  larger  the  bubbles  can  be 
made,  but  it  is  better  to  begin  by 
making  small  ones,  and  gradually 
increasing  their  size.  After  the 
bubble  has  been  blown,  the  end  of 
the  pipe  should  be  closed  with  the 
finger,  for  the  bubble  is  elastic  and 
tends  to  grow  smaller,  driving  out 
again  the  air  that  was  blown  into  it. 
Too  much  of  the  liquid,  or  a  mass 
of  froth,  must  not  be  taken  up  with 
the  pipe,  as  it  collects  at  the  bottom 
of  the  bubble  and  often  breaks  it 
by  its  weight.  Such  a  collection  of 
froth  may  often  be  removed  by 
touching  it  with  the  finger. 

Cas  Bubbles.  By  fitting  one  end 
of  a  piece  of  rubber  tubing  over  a 
gas-burner,  and  the  other  over  the 
end  of  a  clay  pipe,  bubbles  can  be 
blown  after  a  little  practice,  by 
turning  on  the  gas  little  by  little. 
As  the  gas  is  lighter  than  air,  these 
bubbles  will  rise  to  the  ceiling,  and 
if  a  lighted  match  be  touched  to 
them,  they  will  burn  in  the  air. 
Still  lighter  bubbles  can  be  made  by 
blowing  them  witli  HYDROGEN. 

Bubbles  blown  with  a  mixture  of 
OXYGEN  and  HYDROGEN  gases  ex- 
plode in  the  air  with  a  loud  report 
when  they  are  lighted,  but  this  mix- 
ture is  dangerous,  and  should  be 
used  only  bvan  experienced  person. 

Soap  Bubble  Parties,  entertain- 
ments at  which  the  blowing  of  soap 
bubbles  is  the  chief  feature.  Prizes 
are  usually  offered,  which  are 
awarded  in  various  ways.  Each 
person  may  be  allowed  a  certain 
number  of  trials,  and  he  who  blows 
and  detaches  the  greatest  number 
of  bubbles  may  be  declared  winner. 
Or  each  one  may  blow  till  he 
makes  a  certain  number  of  bubbles, 
and  he  whose  bubbles  last  longest 
may  receive  the  prize.  Or  each 
may  be  required  to  roll  his  bubble 
across  the  table  by  breathing  on  it. 


SOAP   BUBBLES 


663 


SOAP   BUBBLES 


Sometimes  two  goal-posts  or  pegs 
about  six  inches  long  and  three  or 
four  inches  apart  are  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  table,  and  the  bubble 
must  be  blown  so  as  to  roll  between 
them.  The  sport  may  thus  be  varied 
in  many  ways.  Care  should  be 
taken  to  test  the  liquid,  which 
should  be  in  good  condition  before 
the  blowing  begins. 

Experiments  with  Bubbles.  I.  A 
huge  soap  bubble  can  be  blown  by 
covering  the  hands  well  with  suds 
and  then  holding  them  so  as  to  form 
a  cup,  as  in  drinking  from  the  hands, 
but  leaving  a  small  hole  at  the  bot- 
tom. The  mouth  is  then  held 
about  a  foot  from  the  hands  and  a 
current  of  air  is  blown  into  them. 
Bubbles  a  foot  or  more  in  diameter 
can  be  blown  in  this  way. 

2.  Soap  bubbles  can  be  made  to 
ns~j-~ ^        carry  little  figures  cut 

from  tissue-paper. 
One  of  these  figures 
is  attached  by  thread 
to  a  disk  of  paper  D 
about  as  large  as 
one's  finger-nail,  by 
passing  the  thread  F 
through  the  paper 
and  knotting  it  (Fig. 
i).  When  the  bub- 
ble is  blown,  and  be- 
fore it  is  detached, 
the  thread  is  taken 
between  thumb  and 
finger  and  the  disk 
applieS  to  the  side 
of  the  bubble  (Fig. 
2).  If  properly  done 
it  will  glide  down  to 
the  lower  part,  where 
it  will  stick.  The 
bubble  can  then  be 
detached,  and  it  will 
float  away,  bearing  the  figure  with 
it.  The  bubble  should  be  blown 
with  a  glass  tube,  so  that  a  very 
little  shake  will  detach  it. 

3.  Bubbles   blown   from    melted 
rosin  in  the  same  way  as  soap-bub- 
bles,  retain   their   form   for  many 


Fig.  i. 


months,  and  possess  a  silvery  lustre 
which  makes  them  very  beautiful. 

4.  Pour  some  ether  into  a  wide- 
mouthed  jar  and  then  drop  a  soap 
bubble  into  the   jar,  where  it  will 
float  on   the   heavy  vapor  of    the 
ether.     (See  also  CARBONIC  ACID.) 
Let  it    remain    a  few  seconds  and 
then  remove  it  by  pulling  the  jar 
down    from    under     it.      When    a 
lighted   match    is   touched   to   the 
bubble  it  will  flash  into  flame.     This 
is  because  some  of  the  ether  vapor 
has  entered  the  bubble  through  the 
soap-film. 

5.  Blow  two   bubbles,  and  while 
they  are  hanging  to  the  pipes  try  to 
make  them  join,  placing  the  finger 
over  the  end  of  the  pipe-stem  so  as 
to  keep  the  bubbles  the  same  size. 
No    matter   how  forcibly  they  are 
pushed   together,  they  will   bound 
from  each  other  as  if  made  of  India- 
rubber,  and  will  not  join.     But   if 
an  electrified  body  be  brought  near 
them  they  will  unite  at  once  into  a 
single  bubble. 

6.  The  colors   on  a  soap   bubble 
may  be  thrown  on  a  screen  by  plac- 
ing a  lens  in  the  path  of  a  sunbeam 
from  a  HELIOSTAT  and  holding  the 
bubble  just  beyond  the  focus  of  the 
lens,  where  the  rays  begin  to  spread 
apart.     The  colors  will    be    thrown 
on  the  walls  and  ceiling  of  the  room, 
and  very  beautiful  changes  of  tint 
will   be  seen   as  the  walls   of  the 
bubble  grow  thinner. 

7.  Make  a  stand  of  a  piece  of  wire 
like  the    tripod    stands    described 
under    CHEMICAL    EXPERIMENTS. 
With  a  little  practice  a  bubble  can 
be  made  to  rest  upon  it  and  remain 
a  long  time.     The  bubble   may  be 
pierced  with  a  pin    or    cut  with  a 
knife  without  breaking,  so  long  as 
the  pin  or  knife  are  perfectly  clean, 
but  if  either  have  the  smallest  par- 
ticle of  grease  on  them  the  bubble 
will  break  at  once 

The  beautiful  colors  of  soap  bub- 
bles are  due  to  what  is  called  the 
interference  of  light,  caused  by  the 


SOAP   FILMS 


664 


SOLITAIRE 


thinness  of  their  walls.     The  same 
colors  can  be  seen  in  any  very  thin, 


Fig.  2. 

transparent  substance,  like  a  sheet 
of  mica,  or  a  film  of  oil  floating  on 
the  water.  Thecolor  is  different  as 
the  thickness  varies,  and  scientists 
have  thus  been  able  to  measure  the 
latter.  Probably  the  most  skilful 
soap-bubble  blower  living  is  Mr.  C. 
Vernon  Boys,  an  English  scientist, 
who  has  performed  many  interesting 
experiments  with  bubbles.  Among 
other  things  he  is  able  to  blow  one 
bubble  inside  another. 

SOAP  FILMS,  Experiments  with. 
The  bubbles  made  of  soap  film  are 
described  under  SOAP  BUBBLES. 
The  following  experiments  can  be 
tried  with  the  soap-water  used  in 
making  bubbles:  i.  Dip  the  large 
end  of  a  glass  funnel  into  the 
water.  The  film  formed  will  run 
into  the  funnel.  This  is  because  it 
is  so  elastic  that  it  shrinks  to  as 
small  a  size  as  possible.  If  a  bottle 
be  blown  at  the  large  end,  and  the 
neck  left  open,  the  bubble  will 
shrink,  driving  out  the  air  within 
it.  A  skilful  operator  can  blow  out 
a  candle  by  the  air  thus  expelled. 

2.  Make  a    circle    of  wire,    and 


touch  it  to  the  soap-water,  lifting  off 
a  film  which  stretches  across  the 
circle.  Place  carefully  on  this  film 
a  small  ring  of  silk  thread,  which 
has  been  wetted  with  the  soap- 
water.  Break  the  film  inside  this 
ring,  and  the  thread  will  be  stretched 
into  a  perfect  circle  by  the  elastic 
film  on  all  sides  of  it. 

SOLITAIRE,  any  game  played  by 
one  person.     The  oldest  solitaire  or 
solitary  game  is  played  on  a  circular 
board    in  which    are 
either  37  or  33  holes 
arranged    as    in   the 
figures.      The    form 
with  33  holes,  which 
is      now      generally 
used,    is    the    same 
that  is  used  for  play- 
ing Fox  AND  GEESE. 
In    the    second    fig- 
ure   it     is    arranged 
also    for    the    form 
of    Fox    and    Geese 
called  the  Battle  Game.     In  each  of 
these  holes  is  a  peg,  though  some 


Solitaire  Boards. 

boards  are  made  with  depressions, 
instead  of  holes,  in  which  marbles 
are  placed.  One  peg  or  marble 
being  taken  out  by  the  player,  a 
peg  two  holes  distant  from  the 
vacant  spot  is  placed  in  it,  and  the 


SOLITAIRE 


665 


SOLITAIRE 


peg  over  which  it  jumps  is  taken 

C4    to    A  2 

G  3    to    E  5 

from  the  board,  like  a  captured  man 

C2     "     C4 

C7     "     £7 

in    CHECKERS.      Another    peg    is 

04     "     62 

£4     "     E  6 

jumped  into  one  of  the  two  vacant 

E  2       "       C  2 

£7     "     E5 

holes  now  on    the    board,  and  tnis 

D6     "     04 

B3     "     DS 

is  kept  up  as  long  as  possible,  a  peg 

D  4     "      D  2 

ES        cs 

being  taken  from  the  board  at  each 

D  i      "      D  3 

Ai            C3 

move.     The  player's  object  is  either 

£4     "      £2 

03            B  i 

to  remove  all  but  one  of  the  pegs 

E  i      "      £3 

Ci            C3 

from  the  board  or  to  leave  those 

G2       "       £4 

C6           C4 

that   remain   at   the   end    in   some 

£4     "     E2 

C4           C2 

given  arrangement. 

Gi      "     E3 

A3           Ai 

The  marbles  may  thus  be  removed 

£2     "     £4 

Ai            C3 

from  the  board  in  several  ways,  no 

F3     "     DS 

C2           C4 

matter  what  marble  is  taken  at  the 

£7     "     ES 

C4           A  2 

beginning.     Suppose   the   holes  in 

DS     "     F3 

the  modern  board  to  be  numbered 

3.  Remove  D  3. 

(This     applies 

in  vertical  rows  and  lettered  in  the 

also  to  E  4,  D  5,  and  C  4.) 

horizontal  rows  as  below  : 

F  i     to     D  3 

C  4    to    C  2 

C  i     D  i     E  i 

F  3     "      F  i 

C  i     "     C  3 

C  2      D  2      E  2 

G  i      "     E  3 

C6     "     C4 

AiBi     C3    03    £3     FiGi 

G  3     "     G  i 

C4     "     C  2 

A2B2    C4    04    £4    F2G2 

D  3            F  i 

A  2     "     C  4 

A3B3    Cs     D  s     ES     F3G3 

G  i            £3 

E  5     "     C  5 

C6    D6    E6 

D  5            F  3 

Cs           C  3 

C7     D  7     £7 

£7      •     E  5 

E3           E  5 

Fi       '       De 

C  •>      "      C  A 

There   are   only  seven    different 

J                        ^~^    D 

C  c       '       F  c 

\-t  £                   ^4 

Di       "       D  i 

cases,  and  a  solution  of  each  is  given 

v_x  5              n,  5 
D7       '      D  5 

o 
E  i      "      E  3 

below. 
The  direction  C  4  to  C  2,  for  in- 
stance, means  that  the  marble  in  C  4 
is  to  be  placed   in   the  empty  hole 
C  2  and   the  marble  between   them 

C7      '     Cs 
C4     "     C6 
A3     "     Cs 
C  2     "     C  4 

AT       "       C  •? 

D3     ••     Fi 
C  4     "     £4 
E5      "      £3 
F  i      "     03 

removed  from  the  board. 

f\     1                               \^i     J 

4.  Remove  D  6. 

(This   solution 

i.   Remove  04 

applies  also  to  B  2, 

D  2,  and  F  2.) 

D2    to    04          C2    to    C4 

D  4    to     D  6 

C  6    to  '  C  4 

F  i      "     D  3          A  i     "     C  3 

F  3     "     D  5 

A3     "     C  5 

E  i      "     E  3          D  3     "     B  i 

•J                                 J 

£7     "     E  5 

A  i      "     A3 

£4     "      £2          A3      '     Ai 

C7      «     E7 

D5      "     B3 

C  i     "     E  i          A  i      '     C  3 

£4      '     E6 

A3     "     Cs 

Ei"E3          D  s      '03 

£7      •     E  5 

C4     "     C6 

E6     "      £4           03      '     Bi 

£2      '     £4 

C6     "      £6 

G  3     "      E  5           B  i       «      B  3 

Gi             E3 

£4     "     £2 

DS     "      F3           B3      •     DS 

G3            Gi 

E2       "       C2 

Gi      "     G3           DS      '      F3 

D3            F  i 

C  2     "     C  4 

G3"Es           F2      'D4 

Gi            E  3 

E6     "      £4 

63     "     D  s          C4      '      £4 

Bi            03 

B  2      "      D  4 

C7     "     Cs           £3      '     ES 

Ci            C3 

D  3     "     D  5 

C4     "     C6          F3      •     DS 

Ei            C  i 

F2     »     D4 

£7     "     C7          D6'D4 

C4            C  2 

04     "      D  6 

C7     "     C  5 

Ci            C3 

2.  Remove  A  2.  (By  changing  the 

5.   Remove  C  i. 

(This     applies 

numbers  this  solution  is   good  for 

also  to  each  of  the  seven  other  corner 

«_U1  \ 

SOLITAIRE 


666 


SOLITAIRE 


C  3    to    C  i 

C  6    to    E  6 

The  form  of  solitaire  board  with 

A  i      "     €3 

E7     "     £5 

37  holes  is  now  seldom  seen,  so  but 

03     "     B  i 

£4     "     E  6 

one  method  of  removing  the  pegs  is 

A3     "     A  i 

€7     "      £7 

given.     The    notation    is  like  that 

A  i     "     C  3 

£7     "     £5 

above,    save    that    the    B    and    F 

63     "     B  i 

F  3     "     D  5 

columns  have  each  five  holes  instead 

B  i      "     03 

€4     "     £4 

of  three. 

E  2       "       C  2 

C5     "     £5 

Remove  C  i 

Ci      '     03 
£4      '     £2 
Ei       '     E3 

E  5     ••     E  3 

E2        '        £4 

Gi      '     £3 

E  i     to    C  i           C  4    to    C  6 
03     •«     D  i           C6-E6 
Ei      ««      17  T             T?F-       t      r\  fi 

G2         '        £4 
r*               t         T"* 

£4      '      E  2 

3              ii  I             r  5              "* 
G  i     "     E  3           E4'E6 

£4      '      E  2 

IT  A         «        IT   t 

€3      '     E  3 

Et            <           I.'     r 

B  i       «     D2           £7      •     E  5 

i.  <>               1  .  4 

n3     «     F5 

3 

Ei      '     Ci 

€4      'C2          C  2      '€4 

C  i       •     C  3          €4      •     £4 

U  3                  "3 

C6'C4          E4"E6 

6.  Remove  C  2. 

(This    applies 

C4      •     C  2           E  6     "     C  6 

also  to  C  6,  E  2,  E 

6,  B  i,  B  3,  F  i, 

E  4      '     E  2           D  i      "     D  3 

and  F  3.) 

E  i       '     E  3           F  i      "     D  2 

C  4    to    C  2 

£7    to    E  5 

E6     "     £4           D2     "     04 

C  i      "     C  3 

F  3      '     D  5 

£4     "     £2           04     "     D6 

A  2       "       €4 

C6      '     E6 

Ai"C3           07     "     D  5 

€4       "       C  2 

€7      '     £7 

A  2     "     C  4          B  5     "     D  6 

E  i     "     C  i 

E7      '      E5 

A  3     «     C5           D5     ••     D7 

C  i     "     C  3 

C4      '     C6 

G  2     "     E  4          €7     "     E  7 

E2       "       C2 

E4     "     C4 

G3     "     £5 

C  2     "     C  4 
A  i     "     C  3 

r*                    ,             T-» 

C3     "     C5 

C  6     "     €4 

E/™*    — 

This  game  of  Solitaire  was  fash- 
ionable  in  France  about  1700,  and 

E  4            E  2 
Gi       '      £3 
£2      '      E  4 
F3      '     F  i 
G3      •     Gi 
Gi      '     £3 

Dt             T* 

5           C5 

€4     "     C6 

A3     "     C5 
C6     "     €4 
E3     "     C3 
€4     "     C  2 

some   writers    say  that   it  was  in- 
vented by  a  prisoner  in   the  Bastile 
for  his    amusement.       Others    say 
that  it  was  suggested  to  a  French- 
man   in    America    by  the    way   in 
which  the   Indians   stuck  their  ar- 

5          F  3 
7.  Remove  C  5. 

(This  also  applies 

rows   in  the  quiver  when  they  re- 
turned from  hunting.     Others  still 

to  C  3,  E  3,  or  E  5 

) 

derive  it  from   the   Magic  squares 

E  5    to    C  5 

£2    to    C  2 

early  in  use  in  the  East.     Leibnitz, 

£3     "     E  5 

C  i      "     C  3 

the  great   German    mathematician, 

D3     "     D5 

D  3     "     B  i 

was  very  fond  of  the  game,  and  said 

E  6     "     E  4 

B3     "     D5 

of  it  :  "  It  is  good  to  play  reasoning 

C5     "     E5 

B  i            63 

games,  not  for  themselves,  but  be- 

E 4     "     E  6 

A3           C5 

cause  they  aid  in  perfecting  the  art 

C3     "     C5 

A  i            A3 

of  thinking." 

G  i     "     £3 

D3            B3 

In    England   the   name   is  some- 

£2    "     £4 

A3           C$ 

times   translated,   and   it   is   called 

G3     "     Gi 

C6            €4 

"The  Solitary  Game."     In  eastern 

F  3     "     F  i 

E6           C6 

Switzerland    it   is  known  as  Rath- 

Gi     "     G3 

C7            C5 

hausabheben   (City-hall    Lifting),  or 

E  4     "      E  2 

C4            C6 

In  das  Nagelloch  Spring  en  (Jump- 

C i     "     €3 

£7            C7 

ing  into  the  Peg-hole). 

B  i      "     D  3 

C7           CS 

Solitaire  with  Cards,  or  Patience. 

€3     "     Ci 

In  these  games  the  player's  object 

SOUND   FIGURES 


667 


SOUND    FIGURES 


is  to  arrange  the  cards  in  some  par- 
ticular order,  generally  in  what  are 
called  "  families," a  family  being  the 
whole  series  from  Ace  to  King, 
whether  of  one  suit  or  not.  Famil- 
ies may  he  formed  by  piling  or 
"  building"  upward,  that  is,  by  al- 
ways placing  a  higher  card  on  the 
one  next  below  it,  or  downward,  in 
the  opposite  way.  The  pack  or 
packs,  sometimes  with  the  exception 
of  certain  cards  which  are  laid  face 
upward  on  the  table,  is  first  shuffled. 
The  cards  are  then  held  in  the  play 
er's  hand,  backs  upward,  and  played 
one  by  one,  always  turning  them 
face  upward.  In  building,  cards 
are  sometimes  taken  from  the  pack 
in  this  way,  sometimes  from  an  ar- 
rangement of  card  piles  on  the  table, 
and  sometimes  from  either.  The 
player  is  generally  allowed  to  place 
any  top  card  of  these  piles  on  any 
other  just  above  or  below  it  in  re  ik, 
freeing  the  cards  underneath  that 
they  may  he  used  in  building.  This 
is  sometimes  called  "  making  mar- 
riages." Cards  that  cannot  be 
used  are  placed  aside  to  form  what 
is  called  stock,  and  this  stock  may 
generally  be  shuffled  and  used  over 
again  once  or  twice. 

The  arrangements  of  cards  in 
these  games  are  often  given  fanciful 
names,  and  success  depends  some- 
times on  the  skill  of  the  player,  and 
sometimes  entirely  on  chance.  The 
different  games  of  card  Solitaire  or 
Patience  are  described  in  separate 
articles  in  this  book. 

In  some  countries  games  of  Pa- 
tience are  used  as  fortune-tellers, 
the  playersupposing  that  some  pro- 
ject will  turn  out  well  or  ill  accord- 
ing as  he  is  successful  or  not  in  his 
game. 

SOUND  FIGURES,  Experiments  on. 
i.  Bay  at  a  hardware  store  a  piece 
of  sheet-brass  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
thick  and  six  inches  square.  If  it 
is  not  perfectly  flat,  have  it  ham- 
mered flat.  Have  the  sheet  cut  in- 
to a  circle  and  rounded  off  at  the 
edges,  and  have  a  hole  three  six- 


teenths of  an  inch  in  diameter  cut 
in  the  centre.  If  the  disk  has  been 
hammered  it  must  now  be  heated 
red-hot  in  a  stove  and  cooled  slowly. 
From  a  broom-handle  cut  off  a 
piece  six  inches  long  and  fix  one 
end  firmly  in  a  heavy  block  of  wood. 
Round  off  the  edges  of  the  other 
end  and  then  screw  the  brass  disk 
to  it.  By  drawing  a  violin-bow 
over  the  edge  of  the  disk  a  sound 
maybe  produced.  This  should  be 
practised  till  the  note  is  clear  and 
strong.  Sprinkle  sand  on  the  disk 
and  it  will  dance  about  while  the 
note  is  sounding.  This  is  because 
the  disk  is  vibrating. 

Now  touch  the  edge  of  the  disk 
with  the  finger,  and  draw  the  bow 
at  a  place  one  eighth  of  tne  dis- 
tance around  the  disk.  The  sand 
will  gather  into  two  lines  at  right 
angles,  one  of  which  starts  from  the 
finger.  The  reason  is  that  the  disk 
now  vibrates  in  parts,  one  part  mov- 
ing up  while  another  is  moving 
down,  and  the  lines  between  these 
parts  have  no  motion;  hence  the 
sand  settles  on  them.  By  drawing 
the  bow  at  different  distances  from 
the  finger,  or  by  touching  the  disk 
in  more  than  one  place,  while  some 
one  else  draws  the  bow,  many  other 
sand-figures  can  be  made,  some  of 
which  are  shown  in  the  illustrations, 


Fig.  i. 

If  lycopoditim  powder  (whicn  ~an 
be  bought  of  a  druggist)  be  mixed 


SOUND   FIGURES 


668 


SOUND   FIGURES 


with  the  sand,  it  will  form  curious 
little  heaps  and  whirlpools  while 
the  disk  vibrates.  Instead  of  being 
round,  the  sheet  of  brass  may  be 
square,  as  in  Fig.  i,  which  shows  a 
form  mounted  on  a  standard,  to  be 
bought  of  any  dealer  in  physical  ap- 
paratus. 

2.  Make  a  cardboard  cone  about 
ten  inches  long,  two  and  one  half 
inches  in  diameter  at  its  larger  end, 
and  small  enough  at  the  other  to  fit 
into  a  rubber  tube  about  two  feet 
long.  While  one  person  is  making 
the  disk  vibrate,  let  another  hold 
the  large  opening  of  the  cone  over 
various  parts  of  it,  at  the  same 
time  applying  the  end  of  the 
rubber  tube  to  the  ear.  When 
the  middle  of  the  cone  is 
exactly  over  one  of  the  sand- 
lines,  scarcely  any  sound  at  all 
will  be  heard,  and  the  nearer  the 
cone  is  to  a  sand-line,  the  weaker  the 


sound  will  be.  This  is  because,  as 
stated  above,  the  disk  does  not  vi- 
brate at  the  sand-lines,  and  the 
parts  of  the  disk  on  opposite  sides 
of  any  line  are  always  moving  in 
opposite  directions,  one  going  up 
while  the  other  is  going  down. 
Hence  their  effedts  on  the  air  in  the 
cone  balance,  and  there  is  no  sound 
there. 

Instead  of  a  brass  plate,  one  of 
glass  may  be  used  in  these  experi- 
ments. It  should  be  six  or  eight 
inches  square,  and  should  have  its 
sharp  edges  smoothed  down  with  a 
file  moistened  with  turpentine.  It 


o  3    ft  6 

Fig.  2. 

may  be  supported  at  the  centre  on 
an    ordinary  spool   by   pressing   it 


XX 


3  {  O 

ofo 


JL 


W5 


down  firmly  with  the  thumb,  just 
over  the  spool.  Figs.  2  and  3  show 
a  variety  of  sound  figures.  In  Fig. 
2  the  position  of  the  bow  is  marked 
b,  and  that  of  the  finger/. 

The  figures  can  also  be  produced 
without  a  bow  in  the  following 
manner  :  In  a  flat  lump  of  lead  fix 
a  piece  of  lead-pencil  about  an  inch 
long,  having  on  its  end  a  common 
rubber  eraser.  This  serves  as  a 
Standard.  To  the  central  point  of 
a  common  window-pane,  attach  by 


sealing-wax  a  glass  tube  three  six- 
teenths of  an  inch  in  diameter  and 
twenty  inches  long.  Place  the  plate 
on  the  standard,  so  that  the  end  of 
the  tube  is  just  over  the  rubber 
eraser.  Holding  the  upper  end  of 
the  tube  in  one  hand,  rub  it  gently 
up  and  down  with  the  moistened 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  other. 
The  tube  is  thus  thrown  into  vibra- 
tion, and  causes  the  pane  to  vibrate 
also.  Sand  strewn  on  the  glass  will 
assume  figures  similar  to  those  ob- 


SPATTER-WORK 


669 


tained  by  the  other  methods.  In 
this  experiment  the  plate  is  caused 
to  vibrate  from  the  centre  instead 
of  from  the  edge. 

SPATTER-WORK,  Procure  a  box 
three  inches  deep,  and  as  large  as 
desired.  Remove  the  bottom  and 
top,  and  tack  wire  netting  (which 
can  be  bought  at  a  hardware  store) 
over  the  top.  The  edges  of  the  bot- 
tom must  be  covered  with  cloth,  so 
that  the  box  will  not  injure  what- 
ever it  stands  on.  On  the  paper 
which  it  is  desired  to  decorate  with 
spatter-work  lay  some  leaves,  a  fern, 
a  design  cut  out  of  paper,  or  any- 
thing flat,  and  then  place  the  box 
over  it.  Dip  an  old  nail-brush  in 
ink  and  draw  it  across  the  wire  net- 
ting. The  ink  will  spatter  through 


Spatter-work. 

in  fine  drops  on  the  paper.  When 
the  work  is  as  dark  as  desired,  the 
leaves  or  paper  design  is  removed, 
and  its  shape  will  be  seen  in  white 
on  the  spattered  background.  If 
part  of  the  leaves  are  removed  be- 
fore the  spattering  is  finished,  the 
design  will  be  in  two  shades,  white 
and  gray.  The  veins  of  the  leaves 
may  be  drawn  afterward  with  pen 
and  ink. 

SPECULATION.  I.  A  game  of 
CARDS  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons with  a  full  pack.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  game,  each  player  is  given 
an  equal  number  of  counters,  and 
eachplacesonthetable  a  number  pre- 


viously agreed  upon  to  form  the  pool, 
the  dealer  usually  being  required  to 
put  in  more  than  any  of  the  others. 
Three  cards  are  dealt  to  each,  one 
at  a  time,  and  the  last  is  turned  as 
trump.  The  hands  are  placed  face 
downward  on  the  table,  each  in 
front  of  its  owner.  Beginning  at 
the  dealer's  left,  each  player  in  order 
turns  up  his  top  card  till  some  one 
turns  a  higher  trump  than  the 
trump  card.  The  owner  of  this 
higher  trump  may  then  offer  to  sell 
to  the  one  bidding  the  highest 
number  of  counters  for  it,  whose 
property  it  then  becomes.  The 
player  on  the  new  owner's  left  then 
begins  to  turn  up  again,  and  so  on 
till  a  still  higher  trump  appears, 
which  may  be  sold  as  before.  The 
dealer  has  the  privilege  of  refusing 
to  turn  up  any  card  till  a  higher 
card  than  the  trump  card  appears, 
and  of  selling  either  the  trump  card 
or  his  whole  hand.  Any  one  turn- 
ing up  a  five  or  knave  of  a  lay  suit 
pays  one  counter  to  the  pool.  When 
the  cards  have  all  been  turned,  the 
owner  of  the  highest  trump  takes 
all  the  counters  in  the  pool.  When 
the  game  is  played  at  evening  par- 
ties, after  a  certain  number  of 
rounds  the  one  having  most  coun- 
ters is  given  a  prize.  If  any  player 
look  at  his  hand  or  play  out  of 
turn,  he  forfeits  his  privilege  of  tak- 
ing the  pool,  even  if  he  have  the 
highest  trump. 

II.  Another  game  is  played  as 
follows:  Two  packs  are  used,  one 
of  which  is  all  dealt  to  the  players, 
one  card  at  a  time,  and  the  other 
placed  face  downward  before  the 
dealer.  Four  or  five  cards  are  drawn 
from  this  pack  without  being 
looked  at,  and  placed  face  down- 
ward by  themselves,  each  with  a 
different  number  of  counters  piled 
on  it.  The  players  may  look  at  their 
hands  and  show  them  to  each  other. 
At  a  signal,  they  begin  the  game  by 
bargaining  with  one  another  for  any 
cards  they  wish,  each  buying  from 
whom  he  pleases,  at  any  price 


SPECULATION 


670 


SPELLING  MATCH 


agreed  upon.  This  either  goes  on 
for  a  time  previously  agreed  upon, 
or  the  dealer  may  be  allowed  to 
stop  it  when  he  likes.  He  then 
turns  up  the  cards  of  the  unseen 
pack,  one  by  one,  and  the  holders 
of  the  corresponding  cards  give 
them  up.  When  all  have  been 
given  up,  the  holders  of  the  remain- 
ing cards  (which  of  course  corre- 
spond to  those  laid  aside)  take  the 
counters  that  were  piled  on  them. 
The  game  then  begins  again,  and 
after  a  number  of  rounds  previously 
agreed  upon  the  player  having  the 
largest  number  of  counters  is  usu- 
ally given  a  prize. 

In  playing  the  game  a  player  may 
choose  to  sell  all  his  cards,  hoping 
to  make  a  large  number  of  counters 
in  this  way,  and  giving  up  his 
chance  for  the  prize  cards,  or  he 
may  prefer  to  buy  as  many  cards  as 
he  can,  hoping  to  get  the  prize  cards 
in  this  way.  The  price  of  cards  is 
generally  small  at  the  opening  of  a 
game  and  increases  toward  the  end, 
hence  it  is  often  desirable  to  buy  at 
first  and  then  sell.  Sometimes  the 
dealer  turns  part  of  the  unseen  pack 
and  then  allows  more  bargaining. 
Sometimes  a  number  of  the  cards 
are  not  called  for,  and  he  who  has 
most  remaining  is  given  a  prize. 
Sometimes  the  holders  of  the  prize 
cards  are  given  separate  prizes  in- 
stead of  counters,  and  the  game  may 
be  varied  in  many  other  ways,  at 
the  pleasure  of  the  players. 

III.  A  game  played  by  any  num- 
ber of  persons  with  cards,  on  some 
of  which  are  written  the  names 
of  stocks,  and  on  others  words 
that  occur  in  those  names.  Thus 
on  one  card  might  be  "  West- 
ern Union  Telegraph,"  or  "Lake 
Shore,"  and  on  others  "  Western,"  or 
"Shore."  The  cards  are  distributed 
evenly,  and  each  player  piles  his 
hand  in  front  of  him,  backs  up. 
Each,  in  order,  turns  a  card,  and  the 
first  to  turn  a  "stock"  card  says, 
"  I  speculate  on  Western  Union, "or 
whatever  it  may  be.  The'  first  one 


after  him  that  turns  up  a  card  bear- 
ing one  of  the  words  in  the  name 
of  that  stock  takes  all  of  the  specu- 
lator's cards  that  have  been  turned 
over.  So  the  game  goes  on  till 
some  one  has  all  the  cards,  thus 
winning  the  game.  When  any  one 
has  turned  over  all  in  his  pile  he 
turns  the  whole  pile  back  into  its 
former  position. 

SPELLING  MATCH,  a  contest  be- 
tween two  parties  to  see  which  con- 
tains the  best  spellers.  A  number 
of  people  may  choose  sides  (see 
CHOOSING  SIDES),  or  the  match 
may  be  between  two  schools  or 
societies.  The  numbers  should  be 
equal,  unless  otherwise  agreed  be- 
forehand. Each  side  must  have  a 
leader  or  captain,  and  the  oppcsing 
parties  generally  sit  or  stand  in  two 
rows  opposite  one  another,  the  cap- 
tains at  the  head.  Some  one,  not 
on  either  side,  selected  for  the  pur- 
pose, now  gives  out  a  word  to  be 
spelled  to  each  side  alternately,  first 
to  the  first  player  on  one  side,  then 
to  the  first  on  the  other,  then  to 
the  second  on  the  first  side,  and  so 
on.  When  any  one  spells  a  word 
incorrectly,  the  same  is  given  out 
again  till  it  is  spelled  correctly;  and 
if  it  is  so  spelled  on  the  side  which 
did  not  miss  it  at  first,  the  captain 
of  that  side  is  allowed  to  choose 
any  one  of  the  opposite  party,  who 
must  then  take  his  place  on  the 
winning  side.  If  the  word  is  spelled 
correctly  by  a  member  of  the  side 
on  which  it  was  first  missed,  there 
is  no  choosing.  The  match  goes 
on  thus  till  one  side  has  all  the 
players.  A  captain  cannot  be 
chosen  till  he  is  the  only  one  re- 
maining on  his  side.  Instead  of 
being  given  out  by  an  outsider,  the 
words  may  be  given  out  by  the  cap- 
tains, each  giving  out  to  the  players 
in  the  opposite  party.  When  one 
party orthe  other  haswon  the  match, 
it  is  often  ended  by  "spelling  down." 
In  this  process  words  are  given 
out  in  regular  order,  and  those  who 
miss  sit  down,  until  only  one  is 


SPELLING-MATCH 


671 


SPHEROIDAL  STATE 


left,  who  is  considered  the  victor. 
Sometimes  there  are  no  sides  at  all, 
and  the  spelling  down  constitutes 
the  whole  match.  In  this  case 
prizes  are  often  given  to  the  players 
who  sit  down  last.  Sometimes,  in- 
stead of  passing  the  word  to  the 
next  player  when  it  is  missed,  the 
one  who  gives  the  words  announces 
the  correct  spelling,  and  then  gives 
out  a  different  one.  This  is  the 
fairest  method  in  the  case  of  words 
which  can  be  spelled  in  only  two 
ways,  so  that  if  one  is  wrong  the 
other  must  be  right.  A  good  plan 
is  to  allow  the  one  who  misses  the 
word  first  to  decide  whether  or  not 
it  shall  be  given  out  again.  Spell- 
ing-matches are  not  really  means 
of  finding  out  the  best  spellers,  but 
they  are  often  exciting  sport.  The 
fairest  kind  of  spelling-match  is  one 
where  the  words  are  written  by  each 
contestant,  all  writing  the  same 
word  at  the  same  time.  When  all 
have  finished,  the  words  are  spelled 
correctly  by  the  leader,  and  each 
player  scores  one  for  every  word  he 
has  written  as  it  should  be.  The 
side  with  the  highest  score  wins. 
The  following  rules  give  an  idea  of 
how  a  public  spelling-match  should 
be  conducted.  They  may  be  modi- 
fied or  changed  as  desired. 

RULES  OF  THE   GAME. 

1.  The  officers  of  the  match  shall 
consist  of  a  leader  and  one  or  more 
judges. 

2.  The  leader  shall  give  out  only 
such  words  as  may  be  decided  on 
before  the  match.     For  instance,  he 
may  be  limited  to  words  contained 
in  a  certain  dictionary  or  spelling- 
book,  or  to  words  not  obsolete,  or 
to  words   of  a  certain    number  of 
syllables. 

'  3.  Any  contestant  is  at  liberty  to 
demand  that  the  leader  pronounce 
the  word  again,  or  that  he  define  it. 
4.  If  the  word  given  out  be 
spelled  correctly,  the  leader  shall 
say  "  Right,"  and  at  once  give  out 
another  word.  If  it  be  spelled  in- 


correctly, he  shall  say  "  Wrong," 
and  either  give  out  the  same  word 
again,  or  another  one,  as  has  been 
agreed  before  the  contest.  If  he 
give  out  a  different  word,  he  shall 
first  spell  correctly  the  word  missed. 
The  speller  may  appeal  to  the 
judges  either  on  the  ground  that  he 
spelled  the  word  correctly  and  was 
misunderstood  by  the  leader,  or 
that  his  way  of  spelling  is  allowable. 
In  the  first  case  the  judges  may 
take  the  opinion  of  other  players, 
or  decide  on  their  own.  In  the 
second,  they  shall  consult  such 
books  of  reference  as  were  agreed 
on  before  the  contest,  and  if  the 
spelling  given  is  allowable  it  is  ad- 
judged correct.  [The  best  plan  is 
to  select  two  or  more  dictionaries 
as  standards ;  say  Webster's  and 
Worcester's,  and  allow  any  spelling 
given  in  either.] 

5.  No  contestant  shall  be  allowed 
more  than  one  minute  from  the 
time  when  he  understands  the 
word,  and  if  he  delay  longer  than 
that  time  he  shall  be  considered  to 
have  failed. 

Pronouncing  Matches.  The  same 
rules  apply  to  these  as  to  spelling- 
matches,  except  that  the  leader 
spells  the  words  and  contestants 
pronounce  them.  Instead  of  spell- 
ing them,  the  leader  may  display 
them  written  or  printed  on  placards, 
or  lists  of  the  words  may  be  dis- 
tributed to  the  contestants  at  the 
opening  of  the  match. 

SPHEROIDAL  STATE,  Experi- 
ments on  the.  i.  When  warm  water 
is  dropped  on  arf  ordinarily  hot 
stove  it  turns  quickly  to  steam  ;  but 
if  the  stove  be  red  hot,  the  water 
forms  itself  into  one  or  more  little 
balls,  and  rolls  about,  taking  a  long 
time  to  evaporate.  As  a  stove-top 
is  flat,  the  water  usually  rolls  off,  so 
the  experiment  can  be  tried  better 
by  holding  the  bowl  of  a  metal  table- 
spoon in  an  alcohol  flame  till  it  is 
red  hot  and  then  dropping  warm 
water  into  it.  The  handle  must  be 
inserted  in  the  split  end  of  a  piece 


672 


SPOIL-FIVE 


O'i  wood  so  that  the  hand  will  not 
be  burned.  Let  the  spoon  cool,  and 
when  it  has  cooled  enough  the  little 
ball  of  water  will  suddenly  turn  to 
steam.  This  state  in  water  or  any 
other  liquid  is  called,  the  spheroidal 
state,  because  the  liquid  takes  the 
shape  of  a  flattened  ball  or  spheroid. 
The  reason  it  does  not  dry  up  at 
once  is,  that  the  water  is  supported 
on  a  kind  of  cushion  of  steam  so 
that  it  does  not  touch  the  metal 
at  all. 

2.  Put  into  a  cold  silver  spoon  a 
drop  of  water  in  which  sulphide  of 
sodium  has  been  dissolved.  It  will 
turn  black,  because sulphideof silver 
is  formed.  Now  try  the  above  ex- 
periment with  a  drop  of  such  water, 
and  the  spoon  will  not  be  blackened 
till  it  has  cooled  down  below  red 
heat.  This  is  because  the  liquid, 
when  in  the  spheroidal  state,  did 
not  touch  the  spoon  at  all. 

SPHYGMOCRAPH,  an  arrange- 
ment for  recording  the  beats  of  the 


Sphygmograph. — Fig.  i. 

pulse.  A  simple  one  can  be  made 
by  fastening  a  bit  of  looking-glass 
to  the  wrist  just  above  the  pulse, 
with  an  elastic  band,  as  in  Fig.  i. 
The  mirror  is  held  in  a  beam  of 


light  so  as  to  reflect  a  spot  on  the 
wall,  and  this  spot  moves  with  each 
beat  of  the  pulse.  The  room  should 
be  darkened  if  possible,  all  light  be- 


Sphygmograph. — Fig.  2. 

ing  shut  out  save  that  which  falls  on 
the  mirror.  Another  form,  some- 
times sold  as  a  toy,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  2. 

The  word  sphygmograph  is  from 
the  Greek  sphugmos,  the  pulse,  and 
graphein,  to  write. 

SPOIL-FIVE,  a  game  of  cards 
played  by  two  to  ten  persons  with  a 
full  pack.  The  rank  of  the  cards  is 
peculiar.  In  the  red  suits  it  is  as  in 
WHIST,  except  that  the  Ace  ranks 
below  the  Two.  In  the  black  suits 
the  order  is  reversed  below  the 
Knave,  the  Ace  coming  next,  and 
then  the  Two,  Three,  Four,  and  so 
on  to  the  Ten,  which  is  lowest.  The 
Ace  of  Hearts  is  always  a  trump, 
and  the  order  of  the  cards  in  the 
trump  suit  is  Five,  Knave,  Ace  of 
Hearts,  Ace  of  trumps,  King, 
Queen,  and  then  as  in  common 
suits.  The  following  table  shows 
the  order  briefly : 


Common  Suits. 
BLACK. 


Trumps. 

RED.  BLACK. 


SPOIL-FIVE 


673 


SPOIL-FIVE 


Common  Suits. 

RED.            BLACK. 

Trumps. 

RED.          BLACK. 

Five  cards  are  dealt  to  each  player, 
usually   two  and  three   at  a   time, 
as  in    EUCHRE,   and   the   top  card 
of   the  stock   is   turned   as  trump. 
When  only  two  play,  the  non-dealer 
is  often  allowed  to  ask   the   dealer 
for  another  trump,  and  if  the  latter 
agrees  the  second   card   is   turned. 
This  is  called   "  Fiving  it."     If  the 
trump  card  is  an  Ace,  the  dealer  has 
the  privilege  of  "  robbing,"  that  is, 
he  may  discard  any  card  he  chooses, 
placing  it  face  downward  under  the 
pack,   and   take   the    Ace  into   his 
hand.     The  dealer   must  rob,  if  at 
all,  before  the  eldest  hand  plays.    If 
any  player  holds  the  Ace  of  trumps 
in  his  hand,  he  must  rob  before  he 
plays  his  first  card.  When  a  common 
suit  is  led,  any  player   may  trump, 
though  able  to  follow  suit  ;  but  if  he 
hold  no  trump  he  must  follow  suit 
if  possible.     If  a  trump  is  led,  suit 
must   be  followed,  except  that  the 
Five  of  trumps,  the  Knave  of  trumps, 
and  the   Ace   of   Hearts   need   not 
be  played  when  an  inferior  trump  is 
led.  This  is  called  "  reneging."  Thus, 
if  the  Two   of  trumps   is   led   and 
a    player  have   no   trump  but  the 
Knave,  he  need  not  follow  suit  ;  but 
if  the  Five  had  been  led,  he  would 
be  obliged  to  play  the  Knave.     A 
player  who  takes  three  tricks  in  one 
hand   wins   the  game,   and  playing 
ceases  as  soon  as  any  one  has  taken 
three  tricks.     If  no   one   wins,   the 
game  is  said  to  be  "spoilt."     If  the 
score   is  kept  with   counters,   each 
contributes  to   the  pool   a   number 
previously  agreed     upon,   and   the 
whole  pool  is  taken  by  the  winner. 
When    the   game   is   "spoilt,"  the 
pool  remains,  and  each  puts  in  more 
counters  (usually  half  or  a  third  of 
the  original   number).     Sometimes 
every  trick  taken  counts  five,  and 
he  who  gains   a   fixed   number  of 
points  (usually  25  or  45)   wins  the 
game  When  the  game  is  45,  the  trick 
won  by  the  best  trump  out  counts 
ten,    unless   some  one    has    taken 
enough  tricks  to  win  the  game  be- 
fore that  trump  is  played.     When 

i 

if 

f&  R> 

J 
T 

, 

* 

T 

l*v 

* 

\.ce  of 
rumps 

'jfch 

© 

<y    v 

* 
* 

Ullla 

<y>    <j5 

* 
* 

HI 

<?    <7 

4.  4, 
4.  4, 

l*v 

9    <? 
9?     9? 

.•.  4. 

* 

4,  4. 

<?  <? 

1 

. 

+  * 
4,  4, 
4.  4. 

<?    q? 
<p    cj> 

^ 

9     9 

4>  .-. 
4.  4, 
4,  4. 

cp    <y 

4   4 

: 

*** 
4,  4. 

*** 

H 

X 

*  * 
4-4.* 

4.  4, 

9?    9? 

*t* 

, 

*** 
*** 

*** 
*** 

: 

{4 

s? 

!*l 

*  Omitted,  of   course,  when  Hearts  are 
trumps. 

SPOONS 


674 


SPORTS   WITH    FLOWERS 


the  game  is  scored  thus,  if  any  one 
take  all  five  tricks  he  wins  at  once. 
This  is  called  "Jinking  it."  Some- 
times jinking  is  allowed  also  in  the 
regular  game.  In  that  case,  when  a 
player  has  taken  three  tricks  he 
may  continue  to  play.  If  he  take  all 
the  tricks,  he  wins  double  the  pool ; 
but  if  not,  he  wins  nothing  at  all. 

In  Spoil-Five  it  is  considered  best 
to  lead  the  worst  card  and  to  reserve 
good  cards  till  the  third  trick.  A 
non-leader  should  trump,  if  he 
h(,lds  only  one  trump  (unless  it  can 
renege),  but  two  trumps  should  be 
reserved. 

Unless  a  player  has  a  very  strong 
hand,  he  should  try  to  "  spoil  "  the 
game,  and  to  this  end  should  allow 
no  one  to  get  more  than  one  trick, 
if  possible.  When  only  two  play,  it 
is,  of  course  impossible  to  "  spoil  " 
the  game. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  The  deal  is  determined  accord- 
ing to  agreement  either   by  dealing 
the  cards  one  at  a  time,   in  which 
case  he  who  receives  the  first  Knave 
deals,   or  by  cutting,  in  which  case 
lowest  deals. 

2.  If  there  is  a  misdeal,  the  deal 
passes  to  the  left. 

3.  If  a  player  deal  out  of  turn  he 
may  be  stopped  before  the  trump  is 
turned.    If  he  is  not  so  stopped,  the 
deal  is  good,  and  passes  to  his  left 
as  if  he  had  dealt  in  turn. 

4.  If  a  player  neglect  to  rob  be- 
fore he  plays  to  the  first  trick,  he 
loses  the  right  to  rob,  and  can  win 
nothing  that  hand. 

5.  If  a  player  rob  when  he  is  not 
entitled  to  do  so,  or  leads  or  plays 
wrongly,  or  reneges  when  he  is  not 
entitled,  he  cannot  win  in  that  hand. 
(This  is  culled  "  hanging  "  the  hand.) 

SPOONS.  See  BLIND  MAN'S 
BUFF. 

SPORTS  WITH  FLOWERS  AND 
FRUIT.  A  variety  of  sports  and  cus- 
toms are  connected  with  flowers  and 
leaves,  most  of  them  observed  only 
by  young  children.  By  plucking  the 


petals  of  the  daisy  or  any  similar 
flower,  they  pretend,  in  play,  that 
they  can  tell  different  things  about 
their  future  lives.  Thus  the  fol- 
lowing rhyme  is  repeated,  one  word 
as  each  petal  is  plucked  : 

"  Rich  man,  poor  man,  beggar  man,  thief, 
Doctor,  lawyer,  Indian  chief." 

This  is  repeated  over  and  over  again, 
and  the  word  spoken  as  the  last 
petal  is  plucked  is  supposed  to  tell 
what  the  child's  condition  is  to  be 
if  a  boy,  or  if  a  girl,  whom  she  is  to 
marry.  In  the  same  way,  to  dis- 
cover where  he  will  live,  he  says, 
"  Big  house,  little  house,  pigsty, 
barn;"  to  tell  what  his  dress  is  to 
be,  "  Silk,  satin,  calico,  rags,"  and 
to  find  what  he  is  to  ride  in,  "  Coach, 
wagon,  wheelbarrow,  chaise."  Flow- 
ers are  asked  questions  in  this  way 
in  many  parts  of  the  world.  In 
Switzerland  the  list  of  occupations 
runs : 

"  Nobleman,  beggar,  farmer,  soldier,  student, 
Emperor,  king,  gentleman." 

In  this  country,  instead  of  pulling 
petals,  the  verse  is  often  repeated 
while  touching  the  buttons  of  the 
coat  or  dress.  In  Italy  the  leaves 
are  plucked  from  the  branch  of  a 
tree  in  the  same  manner.  In  the 
same  way  young  girls  pretend  to 
find  out  whether  their  sweethearts 
love  them,  saying: 

"  He  loves  me,  he  loves  me  not," 

or, 

"  A  little,  much,  passionately,  not  at  all." 

To  find  out  when  they  are  to  be 
married,  they  repeat,  while  plucking 
the  petals, 

"  This  year,  next  year,  some  time,  never;" 

Dandelions  gone  to  seed  are  often 
called  "  dandelion  clocks,"  and  chil- 
dren amuse  themselves  by  trying  to 
see  in  how  few  puffs  they  can  blow 
away  every  seed.  The  number  of 
puffs  required  is  supposed  to  tell 
the  time  of  day.  Sometimes,  if  all 
the  seeds  can  be  blown  off  in  three 
puffs,  it  is  considered  a  sign  that 
the  successful  one  will  be  married 
within  a  year,  or  that  his  mother 


SPORTS   WITH    FLOWERS 


675 


SPORTS    WITH    FLOWERS 


wants  him.  Dandelions  are  also 
used  to  make  chains  and  curls. 
Chains  are  made  by  cutting  off  the 
head  of  tne  flower  and  pushing  the 
small  end  of  the  stem  into  the  large 
end,  thus  making  a  circular  link ; 
another  link  is  fastened  to  it  by 
putting  the  second  stem  through 
the  first  before  it  is  closed,  and  so 
very  long  chains  can  be  made. 
This  way  of  making  chains  is  very 
ancient,  and  gave  rise  to  the  Ger- 
man name  Kette-blume  (Chain- 
flower).  Dandelion  curls  are  made 
by  splitting  the  stems  into  strips 
and  putting  them  into  water,  when 
they  curl  up  curiously.  By  splitting 
a  stem  part  way,  making  some  wide 
and  some  narrow  strips,  the  form 
of  the  curls  may  be  varied. 

Violets  are  used  in  the  following 
sport :  Each  of  two  boys  holds  one 
of  the  flowers  by  the  end  of  the 
stem,  and  placing  them  so  that  the 
stems  will  touch  at  about  their  mid- 
dles, gives  a  sudden  jerk,  so  that 
the  flowers  will  catch  together. 
One  of  the  flowers  is  almost  certain 
to  be  pulled  off  the  stem,  and  the 
uninjured  one  is  the  victor.  Some- 
times a  violet  with  a  strong  stem 
will  come  off  best  in  many  such 
contests. 

The  Magic  Rose.  Dust  some 
finely  powdered  aniline  red  over  a 
white  rose,  and  then  shake  it  off. 
Sprinkle  the  rose  with  cologne  wa- 
ter and  it  will  turn  red.  The  reason 
is  that  the  alcohol  in  the  cologne 
dissolves  the  fine  particles  of  aniline 
which  remain  on  the  rose,  rendering 
their  color  visible. 

Sports  with  Leaves.  The  leaves 
of  the  lilac,  the  "  live  forever," 
and  some  other  plants  and  shrubs 
have  a  thin,  light-colored  skin  on 
the  under  side,  by  scratching  which 
with  a  pin  a  dark  mark  is  made. 
These  leaves  can  thus  be  used  to 
write  messages  on  and  to  play  many 
kinds  of  writing-games.  Leaves 
with  long  stems  can  be  fastened  to- 
gether by  pushing  the  stem  of  one 
through  the  other,  as  shown  in  the 


illustration.  In  this  way  crowns, 
garlands,  baskets,  and  other  things 
may  be  made.  Leaves  with  short 


Leaf-chain. 

stems  may  be  used  in  like  manner 
by  pinning  them  with  long  thorns 
or  pine-needles.  A  drinking  cup 
can  thus  be  made  which  will  hold 
water  long  enough  to  carry  it  from 
a  spring  to  the  mouth. 

Sports  with  Grass.  An  inter- 
esting game  is  played  thus  with 
grass  :  An  even  number  of  blades 


SPORTS   WITH    FLOWERS 


676 


SPORTS   WITH    FLOWERS 


(about  ten  is  the  best  number)  is 
selected  by  each  player.  The  blades 
should  be  from  six  to  twelve  inches 
long.  Each  lays  his  blades  side  by 
side,  and,  sitting  down,  holds  one 
end  of  the  branch  between  his 
knees.  He  ties  the  free  ends  firmly 
together  in  pairs,  and  then,  placing 
the  knotted  ends  between  his  knees, 
ties  the  others  in  like  manner. 
Each  now  examines  his  bunch  of 
grass  to  see  how  it  is  tied  together. 
Those  who  have  tied  their  grass  so 
as  to  form  a  perfect  circle  are  win- 
ners. The  next  best  arrangement 
is  a  circle  of  all  the  blades  but  two, 
the  others  forming  a  little  circle  by 
themselves.  The  next  is  a  circle  of 
all  but  four,  these  forming  a  sepa- 
rate circle,  and  so  on.  In  any  case 
two  circles  linked  together  are  bet- 
ter than  two  entirely  separate. 
There  are  thirty  ways  in  which  ten 
blades  can  be  thus  arranged,  and 
the  more  blades  are  used  the  greater 
will  be  the  number  of  arrangements. 
With  ten  blades  there  is  a  very 
slight  chance  of  making  a  perfect 
circle.  With  four  blades  the  pos- 
sible results  are  only  three;  perfect 
circle,  two  circles  linked,  and  two 
circles  unlinked.  The  game  is  en- 
tirely one  of  chance,  as  no  one  is 
allowed  to  look  at  the  knots  on  one 
end  while  tying  the  others.  The 
game  is  often  played  as  a  SOLITAIRE. 
Sometimes  the  bunch  of  grass  is 
given  the  name  of  a  playfellow,  and 
the  player  pretends  that  his  success 
in  tying  it  tells  him  how  much 
that  playfellow  likes  him.  Another 
sport  witli  grass  is  to  place  a  blade 
between  the  thumbs  and  blow  on  it, 
which,  if  correctly  done,  makes  a 
rouyh,  screeching  note.  The  thumbs 
are  held  so  that  there  is  a  little 
crack  between  them,  and  the  edges 
of  the  blade  must  be  stretched  ex- 
actly in  the  middle  of  this  crack. 
The  broader  the  blade,  the  lower 
the  note,  and  a  very  high  tone  can 
be  made  by  using  a  thin  shred. 
The  note  can  also  be  varied  by 
bending  the  thumbs  a  little,  thus 


tightening  and  loosening  the  blade 
of  grass. 

Creen,  a  game  or  custom  preva- 
lent among  children  in  some  parts 
of  Georgia  and  South  Carolina. 
One  points  the  finger  at  any  other 
with  whom  he  is  playing,  or  whom 
he  may  meet,  saying,  "Green." 
The  one  addressed  must  then  pro- 
duce a  leaf,  bit  of  grass,  or  the 
like  from  some  part  of  his  dress. 
Children  hide  leaves  in  their  shoes 
and  other  unlikely  places  with  the 
object  of  making  their  playmates 
think  that  the  "green"  lias  been 
forgotten.  It  is  considered  a  dis- 
grace not  to  be  able  to  produce 
the  green  when  it  is  called  for,  and 
sometimes  a  forfeit  is  required  from 
the  one  so  caught. 

This  game  was  probably  brought 
to  this  country  by  French  Hugue- 
nots. It  was  played  long  ago  in 
France,  and  is  still  common  in  some 
parts  of  that  country,  where  per- 
sons of  all  ages  take  part  in  it  at 
certain  seasons.  The  French  ex- 
pression " Prendre  sans  verd"  (to 
catch  anyone  without  green), means 
to  take  by  surprise,  and  is  derived 
from  this  game.  The  custom  is 
probably  an  old  MAY-DAY  game. 

Sports  with  Nuts.  The  ancient 
Roman  boys  played  with  round  nuts 
as  we  do  with  marbles.  At  the 
present  day  they  are  used  in  such 
simple  games  as  ODD  OR  EVEN, 
and  for  carving  into  various  shapes, 
particularly  little  baskets,  a  circle 
of  the  shell  being  left  for  a  handle, 
and  the  meat  cleaned  out.  The 
horse-chestnut  is  most  used  for  this 
purpose,  as  its  shell  is  thin  and 
easily  cut.  Pretty  baskets  may  be 
made  also  of  filberts  and  hazelnuts, 
and  even  of  cherry  pits.  Cherry 
pits  too  may  be  made  into  chains 
by  cutting  them  with  a  sharp  pen- 
knife into  rings,  which,  when  cut 
open  at  one  side,  may  be  opened 
enough  to  put  another  ring 
through. 

Acorn  cups  can  be  used  as  play- 
dishes,  and  with  a  little  trimming 


SPORTS   WITH   FLOWERS 


677 


SPORTS   WITH   FLOWERS 


with  a  knife  may  represent  cups, 
saucers,  or  plates. 

Pea-nuts  may  be  used  in  playing  a 
variety  of  games,  some  of  which 
are  described  in  the  article  on  PEA- 
NUT SPREES. 

Philopena,  a  game  played  by  two 
persons  with  nuts,  usually  almonds. 
When  a  person  finds  one  of  these 
with  two  kernels  in  it,  he  may  ask 
any  one  he  chooses  to  eat  a  philo- 
pena  with  him.  If  the  one  asked 
consents,  each  eats  one  of  the  ker- 
nels, and  whoever  says  the  word 
"  Philopena"  first  on  meeting  the 
other  after  the  end  of  a  certain  time 
(usually  after  the  day  on  which  the 
philopena  is  eaten)  is  entitled  to  a 
present  from  the  other. 

A  more  common  way  of  eating  a 
philopena  is  called  Give  and  Take. 
If  either  of  the  players  takes  any 
object  whatever  from  the  other's 
hands,  the  giver  is  entitled  to  say 
"  Philopena"  and  receive  a  present. 
This  arrangement  goes  into  force 
as  soon  as  the  philopena  is  eaten. 
Constant  watchfulness  is  required 
to  avoid  being  caught,  and  the  play- 
ers use  all  sorts  of  tricks  to  throw 
each  other  off  his  guard.  For  in- 
stance, one  may  pass  the  other  a 
plate  at  table,  or  hand  him  a  book 
or  other  article  to  look  at. 


The  Philopena  is  said  to  have 
originated  .'n  Germany,  where  it  is 
called  Viel-ltebchen  (much  beloved), 
and  some  think  that  the  first  part 
of  the  word  Philopena  is  a  corrup- 
tion of  this  name,  the  Latin  word 
poena  (punishment)  being  added  be- 
cause the  gift  was  thought  to  be  a 
penalty.  Others  think  that  the 
first  part  is  from  the  Greek  philos 
(a  friend). 

Fruit  Sports.  Children  eating  ap- 
ples give  them  names,  and  then 
count  the  seeds  to  decide  their  own 
fate.  The  following  rhyme  is  re- 
cited while  counting: 

•'  One,  I  love  ;  Two,  I  love  ; 
Three,  I  love,  I  say  : 
Four,  I  love  with  all  my  heart, 
And  Five,  I  cast  away. 
Six,  he  loves  ;  Seven,  she  loves  ; 
Eight,  both  love ; 
Nine,  he  comes  ;  Ten,  he  tarries ; 
Eleven,  he  courts ;  Twelve,  he  marries." 

This  rhyme  is  at  least  a  century 
old,  and  probably  much  older. 

To  Make  Designs  on  Growing 
Fruiti  While  the  fruit  is  still  green 
fasten  on  the  side  exposed  to  the 
sun  letters  or  designs  cut  from  tin- 
foil, or  from  thin  sheet-wax,  such  as 
is  used  for  making  wax  flowers. 
The  foil  or  wax  will  prevent  the  sun 
from  coloring  the  skin  of  the  fruit 
underneath,  and  if  it  is  removed 


Cucumber  Horses. 


SPORTS   WITH    FLOWERS 


678 


SQUAILS 


when  the  fruit  is  ripe  the  letters 
will  be  left  in  light  green.  Fruit  of 
some  other  color  than  green  when 
ripe  should  of  course  be  chosen. 
Among  the  best  for  the  purpose  are 
rosy  apples. 

Cucumber  Horses.  The  illustra- 
tions show  how  toy  horses  can  be 
made  from  cucumbers  and  matches. 
Still  more  life-like  ones  can  be  made 
of  crook-necked  squashes. 

Apple-skin  Bird.  Cut  a  thin  slice 
from  an  apple  (Figs.  I  and  2)  and 
then  pare  the  skin  from  it  in  one 
piece,  leaving  some  of  the  apple 
adhering  to  it,  and  including  a  bit 
of  the  stem  at  the  top,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  3.  Cut  through  all  but  the 
thin  outer  skin  near  the  top  of  the 
strip  (Fig.  4)  and  then,  holding  it  j 
between  the  thumb  and  finger  just 
below  the  cut,  pinch  it  slightly  (Fig. 
5).  The  effect  of  pinching  is  to 


Apple-skin  Bird. 


move  the  top  part  backward  and 
forward,  like  a  bird  pecking  at  some- 
thing. If  a  piece  of  bread  be  held 
in  one  hand  and  the  bird  be  marie 
to  peck  at  it,  the  resemblance  at  a 
little  distance  is  quite  striking. 

Other  sports  with  fruit,  nuts,  etc., 
are  described  in  the  article  on  HAL- 
LOWEEN. 


SQUAILS.  A  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  usually  four  or 
six,  with  disks  of  wood,  like  CHECKER 
men,  called  squails.  The  players, 
divided  into  two  sides,  sit  alternately 
around  a  table  with  a  smooth  top, 
in  the  centre  of  which  is  a  short 
metal  column  called  the  Process. 
Each  player  has  two  squails,  which 
are  numbered  or  colored  to  distin- 
guish them  from  the  others,  and 
each  in  turn  plays  a  squail  toward 
the  Process  by  placing  it  so  that 
the  edge  projects  from  the  table, 
and  then  striking  it  with  the  palm 
of  the  hand.  The  object  is  to  get 
as  near  the  Process  as  possible. 
The  player  may  play  his  squail  from 
any  part  of  the  table  edge  that  he 
can  reach  with  either  hand  while 
sitting  in  his  chair.  He  may  try  to 
drive  friendly  squails  nearer  the 
Process,  or  knock  those  of  the  en- 
emy away.  Any  played  squail  fall- 
ing from  the  table,  or  going  within 
three  inches  of  the  edge,  is  "  dead  " 
for  that  round.  At  the  close  of  the 
two  rounds  the  side  which  has  the 
nearest  squail  to  the  Process  scores 
one  for  each  squail  nearer  than  any 
of  the  enemies'.  If  a  player  knock 
the  Process  from  the  table,  or 
within  three  inches  of  the  edge,  the 
opposing  side  scores  two  and  the 
Process  is  replaced. 

Cachinole.  A  kind  of  Squails 
placed  on  a  circular  board,  in  the 
centre  of  which  is  the  Process.  The 
squails  are  snapped  with  the  fingers 
from  the  edge  of  the  board. 

Squails  and  Cachinole  are  practi- 
cally the  game  of  CURLING  adapted 
to  in-door  playing.  The  principal 
difference  between  them  and  the 
similar  out-door  games  is  that  the 
players  shoot  from  all  sides  toward 
a  centre,  instead  of  from  one  end  to 
the  other  of  a  rink  or  alley. 

The  natives  of  the  Friendly  and 
Samoan  Islands,  in  the  South  Pa- 
cific Ocean,  play  a  game  like  Squails, 
called  Laffo,  in  which  the  players 
pitch  beans  upon  a  mat,  trying  to 
strike  off  those  of  the  other  players. 


STAGE-COACH 


679 


ST.   HELENA 


STAGE-COACH,  a  game  in  which 
all  the  players  sit  in  a  circle  except 
one,  who  stands  in  the  middle. 
Each  of  those  sitting  takes  the 
name  of  some  part  of  a  stage-coach, 
of  some  article  of  dress  of  a  passen- 
ger, or  of  something  else  connected 
with  a  stage  ride.  The  one  in  the 
middle  of  the  room  then  tells  a 
story,  bringing  in  these  names  as 
often  as  he  pleases.  Whenever  he 
speaks  the  name  a  player  has  taken, 
that  player  must  rise  and  turn 
around,  or  pay  a  FORFEIT.  When 
the  word  "stage-coach"  is  spoken,  all 
must  rise  and  turn.  The  story  ends 
with  the  words  "  the  stage  turned 
over,"  at  which  all  change  seats. 
In  the  confusion  the  story-teller 
tries  to  slip  into  a  chair,  and  if  he 
succeeds,  the  one  left  standing  must 
take  his  place  and  tell  a  similar 
story.  Of  course  there  must  be 
only  chairs  enough  in  the  game  for 
those  sitting.  If  the  story-teller 
gets  a  seat,  he  may  take  the  name 
of  the  one  left  standing,  or  choose 
a  new  one.  If  he  is  unsuccessful, 
he  must  tell  another  story.  This 
game  may  be  varied  in  many  ways : 
thus,  the  story  may  be  about  a  sea 
voyage,  and  the  players  may  be 
named  after  parts  of  a  ship. 

This  game  is  similar  to  that  of 
ECHO,  where  instead  of  turning  at 
certain  words  the  players  repeat 
them  after  the  story  teller.  The 
Germans  call  it  "  Die  Reise  nach 
Jerusalem"  (The  Journey  to  Jerusa- 
lem), but  it  is  entirely  different  from 
our  "GoiNG  TO  JERUSALEM." 

STARCH,  Manufacture  of. 
Starch  may  be  made  from  flour  as 
follows :  Mix  flour  with  enough 
water  to  make  a  stiff  dough,  and 
then  knead  or  roll  it  between  the 
fingers  on  a  piece  of  muslin  stretched 
over  a  bowl  or  dish,  pouring  on  a 
little  water  every  few  seconds.  The 
water  that  flows  through  the  mus- 
lin carries  with  it  a  white  matter, 
which  gradually  settles  to  the  bot- 
tom and  may  be  collected.  This  is 
starch.  When  all  the  starch  has 


thus  been  removed  from  the  dough, 
a  sticky  mass  remains,  which  is 
called  gluten. 

STATUARY.  See  LIVING  STATU- 
ARY. 

STEAM-WHEEL.  A  simple  kind 
of  steam-engine  can  be  made  as 
follows :  Fasten  the  lid  of  a  tin 
baking-powder  box  to  the  box  with 
shellac  varnish,  and  punch  two  holes 
in  the  side  of  the  box,  one  about  as 
large  as  a  pin  and  the  other  as  large 
as  a  slate-pencil.  The  latter  must 
be  fitted  with  a  wooden  plug.  This 
box  is  the  boiler  of  the  engine.  It 
must  be  glued  between  two  upright 
posts  fixed  in  a  board,  so  that  the 
pin-hole  is  on  top.  The  upright 
posts  rise  about  two  inches  above 
the  boiler  and  bear,  on  an  axle 
made  of  stiff  iron  wire,  a  wheel  like 
a  water  wheel,  or  the  paddle-wheel 
of  a  steamboat.  This  can  be  made 
by  taking  a  large  pill-box,  cutting 
slits  in  the  sides,  and  drawing  slips 
of  pasteboard  through  the  slits  so 
that  they  project  about  half  an 
inch.  The  slips  are  steadied  by 
filling  the  box  with  damp  sand  be- 
fore putting  on  the  lid.  This  wheel 
is  arranged  so  that  one  side  is  di- 
rectly over  the  pin-hole.  The 
boiler  is  now  supplied  with  water 
through  the  plugged  hole,  and  an 
alcohol  lamp  is  placed  under  it. 
When  the  water  begins  to  boil,  the 
steam  will  issue  from  the  pin-hole, 
and  striking  the  paddles  of  the 
wheel,  will  spin  it  around  very  rap- 
idly. If  a  grooved  wooden  wheel 
be  glued  to  one  side  of  the  paddle- 
wheel, it  may  be  connected  by  a  string 
to  one  of  the  moving  toys  which 
are  sold  at  toy-stores  to  be  set  in 
motion  by  miniature  steam-engines. 

ST.  HELENA,  a  SOLITAIRE  game 
of  CARDS  played  with  two  packs. 
The  four  Kings  of  one  pack  are  laid 
in  a  row  on  the  table,  and  under 
them  the  four  corresponding  Aces. 
Cards  are  then  placed,  as  they  come, 
in  a  row  above  the  Kings,  and  in  an- 
other below  the  Aces ;  and  then 
two  cards  are  placed  at  the  right  of 


STILL   POND 


680 


STOCK   EXCHANGE 


the  rows  and  two  at  the  left.  The 
whole  pack  is  distributed  in  this  or- 
der. The  player's  object  is  to  build 
up  families  by  suits,  downward  from 
the  Kings  and  upward  from  the 
Aces,  and  whenever  a  card  can  be 
placed  in  its  proper  order  it  is  so 
placed ;  but  those  that  fall  in  the 
upper  row  can  be  used  only  on  the 
Kings,  and  those  in  the  lower  row 
on  the  Aces.  The  side  cards  can 
be  used  on  either  row.  After  the 
pack  has  been  distributed,  the  top 
card  of  any  pile  can  be  placed  on 
any  other  top  card  just  above  or 
below  it  in  rank  ;  and  when  a  card  is 
thus  uncovered  that  can  be  used  in 
building,  it  is  so  used,  bearing  in 
mind  the  restriction  noticed  above. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  pick  up  the 
outer  rows,  reshuffle  them  and  re- 
lay them.  It  may  be  done  once, 
and  then  any  cards  may  be  used  in 
building,  no  matter  on  what  row 
they  fall.  This  game  is  said  to  have 
been  played  much  by  Napoleon  in 
exile  on  the  island  of  St.  Helena, 
and  this  gives  it  its  name. 

STILL  POND.  See  BLIND  MAN'S 
BUFF. 

STILTS,  poles  or  crutches  to  raise 
the  feet  above  the  ground  in  walk- 
ing. The  stilts  are  held  as  shown 
in  the  picture.  As  usually  made, 
each  stilt  has  a  step 
of  wood,  on  which  a 
foot  is  placed ;  but 
some  stilts  have  in- 
stead a  loop  or  stir- 
rup of  leather,  into 
which  the  foot  is 
thrust.  The  latter 
kind  is  dangerous, 
for  if  the  wearer  trip 
or  lose  his  balance 
and  fall,  the  feet  are 
apt  to  become  entan- 
gled, whereas  in  the 
other  case  he  can 
easily  jump  from  the 
stilts  to  the  ground. 
Skilful  walkers  have 
Stilts.  their  stilts  strapped 
tightly  to  their  legs,  so  that  they 


may  use  their  hands  freely.  The  art 
of  walking  on  stilts  depends  on  the 
principles  of  BALANCING,  and  is  best 
learned  by  practice.  The  learner 
should  mount  at  first  from  a  stump 
or  fence,  high  enough  to  step  at 
once  onto  his  stilts.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  stand  still  on  stilts  without 
the  aid  of  a  staff,  for  the  ends  of 
the  poles  do  not  offer  so  broad  a 
support  as  the  feet ;  but  by  taking 
little  steps  in  one  direction  and  an- 
other, the  walker  may  remain  near 
one  spot  as  long  as  he  pleases.  It 
is  easier  to  balance  the  body  on 
long  stilts  than  on  short  ones,  for 
the  same  reason  that  it  is  easier  to 
balance  a  long  pole  than  a  short  one. 
In  the  Landes,  a  marshy  tract  of 
country  near  Bordeaux,  France,  the 
shepherds  make  great  use  of  stilts 
(C.  T.  T.).  In  this  and  other  regions 
where  necessity  has  compelled  the 
use  of  stilts,  various  stilt-games  are 
played. 

The  illustration  below,  from  an 
old  manuscript,  shows  the  use  of 
stilts  in  ancient  times. 


Ancient  Stilts. 

STOCK  EXCHANGE,  THE,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
with  a  pack  of  cards.  The  players 
sit  in  a  circle,  and  one  of  them,  tak- 
ing the  cards  in  his  hand,  gives  them 


STOP 


681 


SUGAR  OF   LEAD 


one  by  one  to  his  left-hand  neighbor, 
calling  out  the  name  of  each  card 
as  he  does  so,  three  times  in  quick 
succession.  His  neighbor,  as  he  re- 
ceives them,  hands  them  to  the 
next  player,  calling  out  their  names 
in  like  manner.  The  noise  and  con- 
fusion increases  with  each  card 
handed  out,  and  is  supposed  to  re- 
semble the  sounds  heard  in  the 
Stock  Exchange,  where  the  brokers 
are  calling  out  the  names  of  the 
stocks  they  wish  to  sell  or  buy.  If 
the  circle  is  not  large  enough  for  the 
whole  pack  to  go  around,  the  player, 
at  the  right  of  the  dealer  holds  the 
cards,  as  they  reach  him,  instead  of 
passing  them.  Thus  the  noise 
grows  gradually  less,  and  finally  sub- 
sides when  all  the  cards  have  gone 
around.  Sometimes,  when  a  Knave 
appears,  instead  of  naming  't  the 
holder  says  H'm,  H'm,  H'm,  thus 
imitating  the  undertone  of  conver- 
sation ;  and  when  an  Ace  is  passed, 
the  one  who  passes  it  cries  Oh  !  Oh  ! 
Oh! 

STOP.     See  NEWMARKET. 

STRING-BALL,  a  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons  with  a  hard 
rubber  ball,  suspended  by  a  string 
from  the  limb  of  a  tree  or  from  a 
stick  projecting  from  a  window. 
The  string  should  be  from  10  to  15 
feet  long,  and  the  ball  should  hang 
about  three  or  four  feet  above  the 
ground.  One  of  the  players  strikes 
the  ball  with  his  hand,  so  that  it 
swings,  and  those  toward  whom  it 
moves  try  to  catch  it  before  it  swings 
back  past  its  lowest  position.  Should 
any  one  succeed,  the  striker  is  out 
and  another  takes  his  place;  if  not,  he 
scores  one  point  and  strikes  again, 
keeping  on  till  he  is  put  out.  The 
order  in  which  the  players  are  to 
strike,  and  the  number  of  turns 
each  is  to  have,  is  decided  at  the 
beginning  of  the  game. 

Another  method  is  for  the  striker 
to  try  to  hit  the  ball  so  hard  that 
the  cord  will  be  wound  one  or  more 
times  around  the  branch  or  stick  to 
which  it  is  fastened.  Each  has  but 


one  trial  at  a  time,  and  scores  as 
many  points  as  the  cord  makes  turns 
around  the  branch.  The  cord  is 
unwound  after  each  trial  so  that  the 
ball  hangs  as  at  first. 

This  «is  a  German  game,  and  its 
name  is  a  translation  of  the  German 
name  Schnurball. 

STRING-STICKS,  an  arrangement 
of  sticks  and  string  shown  in  the 
first  figure.  The  string  appears  to 


B 


String-sticks. — Fig.  i. 

pass  directly  through  the  top  of  the 
sticks,  as  it  can  be  pulled  back  and 
forth  by  the  ends  A  and  B.  A  sharp 
knife  can  be  passed  down  between 
the  sticks  at  C,  apparently  cutting 
the  string,  yet  it  can  be  pulled  back 
and  forth  as  before.  The  second  il- 
lustration shows  the  real  arrange- 


String-sticks. — Fig.  2. 

ment  of  the  string,  which  makes 
this  possible.  The  string  does  not 
pass  through  EF  at  all,  but  down  the 
sticks  and  through  the  hinge  (D  in 
Fig.  i). 

SUGAR  OF  LEAD,  Experiments 
with.  Make  a  strong  solution  of 
sugar  of  lead,  and  add  hydrochloric 
acid  or  a  solution  of  common  salt. 


SULPHUR 


682 


SULPHUR   DIOXIDE 


A  fine  precipitate  of  chloride  of ! 
lead  will  be  forme»l.  Boil  the  solu- 
tion and  this  will  be  dissolved,  but  | 
on  cooling  it  is  deposited  in  beauti-  j 
ful  crystals,  sometimes  called  "  The  j 
Silver  Shower."  i 

2.  Repeat  the  above  experiment, 
adding  iodide  of  potassium  to  the 
solution  of  sugar  of  lead  instead  of, 
hydrochloric  acid.  The  crystals  of 
iodide  of  lead  formed  on  cooling  are 
bright  yellow,  and  the  experiment  is 
hence  often  called  "  The  Golden 
Shower." 

SULPHUR,  Experiments  with,  Sul- 
phur is  described  in  C.  C.  T. 

1.  Place  in  a  test-tube  enough  bits 
of  stick  sulphur,  or  flowers  of  sul- 
phur, to  half  fill  it.     Heat  the  sul- 
phur in  an  alcohol  lamp  flame  and 
it   will   melt.      At   first   it  forms   a ; 
light    yellow  liquid ;   but    if    it    be 
heated  more  it  turns  dark,  and  be- 
comes so  thick  that  it  will  not  run 
out  even  if  the  tube  be  held  upside 
down.     If   it   be  heated   still  more,  I 
it  becomes  fluid  again    and  finally 
boils,  giving  off  a  light  yellow  va- 
por.    While  it  boils,  pour  half  of  it 
into  a  glass  of  cold  water  and  set 
the  rest  away  to  cool.     That  which 
was  poured  into  the  water  forms  a 
dark  mass  like  India-rubber,  which 
does   not  resemble  sulphur  at  all, 
and  that   which   cools   in   the   test 
tube    forms    long    yellow   crystals. 
The  first  is   called  amorphous  sul- 
phur, from  two  Greek  words  mean- 
ing "without  form." 

2.  To  dissolve  sulphur.     Sulphur 
will  not  dissolve  in  water  or  alcohol, 
but  it  will  in  carbon  disulphide.     If 
the  solution  be  poured  on  a  plate 
and  dried,  the  sulphur  will  be  de- 
posited in  crystals;  but,  as  can  be 
seen  with  a   magnifying  glass,  these 
are  not  the  same  kind  of  crystals  as 
those   obtained    by  cooling   in  the 
first  experiment,  being  shorter  and 
blunter.      The  amorphous   sulphur 
will   not   dissolve   even    in   carbon 
disulphide. 

3.  To  bleach  with  sulphur.     Light 
a  small  piece  of  sulphur,  and  hold 


over  it  some  colored  flowers  in  an 
inverted  glass.  The  flowers  will  be 
turned  white,  either  entirely  or  in 
spots.  Dip  the  flowers  in  very 
weak  sulphuric  acid  or  ammonia, 
and  the  color  will  be  partially  re- 
stored. The  bleaching  is  done  by 
the  gas  called  sulphur  dioxide,  which 
is  made  when  sulphur  is  burned. 
More  experiments  with  this  gas  are 
described  in  the  article  on  it. 

4.  Mix  seven  grains  of  powdered 
sulphur  with  four  grains  of  fine  iron 
filings,  and  heat  the  mixture  in  an 
ignition  tube.  They  will  combine 
to  form  sulphide  of  iron. 

SULPHUR  DIOXIDE,  Experiments 
with.  Sulphur  dioxide  gas  may  be 
made  by  burning  sulphur,  as  shown 
in  Experiment  3  in  the  preceding 
article.  It  is  hard  to  collect  it  when 
made  thus,  and  it  is  also  impure. 
A  better  way  is  to  put  two  or  three 
teaspoonfuls  of  small  scraps  of  cop- 
per into  a  flask,  cover  them  with 
strong  sulphuric  acid,  and  heat  the 
mixture.  The  delivery-tube  from 
the  flask  must  lead  to  the  bottom 
of  a  bottle  where  the  gas  will  col- 
lect, as  it  is  heavier  than  air.  It 
will  be  perceived  by  the  smell  that 
the  gas  is  the  same  as  that  produced 
by  burning  sulphur.  The  liquid  re- 
maining in  the  flask  is  colored  blue 
with  BLUE  VITRIOL.  By  passing 
the  delivery-tube  into  a  bottle  of 
water,  the  gas  will  dissolve,  forming 
sulphurous  acid,  which  may  be  used 
in  bleaching,  like  the  gas. 

EXPERIMEN  TS. 

I.  To  turn  sulphur  dioxide  gas  to 
a  liquid.  This  can  be  done  by  ap- 
plying cold  or  pressure,  but  the  lat- 
ter method  is  not  safe  without  spe- 
cial apparatus.  The  first  method 
is  easy  if  care  be  taken.  The  de- 
livery-tube first  leads  the  gas  into  a 
bottle  packed  in  ice,  and  it  next 
passes  through  a  drying  bottle,  and 
then  through  a  U  tube  packed  in 
pounded  ice  and  salt.  The  gas  will 
condense  into  a  heavy  oily  liquid  at 
the  bottom  of  the  U-tube.  If  the 


SULPHURETTED    HYDROGEN     683 


SULPHURIC  ACID 


tube  be  one  with  a  stop-cock  at  both 
ends,  they  may  be  turned,  and  the 
liquid  can  thus  be  kept  any  length 
of  time.  Otherwise  it  will  evapo- 
rate again  into  the  gas.  The  evap- 
oration of  the  liquid  produces  great 
cold,  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following 
experiments. 

2  Put  a  little  mercury  in  a  watch- 
glass  or  butter  plate,  pour  liquid 
sulphur  dioxide  over  it,  and  blow  a 
current  of  air  across  it  with  a  bel- 
lows. The  mercury  will  be  frozen. 

3.  Pour  some  liquid  sulphur  di- 
oxide  on    the   bulb   of   an   alcohol 
thermometer    wrapped    in    cotton. 
It  will  sink  very  low.     A  mercury 
thermometer  will  not  do  so,  because 
the  mercury  would  be  frozen. 

4.  Pour  a  quantity  of  the  liquid 
sulphur  dioxide  into  ice-cold  water. 
Some  of  it  will  sink  to  the  bottom. 
Stir  this  with  a  glass  rod   and   it 
will  boil  at  once,  while  some  of  the 
water  will  freeze. 

SULPHURETTED  HYDROGEN, 
Experiments  witht  (Read  thearticle 
CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS.)  Sul- 
phuretted hydrogen,  also  called 
hydrogen  sulphide,  is  a  gas  com- 
posed of  hydrogen  and  sulphur. 
It  should  be  made  out  of  doors  or 
in  an  out-building,  for  it  has  a  very 
bad  odor,  like  that  of  rotten  eggs. 
It  can  be  made  like  HYDROGEN, 
using,  instead  of  zinc,  lumps  of  iron 
sulphide  as  large  as  the  tip  of  the 
little  finger.  The  gas  can  be  col- 
lected over  hot  water,  or  led  into  a 
bottle  of  cold  water,  in  which  it  will 
dissolve. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

1.  All     the     experiments     given 
under  HYDROGEN  can  be    repeated 
with  sulphuretted  hydrogen.    When 
burned  in  a  jar  it  will  deposit  a  thin 
crust  of  sulphur  on  the  inside. 

2.  Fill  a  bottle  with  chlorine  and 
another  with  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
and  bring  them    mouth  to  mouth. 
Sulphur    will    be    deposited.     The 
same  result  will  follow  if  chlorine 


water  and   sulphuretted    hydrogen 
water  be  mixed. 

3.  Hold  a  wet  silver  or  copper 
coin  in  a  stream  of  the  gas  or  dip  it 
in    sulphuretted    hydrogen    water. 
The  coin  will  be  blackened. 

4.  Make  a  drawing  or  write  a  sen- 
tence on  a  piece  of  paper  with  sugar 
of  lead  dissolved  in  water.     It  will 
be   invisible  when  dry.     Dip   it  in 
sulphuretted    hydrogen   water,  and 
the  writing   or  drawing   will   show 
plainly   in    black.     The    reason    is, 
that  while  sugar  of   lead  is  white, 
sulphide  of  lead  (which   is  formed 
when  it  touches  sulphuretted  hydro- 
gen) is  black. 

SULPHURIC  ACID,  Experiments 
with.  Sulphuric  acid  is  described 
in  C.  C.  T.  (Read  also  the  article 
CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS.)  i.  Put 
a  few  teaspoonfuls  of  water  into  a 
glass,  and  on  it  slowly  pour  about 
twice  as  much  sulphuric  acid  in  a 
fine  stream.  Stir  the  liquid  with  a 
test-tube  containing  a  little  alcohol 
or  ether.  Enough  heat  will  be  de- 
veloped to  boil  the  liquid  in  the 
tube.  Even  water  will  boil  in  the 
tube,  but  not  so  readily. 

2.  Make  a  thick  syrup  by  dissolv- 
ing sugar  in  hot  water.  Put  a  few 
teaspoonfuls  into  a  glass  and  pour 
sulphuric  acid  in  it  slowly,  at  the 
same  time  stirring  it  with  a  glass 
rod.  The  acid  will  turn  the  syrup 
into  a  mass  of  black  spongy  char^ 
coal,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  If  the 


Experiment  2. 

syrup  is  not  thick  enough,  the  mass 
will  be  half  liquid. 

3.  Dip  bits  of  wood  into  strong 
sulphuric      acid.       They    will     be 
charred  as  if  by  heat. 

4.  Dilute    some    sulphuric    acid 
with  about  half  its  volume  of  water, 
and  when   it  has  become  cold,  dip 
into  a  piece  of  unglazed  paper,  let- 


SULTAN 


684 


SUN-DIALS 


ting  it  stay  about  a  quarter  of  a  min- 
ute. Rinse  the  paper  in  water,  then 
in  very  weak  ammonia,  and  then  in 
water  again.  The  paper  will  be 
much  tougher  than  before,  being 
changed  to  a  substance  called  vege- 
table parchment.  The  time  it 
should  remain  in  the  acid  varies 
with  the  kind  of  paper  used,  but  by 
trying  several  times  very  tough 
parchment  can  be  made. 

SULTAN,  a  SOLITAIRE  game  of 
CARDS,  played  with  two  full  packs. 
One  Ace  of  Hearts  and  the  eight 
Kings  are  removed  from  the  pack 
and  arranged  on  the  table  as  fol- 
lows :  One  King  of  Hearts  (called 
the  Sultan)  is  placed  in  the  centre, 
with  the  Ace  of  Hearts  just  above 
him,  and  below  him  the  other  King 
of  Hearts.  On  each  side  of  the 
Ace  are  laid  the  Kings  of  Clubs, 
just  below  them  the  Kings  of  Dia- 
monds, and  below  these  the  Kings 
of  Spades,  representing  respectively 
War,  the  Treasury,  and  Industry. 
The  back  is  now  snuffled,  held  back 
upward,  and  playing  begins.  The 
first  four  cards  are  laid  in  order  on 
one  side  of  the  figure  already  formed, 
with  their  ends  toward  the  figure, 
and  the  next  four  on  the  other  side 
in  like  manner.  These  eight  cards 
are  called  the  Sultan's  Divan.  The 
piles  of  suits  are  now  to  be  com- 
pleted in  order,  by  placing  on  the 
Kings  the  Aces,  Twos,  Threes,  and 
so  on  up  to  Queens,  using  cards 
from  the  pack,  any  card  from  the 
Divan,  or  the  top  card  of  the  Stock, 
which  consists  of  the  cards  that 
cannot  be  used,  piled  on  one  side. 
The  Ace  of  Hearts  is  also  built  upon 
in  like  manner.  When  a  place  in 
the  Divan  is  empty  it  must  be  filled 
at  once,  either  by  the  next  card 
played,  or  the  top  card  of  the  Stock, 
as  the  player  chooses.  When  the 
game  is  ended,  it  shows  the  Sultan 
surrounded  by  his  eight  Queens. 

SUN-DIALS,  The  use  of  sundials 
and  the  form  of  one  kind  are  de- 
scribed in  the  article  CLOCK  in 
C.  C.  T.  There  are  many  other 


kinds,  all  of  which  can  be  con- 
structed with  a  little  care.  One  of 
the  simplest  consists  of  a  circle  or 
disk  of  metal,  having  its  circumfer- 
ence divided  into  twenty-four  equal 
parts,  numbered  from  one  to  twelve 
twice  over,  as  in  Fig.  i.  Zinc  is 


the  best  material  for  all  the  dials, 
as  it  does  not  rust  and  is  easily 
marked  and  cut.  In  the  centre  is 
fixed  a  straight  pin  called  a  style, 
which  must  be  exactly  perpendicu- 
lar to  the  disk.  The  accuracy  of 
the  dial  depends  on  this,  and  on 
its  being  placed  so  that  the  style 
points  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
earth's  axis.  This  may  be  brought 
about  in  two  ways.  In  one,  a  little 
hole  is  made  through  the  metal 
disk,  close  to  the  style,  and  then, 
on  a  clear  night,  the  dial  is  so 
placed  that  by  looking  through  this 
hole,  the  north  star  is  brought  into 
line  with  the  style.  In  the  other 
method  a  triangle  is  cut  out  of 
pasteboard  (see  Fig.  2)  having  the 
A  angle  C  just 
equal  to  the 
latitude  of  the 
place.  This 
can  be  done 
by  finding  the 
latitude  on  a 

C  Fig.  2.  B  map,  and  then 

making  the  angle  with  the  aid  of  a 


SUN-DIALS 


68S 


SUN-DIALS 


piece  of  metal  marked  off  in  de- 
grees, called  a  protractor,  which 
can  be  bought  of  any  dealer  in  draw- 
ing materials.  Fix  this  triangle, 
with  the  aid  of  a  compass,  so  that 
the  end  B  points  due  north  and  the 
base  BC  is  horizontal.  Then  fix 
the  dial  so  that  the  style  points 
along  the  line  AC,  the  free  end  be- 
ing toward  A.  The  figure  12  must 
be  exactly  below  the  style. 

Globe-dial,  A  dial  can  be  made 
of  an  ordinary  school  globe,  mounted 
on  an  axis  which  points  toward  the 
north  pole  (see  Fig.  3).  The  globe 


middle  of  the  trough  from  end  to 
end,  whose  shadow  points  out  the 


Figr-  3- 

is  divided  into  twenty-four  parts  by 
meridians  of  longitude,  which  are 
numbered  from  I  to  12  twice  over, 
one  six  o'clock  meridian  being  ex- 
actly on  top  of  the  globe,  and  the 
other  at  the  bottom.  There  is  no 
style,  the  hour  being  pointed  out  by 
the  line  between  the  light  and  dark 
part  of  the  globe.  As  this  is  rather 
blurred,  the  dial  is  not  very  exact. 

Trough-diaL  This  is  formed  of  a 
semi-circular  trough  of  tin  or  zinc 
closed  at  the  end  as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 
Straight  lines  divide  it  lengthwise 
into  twelve  equal  parts  which  are 
numbered  from  6  A.M.  to  6  P.M.,  the 
twelve  o'clock  line  being  at  the 
bottom.  Instead  of  a  stvie  a  w.re  is 
stretched  lengthwise  across  the 


Fig.  4. 

hours.  The  trough  must  be  placed 
in  a  north  and  south  direction. 

Horizontal  Dial.  This  is  more 
common  than  the  others  just  de- 
scribed, but  is  harder  to  make  be- 
cause the  dial  is  not  divided  into 
equal  parts.  To  make  one  exactly 
requires  the  use  of  mathematics, 
but  one  can  be  made  roughly  as 
follows  :  Fix  a  disk  or  square  plate 
of  zinc  on  a  post,  so  that  it  will  be 
perfectly  level,  and  in  the  middle 
drive  a  pin  for  a  style,  inclined  as 
before  in  the  direction  of  the  north 
star.  The  triangle  in  Fig.  2  may  be 
cut  out  of  zinc  and  soldered  to  the 
dial,  its  edge  AC  answering  as  a 
style.  Watch  the  shadow  of  the 
style,  and  mark  each  hour  on  the 
edge  of  the  dial  where  the  shadow 
falls  at  that  hour.  Only  the  time 
used  must  be  sun  time — not  true 
time.  The  difference  between  these 
two  sorts  of  time  will  now  be  ex- 
plained. 

Correction.  If  the  earth  moved 
around  the  sun  at  a  uniform  speed, 
the  sun  dial  would  always  indicate 
the  true  time,  but  it  moves  faster  at 
some  times  than  at  others,  so  that 
a  correction  must  usually  be  added 
to  or  subtracted  from  the  hour  it 
points  out,  and  the  same  correction 
must  be  used  in  marking  the  hours 
on  the  dial.  A  table  of  these  cor- 
rections (expressed  in  minutes)  is 
given  below.  All  corrections 
marked  +  are  to  be  added  to  the 
reading  of  the  dial  to  get  the  true 
time,  and  all  marked  —  are  to 
be  subtracted.  In  marking  the 
dial,  where  it  is  necessary  to  get 
sun  time  from  true  time,  the  cor- 
rections marked  —  are  added  to  the 


SUN-SPOTS 


686 


SWAYlt« 


true  time,  and  those  marked  +  are 
subtra;ted.  All  the  days  of  the 
month  are  not  given,  but  the  cor- 
rections for  the  omitted  ones  can 
easily  be  calculated.  Thus,  the  cor- 
rection for  Jan.  5  is  +  5$,  and  chat 
for  Oct.  12.  is  —  13. 


Jan. 

25 
30 

—  2 

-  3 

21 
24 

-  7 
-  8 

i 

4 

+  4 
+  5 

May 

27 

3° 

-  9 

—  10 

6 

+  6 

i 

^—   (J 

Oct. 

8 

+  7 

17 

-  4 

ii 

+  8 

28—3 

3 

—  ii 

'3 
16 

+  9 
+  10 

June 

7 

10 

—  12 
—  13 

19 

+  H 

4 

—  2 

H 

—  14 

23 

+  12 

10 

—  I 

19 

-15 

27 

+  13 

19 

+   I 

27 

—  16 

3i 

+  14 

24 

+  2 

Nov. 

3 

Feb. 

+  H 

29 

+  3 
July 

10 

17 

-16 
-i5 

19 

+  H 

4 

+  4 

21 

—  '4 

26 

+  13 

10 

+  5 

25 

—  '3 

March 

19 

+  6 

28 

—  12 

3 

+  12 

Aug. 

Dec. 

4 

+  II 

i 

+  6 

I 

—  II 

12 

+  10 

ii 

+  5 

2 

—  10 

15 

+  9 

16 

+  4 

6 

—  9 

»9 

+  8 

21 

+  3 

8 

—  8 

22 

+  7 

25 

+  2 

10 

-  7 

25 

+  6 

29 

+   I 

12 

-  6 

28 

+  5 
April 

4 

5ept. 
—  i 

H 

16 
18 

i 

I 

+  4 

7 

—  2 

21 

—  2 

4 

+  3 

10 

—  3 

23 

—  I 

8 

+  2 

13 

~  4 

27 

+   I 

12 

+  i 

16 

-  5 

29 

+  2 

19 

^^    I 

18 

—  6 

3* 

+  3 

SUN-SPOTS,  Observations  on. 
The  sun  is  described  in  C.  C.  T. 
The  spots  on  it  may  be  seen  through 
an  ordinary  opera-glass,  the  eyes 
being  protected  from  its  rays  as  fol- 
lows:  Procure  two  strips  of  window- 
glass  one  inch  wide  and  two  inches 
long,  and  smoke  one  of  them  over 
a  lamp  or  candle  flame  till  the  sun 
can  be  seen  through  it  without 
hurting  the  eyes.  Fasten  the 


pieces  of  glass  together,  smoked 
side  inward,  by  elastic  bands,  keep- 
ing them  apart  by  slips  of  paper 
pasted  at  the  ends,  so  that  the 
smoked  side  will  not  rub.  The 
pieces  of  glass  can  now  be  fastened 
over  the  eye-pieces  of  the  opera- 
glass  by  a  large  elastic  band  around 
the  middle.  The  spots  can  now  be 
seen  easily.  When  a  spot  shaped 
so  that  it  can  be  recognized  is  seen, 
it  should  be  watched  from  day  to 
day,  and  will  be  seen  to  change  its 
place.  The  reason  is  that  the  sun 
is  turning  on  its  axis  like  the  earth, 
carrying  the  spot  around  with  it. 
The  average  number  of  sun-spots 
does  not  remain  the  same,  but  is 
greatest  every  eleven  years.  The 
last  year  when  there  was  the  largest 
number  was  1881,  and  the  next  will 
therefore  be  in  1892.  Until  about 
that  time  there  will  be  more  and 
more  of  them,  and  then  they  will 
decrease  in  number  till  about  1897, 
when  they  will  begin  to  increase 
again. 

SWAYKA,  a  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons  with  an  iron  pin 
eight  or  nine  inches  long,  and  any 
number  of  iron  rings  varying  in  di- 
ameter from  two  inches  to  one  foot. 
The  pin,  which  is  called  the  Swayka 
(its  name  in  Russian),  is  so  sharp 
that  it  will  stick  upright  when 
thrown  either  at  the  ground  or  a 
board  floor.  The  rings  are  placed 
in  any  order  on  the  ground,  and  the 
players  try  to  throw  the  Swayka  so 
that  it  will  stick  upright  within  one 
of  them.  Their  object  is  so  to 
place  it  in  each  one  of  the  rings  in 
any  order. 

RULES. 

1.  The  players  take  turns,  each 
(laving  only  one  throw  in  a  turn. 

2.  A   player  may  throw   first  at 
whichever  ring  he  chooses,  but  he 
must   announce   beforehand  which 
one  it  is,  and  if  he  throws  the  Swayka 
into  any  other  it  counts  as  a  miss. 

3.  Whoever  can  place  the  Swayka 
in  all  the  rings  in  regular  order  01 


SWEDISH    WKIST 


687 


SWIMMING 


size,  beginning  with  the  smallest 
and  ending  with  the  largest,  receives 
the  name  of  King,  has  general  con- 
trol of  the  game,  acts  as  umpire, 
and  has  the  right  to  order  any  one 
to  pick  up  the  Swayka  for  him. 
When  he  reaches  the  largest  he 
must  begin  at;  the  smallest  again, 
otherwise  he  cannot  remain  King. 
He  holds  the  title  as  long  as  he  can 
throw  successfully  in  that  order. 
If  two  or  more  players  earn  the 
right  to  be  King  they  must  throw 
together,  the  other  players  omitting 
their  turns  till  all  but  one  have 
missed. 

4.  No  player  may  throw  a  second 
time  at  the  same   ring   till    he  has 
placed  the  Swayka  in  all  the  other 
rings. 

5.  When  a  player  misses,  all  the 
rings  he  has  thrown  into  count  for 
nothing,  and  he  must  throw,  at  his 
next  turn,  into  the  next  larger  ring. 
If  he  miss  that,  he  must  take  the 
next  larger  at   his   following  turn, 
and  so  on   till   he  is  successful  or 
misses  the  largest  ring. 

6.  Whoever    misses    the    largest 
ring   is   out  of  the    game,   and    is 
obliged  to  pick  up  the  Swayka  for 
his  companions  till  some  one   else 
misses  that  ringand  takes  his  place. 

7.  The  game  may  last  as  long  as 
desired.     If  so  agreed,  he  who  has 
been  King  the  greatest  number  of 
times  during  the  play  is  victor. 

Swayka  is  a  Russian  game,  and 
is  said  to  be  very  popular  in  that 
country. 

SWEDISH  WHIST.  See  PREFER- 
ENCE. 

SWIMMING,  the  art  of  propelling 
one's  self  through  the  water  by  the 
arms  and  legs. 

Learning  to  Swim.  The  learner 
should  choose,  if  possible,  a  grad- 
ually sloping  shore  with  gravelly 
or  sandy  bottom,  where  there  is 
no  current.  If  he  is  not  used  to 
the  water,  he  must  first  accustom 
himself  to  being  under  it  by  ly- 
ing down  on  the  bottom,  where  it 
is  only  one  or  two  feet  deep.  He 


will  thus,  after  practice,  be  able  to 
enter  the  water  without  gasping, 
and  will  learn  that  it  is  easy  to  keep 
his  body  afloat  by  a  very  slight  push 
of  the  hand  against  the  bottom,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  i.  He  should  try  to 


Fig.  i. 

open  his  eyes  under  water,  and  when 
he  puts  his  head  out  he  must  re- 
member to  breathe  outward  before 
inhaling,  thus  expelling  the  water 
from  his  nostrils.  After  he  has  ac- 
quired confidence,  he  should  wade 
out  to  a  depth  of  about  four  feet, 
and  try  to  swim  to  shore,  using  the 
simple  chest  stroke,  or  swimming 
"  dog-fashion,"  as  explained  below. 
At  first  he  will  probably  splash 
;ibout  rather  aimlessly  with  hands 
and  feet;  but  as  soon  as  he  sees  that 
he  can  keep  himself  afloat,  he  will 
be  able  to  follow  directions  more 
exactly.  When  he  sinks  he  can 
sustain  himself  by  pushing  with  one 
hand  against  the  bottom — but  this 
should  be  done  as  seldom  as  pos- 
sible. WThen  he  can  swim  a  few 
strokes  without  this  aid,  he  should 
begin  at  a  greater  distance  from 
shore,  and  so  on,  until  he  is  perfect- 
ly at  home  in  the  water.  This  will 
probably  be  only  after  much  patient 
practice,  though  some  learners  make 
faster  progress  than  others. 

This  is  not  the  only  way  of  learn- 
ing to  swim.  Some  people  advise 
the  learner  to  jump  at  once  into 
water  over  his  depth,  trusting  to 
his  instinct  and  to  his  natural  strug- 
gles to  get  to  shore;  but  this  should 
never  be  tried  unless  some  older 
person  is  near  to  rescue  the  swim- 
mer in  case  of  need.  Timid  people 
should  never  try  it  at  all.  Another 


SWIMMING 


688 


SWIMMING 


method  is  for  a  teacher  or  compan- 
ion to  support  the  learner,  by  plac- 


Fig.  2. 

ing  a  hand  beneath  him  till  he  has 
learned  to  make  the  proper  motions 


and  is  able  to  keep  himself  up.  In 
another  method  a  band  around  the 
learner's  chest  is  fastened  by  a  rope 
to  the  end  of  a  pole  held  by  an  as- 
sistant (see  Fig.  2),  who  thus  gives 
the  swimmer  aid  as  long  as  he  needs 
it.  Some  teachers  say  that  the 
learner  ought  to  practise  his  strokes 
lying  across  a  chair,  before  he  tries 
them  in  the  water,  but  others  con- 
sider this  unnecessary.  The  various 
kinds  of  swimming  strokes  will  now 
be  described. 

Breast-stroke.  This  is  the  ordi- 
nary stroke  and  the  one  generally 
useo!  by  learners.  Fig.  3  shows  the 
position  of  starting  as  seen  from 
above,  and  Fig.  4  the  attitude  as 
seen  from  one  side.  The  hands  are 
brought  under  the  chin,  fingers  to- 
gether, and  palms  down  and  slight- 
ly hollowed.  The  arms  are  then 
pushed  straight  forward,  keeping 
the  hands  together  till  they  are  at 


German  Swimming  School. 


full  length.  The  hands  are  now 
separated  and  brought  obliquely 
backward  and  downward  (called 


line  with  the  shoulders,  when  the 
hands  are  brought  in  edgewise  till 
they  are  together  just  beneath  the 


"  striking  out")  till  the  arms  are  in  j  chin,  as  at   first.     Some  swimmers 


SWIMMING 


689 


SWIMMING 


take  a  longer  stroke  than  this,  bring- 
ing the  hands  down  as  far  as  the 
hips.  While  the  hands  are  making 


Fig.  3- 

this  stroke,  the  feet  and  legs  make 
a  corresponding  one.  The  knees 
are  bent  so  that  they  will  be  as  far 


apart  as  possible,  while  the  feet  are 
together,  and  the  legs  are  then 
kicked  back  and  out  so  that  the 
soles  of  the  feet  press  flatly  against 
the  water.  The  legs  must  then  be 
closed  stiffly,  like  a  pair  of  scissors, 
forcing  the  water  out  from  between 
them,  and  so  pushing  the  swimmer 
forward.  When  they  are  closed  the 
knees  must  be  opened  again  as  at 
first. 

The  arm  and  leg  strokes  must  be 
made  at  the  same  time,  the  feet  be- 
ing drawn  up  as  the  hands  are  ad- 
vanced, the  kick  being  made  quickly 
as  the  hands  begin  to  strike  out,  and 
the  legs  being  closed  when  the 
hands  have  about  half  finished  the 
stroke.  Fig.  4  shows  the  proper 
angle  for  the  body  to  make  with  the 
water  surface.  The  head  should  be 
kept  back  as  far  as  possible,  that  it 
may  be  supported  by  the  lungs. 
The  breath  should  be  in  time  with 


Fig.  4. 


the  stroke,  the  lungs  being  empty 
when  it  is  being  made,  and  full  when 
the  swimmer  is  drawing  in  his  limbs 
for  a  new  one.  The  reason  for  this 
is  that  the  body  is  lighter  when  the 
lungs  are  full  of  air,  and  there  is 
greatest  need  of  their  sustaining 
power  between  strokes. 

Beginners  are  apt  to  place  most 
reliance  on  the  arm  movement,  pay- 
ing little  attention  to  the  legs ;  but 
the  leg  stroke  is  really  as  important 
as  that  of  the  arms,  or  even  more  im- 
portant, as  some  teachers  think.  The 
swimmer  will  be  able  to  go  much 
farther  without  tiring  himself  if  he 


uses  his  legs  properly  than  if  he  sim- 
ply kicks  with  them. 

Side-stroke.  The  swimmer  lies 
on  his  side  instead  of  his  breast. 
Either  side  may  be  used,  but  most 
swimmers  prefer  the  right,  since  the 
right  arm  can  then  be  used  to  the 
greatest  advantage.  The  head  is 
turned  so  that  the  chin  rests  against 
the  uppermost  shoulder,  and  lies  as 
deeply  in  the  water  as  possible. 
The  face  may  be  kept  above  water, 
or  it  may  be  above  only  when  the 
forward  impulse  raises  it  a  little. 
The  lower  hand  is  advanced  under 
water  on  a  level  with  the  head,  and 


SWIMMING 


690 


SWIMMING 


then  is  brought  downward  at  arm's 
length.  It  is  returned  by  bending 
the  elbow  and  wrist,  so  as  to  give  as 
little  resistance  as  possible.  While 
this  hand  is  being  advanced,  as  just 
described,  the  upper  hand  is  used 
like  an  oar,  the  fingers  being  bent 
at  right  angles  to  the  arm.  Thus 
the  hands  are  used  alternately,  each 
doing  its  work  in  turn.  At  the 
same  time  the  upper  leg  is  kicked 
out  in  front  of  the  body,  and  brought 
around  like  an  oar,  the  foot  being 
stretched  out  in  a  line  with  the  leg, 
and  the  lower  leg  is  stretched  out 
beyond  the  back,  and  brought 
around  to  meet  the  other.  Both 
legs  are  then  drawn  in  for  another 
stroke,  as  in  the  chest-stroke.  The 
side  stroke  requires  more  practice 
than  the  chest-stroke,  but  the  body 
offers  less  resistance  to  the  water  in 
this  stroke  than  in  any  other.  It  is 
often  used  by  skilled  swimmers  as  a 
rest  in  going  long  distances. 

Overhand  Side-stroke  (Fig.  5). 
This  is  like  the  one  just  described, 
except  that  the  uppermost  arm  is 


Fig:.  5- 

advanced  out  of  water  instead  of 
under  it,  as  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. 

Swimming  Dog-fashion.  The  arms 
are  moved  alternately  outward, 
downward,  and  then  inward,  with  a 
pawing  motion,  but  without  leaving 
the  water.  The  motion  of  the  legs 
may  be  as  in  the  chest-stroke,  or 
they  may  be  kicked  backward  alter- 
nately. This  stroke  is  often  used 
by  beginners,  and  is  the  natural  one 
for  most  people,  though  not  the 
best  for  ordinary  use. 

Swimming  Turtle-fashion  (Fig.  6). 
Like  the  last  stroke,  except  that  the 


arms  are  thrust  forward  alternately 
above  water,  the  body  turning  from 
side  to  side.  This  stroke  is  swift, 


Fig.  6. 

but  more  tiresome  than  the  chest- 
stroke. 

Swimming  on  the  Back.  There 
are  several  methods.  In  one.  the 
swimmer  lies  on  his  back,  keeping 
his  face  barely  out  of  water.  The 
legs  are  inclined  downward  and 
held  together,  the  stroke  being  made 
entirely  with  the  hands.  The  arms 
are  kept  closely  at  the  swimmer's 
sides  and  he  propels  himself  by  a 
rapid  twisting  motion  of  the  hands 
from  the  wrist,  the  back  of  the  hand 
being  uppermost  to  begin  with,  and 
the  palm  at  the  end  of  the  stroke. 
The  chest  stroke  may  also  be  used 
in  swimming  on  the  back.  The 
swimmer  may  advance  head  first  or 
feet  first,  as  he  chooses,  and  he  may 
use  hands  alone  or  feet  alone  in 
making  his  stroke.  When  the  arms 
are  not  used  they  should  be  folded 
on  the  chest,  or  held  straight  along 
the  side. 

There  are  many  other  methods  of 
swimming,  and  every  good  swim- 
mer usually  has  a  stroke  differing 
a  little  from  every  other.  When 
one  has  mastered  the  simple  strokes, 
he  can  invent  other  methods  to  suit 
his  fancy.  Some  of  the  styles  used 
by  skilled  swimmers,  besides  those 
already  mentioned,  are : 

i.  The  corkscrew  stroke,  in  which 
the  body  turns  under  water,  appar- 
ently screwing  its  way  forward. 
This  is  done  by  a  patting  motion  of 
the  soles  of  the  feet,  the  swimmer 
steering  with  one  hand,  which  is  held 
straight  forward. 


SWIMMING 


691 


SWIMMING 


2.  Swimming  with  one   hand  or 
foot,    or  both   feet,   out   of  water. 
This    is    useful    where   a   swimmer 
wishes  to  carry  his  clothes  across  a 
deep  stream. 

3.  Swimming  with  hands  and  feet 
bound,  or  with  one   hand  holding 
one  foot. 

Diving,  entering  deep  water  head- 
first by  leaping.  The  water  should 
be  more  than  six  feet  deep,  or  the 
swimmer  may  injure  himself  by 
striking  against,  the  bottom.  Va- 
rious attitudes  in  diving  are  shown 
in  the  accompanying  illustrations, 
but  that  commonly  preferred  is  the 


Diving  Forward. 

one  where  the  diver  extends  his 
hands  above  his  head.  Sometimes 
a  spring-board  is  used  to  aid  the 
leap.  Before  beginning  to  dive  the 
swimmer  should  master  the  ordi- 
nary strokes,  and  should  be  able  to 
keep  his  eyes  open  under  water. 
He  must  leap  so  that  he  will  enter 
the  water  head  first,  for  if  he  strikes 
flat  on  his  chest  the  shock  is  severe. 
When  the  dive  is  made  properly 
there  is  no  splash,  the  body  enter- 


ing the  water  smoothly.  When  be- 
neath the  water  he  may  strike  out, 
keeping  under  as  long  as  possible, 
and  rising  at  a  distance  from  the 
place  where  he  entered,  or  he  may 
rise  at  once,  aiding  himself  by  a 


Diving  Sideways. 

downward  movement  of  the  hands. 
The  depth  to  which  a  diver  goes  be- 
pends  on  the  angle  at  which  he 
enters  the  water,  and  on  his  move- 
ments beneath  it.  Skilful  divers 
often  bring  up  stones  from  a  depth 
of  twelve  or  fifteen  feet,  while  on 
the  other  hand  they  can  dive  without 
touching  bottom  when  it  is  only  six 
or  eight  feet  below  the  surface.  A 
very  deep  dive  is  often  aided  by 
carrying  a  stone  in  one  hand.  The 
learner  may  begin  diving  by  stand- 
ing in  water  up  to  his  waist  and 
plunging  into  it  head  first.  He 
should  try  diving  from  a  moderate 
height  before  he  ventures  to  leap 
from  a  high  bank  or  from  a  spring- 
board. Some  swimmers  dive  feet 
foremost ;  but  this  requires  skill  to 
keep  upright,  if  the  jump  is  from  a 
high  place;  and  if  the  swimmer 
strikes  on  his  side  or  does  not  hold 
his  feet  together,  he  may  be  badly 


SWIMMING 


692 


SWIMMING 


injured.  Jumping  into  the  water 
from  a  low  bank,  however,  is  per- 
fectly safe,  and  requires  no  skill. 

When  a  swimmer  dives  frequently, 
he  should  fill  his  ears  with  oiled 
cotton.  People  who  have  large  nos- 
trils are  often  obliged  to  stop  them 
up  in  like  manner,  and  bovs,  when 
diving,  often  hold  the  nose  in  one 
hand  ;  but  this  is  awkward  and  can 
only  be  done  when  diving  from  a 
very  low  bank,  or  from  a  row-boat. 

Floating.  The  human  body  is  a 
very  little  lighter  than  water,  on  an 
average,  but  the  head  is  heavier 
than  water.  If  left  to  itself,  there- 
fore, the  body  tends  to  float,  bnt 
with  back  upward,  the  head  hang- 
ing down  beneath  the  surface.  To 
float  on  one's  back,  keeping  the 
mouth  and  nostrils  out  of  water,  so 
as  to  breathe,  requires  skill  and  con- 
fidence. The  lightest  part  of  the 
body  is  the  lungs,  and  the  swimmer's 
effort  should  be  to  alter  the  posi- 
tion of  the  limbs  and  body  above 
and  below  the  lungs,  so  that  there 
will  be  a  perfect  balance.  One  of 


Floating. 

the  best  floating  positions  is  that 
where  the  swimmer  extends  his 
arms  above  his  head,  throws  the 
head  back,  and  draws  up  the  legs 
under  the  thighs.  The  body  is  not 
horizontal,  but  inclines  downward 
toward  the  legs,  the  back  being 
slightly  hollowed.  The  only  parts 
of  the  body  above  water  are  the 
chin,  mouth,  and  nose.  A  more 
difficult  position  is  the  horizontal, 
the  body  being  held  straight  and 
stiff,  the  legs  close  together.  The 
toes,  chest,  face,  and  fingers  are  just 
above  the  surface.  It  is  also  pos- 
sible to  float  perpendicularly.  Con- 
fidence is  more  essential  to  floating 
than  anything  else.  The  beginner 
usually  feels  that  he  is  going  to  sink, 


and  throws  up  his  hands,  with  the 
result  that  he  goes  down,  his  body 
not  being  light  enough  to  sustain 
his  arms  out  of  water.  The  learner 
should  remember  that  his  body  will 
float  of  itself  so  long  as  it  is  nearly 
under  water,  and  that  there  is  no 
danger  of  his  sinking  unless  he  tries 
to  raise  head  or  limb.  In  assuming 
the  floating  position,  all  the  move- 
ments must  be  made  slowly  and 
under  water.  The  lightness  of  the 
body  will  be  increased  by  keeping 
the  lungs  as  full  as  possible.  To 
one  who  is  skilled  in  floating  the 
sensation  is  delightful,  and  swim- 
mers often  rest  themselves  thus  in 
still  water.  In  rough  water  it  is  of 
course  impossible. 

Treading  Water.     To  tread  water 
the  swimmer  assumes  an   upright 


Treading  Water. 

position,  only  the  head  being  above 
water,  and  moves  his  legs  as  though 
walking  upstairs,  pushing  down- 
ward against  the  water  with  the 
soles  of  his  feet.  Very  slight  exer- 
tion is  required  to  keep  the  head 


SWIMMING 


693 


SWIMMING 


above  water,  but  the  swimmer  must 
not  try  to  keep  it  too  high,  remem- 
bering that  when  more  of  the  body 
is  above  the  surface,  it  is  harder 
work  to  sustain  it.  Another  method 
is  to  move  both  feet  together,  as  in 
the  chest-stroke — but  this  causes  the 
body  to  rise  and  fall  with  each  ef- 
fort. In  either  method  the  arms 
may  be  held  straight  at  the  sides, 
or  "  akimbo,"  or  folded  across  the 
chest. 

Swimming  in  Rough  Water.  The 
swimmer  should  learn  his  strokes 
in  still  water,  but  when  he  has  mas- 
tered them  he  should  practise  them 
also  in  rough  water.  He  should 
try  to  go  through  the  waves  rather 
than  over  them.  In  the  surf  it  is 
necessary  to  look  out  for  the  under- 
tow, which  is  a  strong  current  of 
water  flowing  outward  from  the 
shore  underneath  the  waves  which 
are  rolling  in.  If  the  swimmer  lets 
his  legs  drop  too  low,  this  current 
will  strike  them  and  pull  him  back. 
He  should  not,  therefore,  let  them 


hang  at  an  angle  with  the  surface, 
as  ordinarily,  but  should  swim 
with  his  whole  body  as  near  as  pos- 
sible on  the  top  of  the  wave.  The 
upper  current  will  then  help  him 
get  to  shore. 

Cramp.  Swimmers  are  sometimes 
attacked  in  the  water  by  cramp,  a 
contraction  of  the  muscles  of  the 
arm  or  leg,  making  it  impossible  to 
use  the  affected  limb.  Many  swim- 
mers have  been  drowned  by  an  at- 
tack of  this  kind,  yet  there  is  no 
danger  if  one  keep  his  presence  of 
mind.  The  trouble  can  often  be  re- 
lieved by  rubbing,  changing  posi- 
tion, or  a  powerful  effort  to 
straighten  the  cramped  limb,  but 
if  not,  the  swimmer  should  float  or 
paddle  to  the  shore,  or  until  aid 
arrives.  The  chief  thing  is  not  to 
loose  courage,  for  the  best  swim- 
mer, if  he  do  this,  is  no  better  off 
than  one  who  does  not  know  how  to 
swim  at  all. 

Swimming  Apparatus.  Many  de- 
vices have  been  invented  to  aid 


Swimming  Propeller. 

swimmers  (see  illustration),  but  I  before  them  while  learning  the  use 
none  are  recommended  for  learn-  j  of  the  legs.  Life  preservers,  or  de- 
ers,  except  that  some  teachers  ad-  vices  to  keep  the  body  afloat,  are 
vise  their  pupils  to  push  a  plank  useful  where  it  is  necessary  to  keep 


SWIMMING 


694 


SWIMMING 


in  the  water  a  long  time,  or  where  a 
person  who  does  not  know  how  to 
swim  is  obliged  to  jump  into  the 
water  ;  but  they  are  a  hindrance 


rather  than  an  aid  to  real  swim- 
ming. Those  provided  in  steam- 
boats and  ships  for  use  in  case  of 
accident  are  usually  wide  strips  of 


Captain  Boyton's  Suit. 


cork  or  inflated  rubber  covered 
with  canvas.  Some  are  tied  on 
close  under  the  arms,  and  others 
are  arranged  to  be  put  on  like  a 
waistcoat.  Care  must  betaken  that 
the  preserver  does  not  slip  to  the 


lower  part  of  the  body,  for  then  the 
head  will  go  down  and  the  feet  up. 
Other  devices  to  aid  swimmers 
consist  of  plates  to  be  fastened  to 
the  hands  and  feet,  but  the  most  cel- 
ebrated invention  of  this  kind  is  the 


SWIMMING 


695 


SWIMMING 


inflated  India-rubber  suit  of  Cap- 
tain Paul  Boyton,  shown  in  the 
illustration.  By  putting  on  lliissuit 
a  man  makes  a  boat  of  himself,  and 
can  paddle  or  sail,  as  he  wishes, 
carrying  provisions  with  him.  In 
one  of  these  suits  Captain  Boyton 
has  performed  many  remarkable 
feats,  such  as  crossing  the  English 
Channel  on  May  28,  1875,  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  descending  the  Danube, 
460  miles,  in  six  days,  in  May,  1876, 
and  floating  from  Cedar  Creek, 
Montana,  to  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  3580 
miles,  which  took  him  from  Sep- 
tember 17  to  November  20,  1881. 

General  Advice.  The  swimmer 
should  not  stay  too  long  in  the 
water.  Usually  twenty  minutes  at 
a  time  is  long  enough.  The  head 
should  be  wet  before  going  in,  for 
as  cold  water  drives  the  blood  from 
the  surface  of  the  body  as  it  touches 
it,  there  might  be  a  rush  of  blood  to 
the  head  if  it  were  the  last  part  of 
the  body  to  enter  the  water. 

It  is  wrong  to  bathe  just  after  a 
meal.  At  least  two  hours  should  be 
allowed  to  pass  after  eating  before 
entering  the  water. 

It  is  a  good  plan  for  the  swimmer 
to  accustom  himself  to  swim  with 
his  clothes  on.  This  may  be  of 
great  use  in  case  of  accident.  He 
should  also  practise  undressing,  or 
at  least  removing  his  heavier  gar- 
ments, while  in  the  water.  Where 
it  is  necessary  to  plunge  into  the 
water  at  once  to  save  life,  only  the 
coat  and  shoes  should  be  removed. 

Life-saving.  It  is  often  difficult 
to  bring  to  shore  a  person  who  is 
drowning,  for  such  people  sometimes 
lose  their  presence  of  mind  and 
grasp  the  rescuer  so  that  he  cannot 
swim.  If  the  person  to  be  saved 
has  a  clear  head,  he  should  be  di- 
rected to  place  his  hands  lightly  on 
the  hips  of  the  rescuer,  who  can 
then  easily  swim  ashore  with  him  ; 
but  if  the  drowning  man  has  lost 
his  presence  of  mind,  the  rescuer 
should  approach  him  from  behind, 
if  possible,  and  push  him  to  shore, 


or  even  drag  him  by  the  hair,  or  by 
an  arm  or  leg.  If  possible,  his  head 
should  be  supported,  but  this  is  not 
absolutely  necessary.  He  should 
be  brought  to  shore  as  quickly  as 
he  can  be,  either  above  or  below 
water.  In  case  he  is  insensible  when 
brought  to  shore,  or  apparently 
drowned,  the  water  must  first  be 
forced  from  his  lungs,  and  he  must 
then  be  made  to  breathe.  Many 
ways  of  effecting  this  have  been  rec- 
ommended. In  all  cases  there  must 
be  no  delay,  as  to  wait  even  a  few 
seconds  may  cause  the  loss  of  life. 
The  patient  should  not  even  be  re- 
moved to  shelter,  as  that  takes  time, 
but  he  must  be  treated  in  the  open 
air.  Efforts  to  make  the  blood  cir- 
culate must  not  be  made  till  the  pa- 
tient begins  to  breathe. 

To  remove  water  from  the  throat, 
place  the  rescued  man  on  the  ground 
face  downward,  with  one  arm  under 
the  forehead,  when  the  fluid  will 
drain  away.  Breathing  may  now 
begin.  If  not,  it  may  be  excited  by 
smelling-salts,  by  tickling  the  throat 
with  a  feather,  by  rubbing  the  chest 
and  face,  or  by  dashing  cold  water 
on  them.  If  this  is  not  successful, 
the  motions  of  breathing  must  be 
imitated.  Lay  the  patient  on  his 
face,  supporting  the  chest  by  a 
folded  coat.  Turn  him  gently  on 
one  side,  and  a  little  beyond,  and 
then  back  again.  As  the  body  is 
turned  back  on  the  face,  the  back 
should  be  pressed  firmly  between 
the  shoulder-blades.  These  move- 
ments must  be  repeated  every  four 
or  five  seconds.  When  the  patient 
is  on  his  chest,  the  air  is  forced 
from  the  lungs,  and  when  he  is 
turned  on  his  side  the  air  enters 
again.  While  these  efforts  are  be- 
ing made,  the  hands  and  feet  should 
be  dried,  the  body  stripped  and  dry 
clothes  or  coverings  put  on,  without 
interfering  with  the  movements  de- 
scribed. 

History.  Men  have  been  able  to 
swim  from  the  earliest  times.  The 
Israelites  knew  how,  as  we  learn 


SWIMMING 


696 


SWIMMING 


from  the  Bible,  and  there  are  refer- 
ences to  swimming  on  the  Assyrian 
tablets  in  the  British  Museum.  The 
ancient  Greeks  thought  it  so  neces- 
sary that  one  of  their  proverbs,  de- 
scribing an  uneducated  man,  was, 
"  He  knows  neither  how  to  read  and 
write,  nor  how  to  swim."  Swimming 
was  taught  to  the  Greek  youths,  es- 
pecially the  Spartans,  as  a  part  of 
their  regular  athletic  training  (see 
the  history  of  ATHLETICS).  The  Ro- 
man soldiers  were  trained  to  swim, 
and  swimming-races  formed  part  of 
the  Roman  athletic  contests.  Julius 
Caesar  once  saved  his  life  by  know- 
ing how  to  swim.  The  Romans 
built  enormous  bathing-houses,  of 
which  there  were  850  in  the  city  at 
one  time,  one  of  which  had  a  swim- 
ming-tank measuring  200  by  100 
feet.  The  art  has  always  been  prac- 
tised more  or  less,  but  in  the  last 
century  it  was  opposed  in  Europe  by 
many  teachers  and  physicians  who 
thought  that  it  injured  the  health, 
and  people  did  not  learn  it  as  gener- 
ally as  they  do  now.  In  the  begin- 
ning of  this  century  it  came  again 
into  favor,  and  now  almost  every 
one  thinks  that  both  boys  and  girls 
should  know  how  to  swim.  Swim- 
ming-schools are  to  be  found  in  all 
countries,  but  the  art  is  taught  most 
carefully  in  France  and  Germany. 
In  France  the  method  of  learning 
the  stroke  before  entering  the  water 
is  in  favor.  It  is  said  that  out  of 
twenty-six  military  cadets  taught  in 
this  way,  who  were  made  to  enter 
the  river  Marne,  nineteen  swam  at 
once  without  further  instruction. 
In  this  country  this  method  is  not 
favored.  A  recent  writer  on  the 
subject  says  :  "  Ten  minutes'  work 
in  the  water  is  worth  ten  hours  on  a 
chair."  The  first  writer  on  swim- 
ming in  this  country  was  probably 
Benjamin  Franklin,  whose  advice 
to  learners  is  often  quoted.  It  is 
much  the  same  as  that  given  above, 
except  that  he  advocates  plunging 
at  once  into  water  breast  deep  after 
a  white  stone  or  other  object,  for 


the  purpose  of  teaching  the  swim- 
mer the  buoyancy  of  his  own  body. 
Swimming-races,  though  not  as 
common  as  other  kinds,  are  fre- 
quently held,  and  skilled  swimmers 
often  attempt  feats  in  the  water, 
such  as  long  distance  swims,  long 
swims  under  water,  and  the  like. 
The  records  of  some  of  these  are 
given  in  the  Appendix.  It  should 
be  remembered  that  these  are  in- 
fluenced greatly  by  the  direction  of 
the  current  or  tide,  or  the  fact  that 
some  were  performed  in  a  tank 
where  the  swimmer  had  to  turn  fre- 
quently. 

RULES  FOR  SWIMMING  RACES. 

The  rules  of  the  National  Ama- 
teur Athletic  Union  for  swimming- 
races  are  as  follows : 

Sec.  i.  Officials  shall  consist  of 
one  referee,  three  Judges  at  the  fin- 
j  ish,  three  Time-keepers,  one  Starter, 
one  Clerk  of  the  Course,  with  assist- 
ants, if  necessary. 

Sec.  2.  Duties  and  powers  of  these 
officials  shall  be  the  same  as  is  pre- 
scribed for  them  in  the  foregoing 
rules  (see  ATHLETIC  GAMES). 

Sec.  3.  In  the  100  yards  swim- 
ming-race, each  competitor  shall 
stand  with  one  or  both  feet  on  the 
starting-line,  and  when  the  signal  is 
given  shall  plunge.  Stepping  back, 
either  before  or  after  the  signal,  will 
not  be  allowed. 

Sec.  4.  The  half  mile  and  one 
mile  start  shall  be  the  same  as  the 
loo  yards,  except  that  competitors 
may  start  in  the  water  (tread-water 
start)  from  an  imaginary  line. 

SEC.  5.  A  competitor  shall  keep 
a  straight  course,  parallel  with  the 
courses  of  the  other  competitors, 
from  his  starting  station  to  the  op- 
posite point  in  the  finish  line.  Com- 
petitors will  be  started  ten  feet  apart, 
and  each  one  is  entitled  to  a  straight 
lane  of  water,  ten  feet  wide,  from 
start  to  finish.  Any  contestant  who, 
when  out  of  his  own  water,  shall 
touch  another  competitor,  is  liable 


SWINGING 


697 


SWINGING 


to  disqualification — subject  to  the 
discretion  of  the  Referee. 

SEC.  6.  Each  competitor  shall 
have  finished  the  race  when  any 
part  of  his  person  reaches  the  finish 
line. 

SWINGING.  Swings  are  made 
usually  of  a  single  rope,  fastened  at 
both  ends,  two  to  six  feet  apart,  to 
the  limb  of  a  tree  or  a  cross-piece 
of  timber.  The  rope  must  be  of 
such  a  length  that  the  loop  hangs 
within  three  or  four  feet  of  the 
ground.  In  the  loop  is  fastened  a 
wooden  seat,  on  which  the  person 
who  swings  sits  while  a  companion 
pushes  him  forward.  The  push  is 
repeated  every  time  the  swing  re- 
turns to  its  original  position,  and  it 
thus  rises  a  little  higher  each  time, 
till  the  pusher  can  run  quite  under 
the  swing,  giving  it  a  parting  push 
as  it  swings  up  out  of  his  reach. 
The  longer  the  swing  is  the  pleas- 
anter  the  motion,  for  the  person  in 
a  long  swing  moves  more  nearly  in 
a  straight  line  than  in  a  short  one, 
and  the  time  of  a  swing  is  longer. 
A  swing  about  thirteen  feet  long 
should  go  backward  and  forward 
in  two  seconds,  one  twenty-nine 
feet  long  in  three  seconds,  and  one 
fifty-two  feet  long  in  four  seconds. 
The  time  is  nearly  the  same,  no 
matter  whether  the  swing  be  sent 
high  or  low ;  if  it  be  sent  high  it 
moves  faster,  so  that  it  goes  over  its 
path  in  about  the  same  time.  The 
person  who  sits  in  the  swing  may 
move  himself  by  pulling  the  ropes 
back,  leaning  backward  and  stretch- 
ing out  his  feet  every  time  the 
swing  moves  forward.  It  is  better 
still  to  stand  in  the  swing  while  ex- 
ecuting this  movement.  Two  per- 
sons standing  in  a  swing  face  to 
face  and  doing  this  alternately  may 
make  the  swing  rise  very  high. 
This  is  called  "  pumping  "  or  "  work- 
ing." Each  must  stoop  down,  lean 
backward,  and  push  his  feet  for- 
ward while  the  swing  moves  in  the 
direction  he  is  facing. 

Sometimes  the  person  sitting  in 


the  swing  jumps  from  it,  and  con- 
tests may  be  held  by  two  or  more 
persons,  in  which  each  tries  to  jump 
farther  than  the  others ;  but  such 
jumping  is  dangerous,  and  may  re- 
sult in  injury  to  one  not  accustomed 
to  it.  In  thus  jumping  the  forward 
impetus  is  given  entirely  by  the 
swing,  and  the  skill  of  the  jumper 
is  shown  only  in  knowing  when  to 
jump.  If  he  wait  too  long,  until 
the  swing  is  nearly  at  the  end  of  its 
path,  it  moves  so  slowly  that  he  will 
be  given  scarcely  any  forward  move- 
ment ;  and  if  he  jump  too  soon,  the 
swing  will  not  be  far  enough  ad- 
vanced. 

The  simplest  form  of  seat  for  a 
swing  is  a  board  with  a  V-shaped 
notch  in  each  end,  which  is  fitted 
into  the  rope,  and  kept  in  place  by 
the  weight  of  the  swinger.  In  an- 
other form  the  rope  is  put  through 
a  hole  in  each  end  of  the  board  be- 
fore fastening  it  at  the  top ;  or  if 
the  swing  is  made  of  two  ropes, 
each  is  passed  through  one  of  the 
holes  of  the  seat  and  tied  beneath. 
Seats  are  sometimes  made  with 
backs  and  arm-rests.  Such  a  seat 
may  be  formed  of  an  old  chair  by 
removing  the  legs  and  fastening  the 
rope  to  the  seat.  Two  holes  should 
be  bored  on  each  side,  through  each 
pair  of  which  a  rope  is  passed,  and 
the  ends  of  each  of  these  ropes  are 
tied  to  one  of  the  swing  ropes. 

In  pushing  a  rope-swing  care 
must  be  taken  that  it  is  not  given 
a  motion  to  one  side,  or  a  twist. 
If  it  acquires  either  of  these  mo- 
tions, the  best  plan  is  to  stop  and 
begin  again.  To  stop  a  swing  the 
pusher  must  wait  till  it  has  reached 
the  point  nearest  to  him,  and  then, 
seizing  the  seat  or  ropes  with  both 
hands,  run  forward  with  it,  holding 
back  with  all  his  strength.  The 
body  should  be  inclined  backward, 
and  the  heels  dug  into  the  ground 
at  every  step.  The  farther  apart 
the  ropes  of  the  swing  are  at  the 
top,  the  size  of  the  seat  remaining 
the  same,  the  less  likely  it  will  be 


SYNTHESIS 


698 


SYNTHESIS 


to  move  sidewise.  When  the  ropes 
are  very  near  together,  it  is  almost 
as  easy  to  move  the  swing  sidewise 
as  straight  ahead  ;  but  when  they 
are  far  apart,  the  backward  and  for- 
ward motion  is  the  easier,  as  will 
be  seen  by  trial.  When  the  ropes 
are  farther  apart  and  slope  toward 
the  seat,  the  swing  is  also  less  likely 
to  twist.  But,  on  the  other  hand, 
when  the  ropes  are  far  apart  it  is 
harder  to  keep  one's  seat.  A  swing 
that  will  neither  move  sidewise 
nor  twist  can  be  made  by  fasten- 
ing the  ends  of  the  rope  to 
trees  30  to  50  feet  apart..  The 
motion  of  such  a  swing  is  delight- 
ful, but  it  requires  great  skill  to  sit 
in  it.  Swings  that  will  not  twist 
are  made  also  entirely  of  wood. 
They  are  usually  hung  in  a  wooden 
framework,  which  may  be  set  up 
anywhere.  Some  kinds  are  set  in 
motion  by  the  swinger,  who  presses 
with  his  feet  on  a  board  in  front  of 
the  swing. 

SYNTHESIS,  or  SETTO,  a  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons 
with  64  cards,  25  of  which  contain 
each  one  root  of  a  word  ;  19,  three 
prefixes  (or  beginnings  of  words) 
each;  and  15,  three  suffixes  (or 
ends  of  words)  each.  There  are 
also  five  prize-cards,  each  with  one 
suffix.  Words  can  be  formed  by 
putting  a  prefix  before  a  root  or  a 
suffix  after  it,  or  both.  Thus,  with 
the  root  act,  the  prefix  trans  and 
the  suffix  ion  can  be  formed  the 
words  transact,  action,  and  transac- 
tion. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  game 
each  draws  a  card,  and  he  who  gets 
the  first  prefix  deals.  There  are 
several  ways  of  playing.  In  the 
first  method  four  cards  are  dealt  to 
each  player,  and  four  are  placed 
face  upward  on  the  table.  When 
all  have  played  their  cards  as  de- 
scribed below,  the  dealer  gives  four 
more  to  each,  and  soon  till  all  have 
been  dealt,  but  no  more  are  dealt  to 
the  table.  The  player  at  the  deal- 
er's left  begins  the  game  by  trying 


to  make  a  word  by  combining  cards 
on  the  table,  using  any  of  the  pre- 
fixes and  suffixes  he  pleases.  If  he 
can  do  so,  he  places  the  word  in 
front  of  him,  and  it  becomes  his 
property.  Whether  he  has  been 
able  to  do  so,  or  not,  he  then  plays 
one  of  his  own  cards,  and  tries  to 
combine  it  with  some  card  or  cards 
on  the  table  in  like  manner  to  form 
a  word.  If  he  cannot,  and  has 
other  cards  in  his  hand  which  will 
form  a  word  with  the  one  he  is 
playing,  with  or  without  any  on  the 
table,  he  may  play,  saying  "  I  form," 
giving  the  word  he  intends  to  make, 
and  piling  together  the  cards  that 
form  part  of  it.  He  must  take  it 
as  soon  as  possible,  and  can  play  on 
no  other  word  before  he  does  so. 
Any  other  player  may  take  it  by 
forming  the  announced  word,  but 
no  other.  If  the  player  can  neither 
take  a  word  nor  forrn,  he  must  lay 
his  card  with  the  others  on  the  ta- 
ble. The  next  player  has  the  same 
choice,  but  instead  of  using  his  card 
to  form  a  word  with  those  in  the 
middle  of  the  table,  he  may  add  it, 
if  possible,  to  the  word  the  first 
player  made,  thus  taking  it  away 
from  him.  The  other  players  go 
on  in  like  manner,  each  in  his  turn. 
When  a  word  made  by  any  one  has 
remained  uncaptured  during  one 
round,  it  cannot  be  taken  after- 
ward. When  all  the  cards  have 
been  played,  he  who  has  taken  the 
(largest  number  of  cards  scores  3 
points ;  and  every  word  of  4  sylla- 
bles scores  i  point,  of  5  syllables 
2  points,  and  of  6  syllables  3  points. 
When  a  player  takes  all  the  cards 
from  the  middle  of  the  table,  he  is 
said  to  have  made  a  "  sweep  "  as  in; 
CASINO,  and  every  sweep  counts  a 
point  for  him  who  makes  it.  In 
addition,  the  five  prize-cards  each 
count  toward  game  the  number  of 
points  marked  on  it.  He  who  has 
most  points  wins  the  game. 

Another  way  of  playing  is  to  give 
six  cards  to  each,  and  put  none  on 
the  table.  The  players  must  not 


SYNTHESIS 


699 


SYRUP 


look  at  their  cards.  They  play,  in 
order,  till  some  one  can  make  a 
word  with  the  cards  on  the  table, 
when  he  takes  it  as  before.  Any 
player  may  retake  it  by  putting  on 
another  syllable  at  any  time  during 
the  game.  But  if  a  player  can  take 
more  than  one  word  in  one  turn,  he 
may  do  so,  and  such  words  cannot 
then  be  retaken. 

A  third  method  is  to  remove  the 
root-cards.  Twelve  cards  are  placed 
on  the  table,  face  upward,  and  the 
players  have  no  cards,  but  each,  in 
playing,  may  use  any  root  in  the 
English  language. 

In  a  fourth  way  of  playing,  the 
prizes  are  removed  and  four  cards 
dealt  to  each.  No  one  looks  at 
his  cards.  The  first  prefix  or  suf- 
fix card  played  is  called  the  Leader. 
A  player  may  take  all  cards  on  the 
table  any  of  whose  syllables  is  the 
same  as  a  syllable  on  the  card  he 
plays.  The  greatest  number  of  cards 
like  the  Leader  scores  3,  every  syl- 
lable like  one  on  the  Leader  scores 
i,  and  the  greatest  number  of  cards 
taken  scores  2.  The  game  is  13 
points. 

These  games  may  be  varied,  or 
others  devised,  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  players.  The  word  Synthesis 
is  from  two  Greek  words  meaning 
a  putting  together. 

Farrago.  The  same  game  as  Syn- 
thesis, except  that  each  card  bears 
but  one  syllable.  Farrago  means  a 
mixture.  It  was  originally  a  Latin 
word,  meaning  a  kind  of  mixed 
fodder  for  cattle. 

SYRINGE.  The  force-PUMp  is 
really  only  a  syringe  arranged  to 
throw  a  steady  stream.  Simpler 
ones  can  be  made  as  follows. 

i.  Cut  off  the  top  of  a  smooth 
round  glass  bottle  so  far  below  the 
neck  that  the  remainder  will  be  of 
the  same  size  all  the  way  down  (see 
instructions  for  glass  working  under 
CHEMICAL  EXPERIMENTS).  Fit  to 
it  a  piston  like  those  described  under 


PUMP,  without  a  valve.  Now  make 
a  tiny  hole  in  the  side  or  bottom  of 
the  bottle,  either  by  directing  the 
tip  of  a  BLOW-PIPE  flame  on  the  glass 
or  by  boring  with  a  file  moistened 
with  turpentine.  The  smaller  the 
hole,  the  greater  the  force  with 
which  the  water  can  be  driven  out 
by  pushing  in  the  piston. 

2.  A  syringe  may  be  made  also 
from  a  piece  of  any  kind  of  wood 
that  contains  pith.  The  pith  must 
first  be  punched  out,  and  then  one 
end  of  the  pipe  thus  made  must  be 
plugged  with  a  bit  of  wood  hav- 
ing a  small  hole  in  the  centre. 
The  piston  can  be  made  as  be. 
fore. 

SYRINX,  or  Pan-pipe,  an  ancient 
musical  instrument.  One  can  be 
made  by  a  boy  with  an  ear  for 
music,  of  any  wood  that  contains 
pith.  Punch  out  the  pith,  and  plug 
one  end  with  a  wooden  stopper. 
By  blowing  across  the  open  end,  a 
rough  musical  sound  can  be  made. 
By  cutting  different  lengths  and 
trying  them,  a  perfect  scale  may  be 
obtained.  The  pipes  should  now  be 
fastened  side  by  side  to  across  strip 
so  that  all  the  open  ends  are  in  line, 
when  a  tune  can  be  played  on  them 
with  a  little  practice. 

SYRUP,  Experiment  with.    Three- 
quarters     fill    a    bottle    with    very 
thick  syrup,  and  then,  having  corked 
it,  turn    it    upside 
down.     After  most 
of  the  syrup  has  de- 
scended to  what  is 
now  the  bottom  of 
the  bottle,  what  re- 
mains    will     form 
into       a      curious 
shape  resembling  a 
water-spout,   large 
at  the  top  and  ta- 
Experiment    with    pering  at  the  bot- 
Syrup.  torn.      The   taper- 

ing part  twists  about  curiously  till 
all  the  syrup  has  run  down,  which 
takes  several  minutes. 


TABLEAUX 


700 


TAG 


T 


TABLEAUX,  or  TABLEAUX 
VIVANTS  (French  for  "  Living 
Pictures ").  A  theatrical  enter- 
tainment in  which  the  performers 
neither  move  nor  speak.  The  ef- 
fect depends  entirely  on  the  dress, 
attitude,  expression  and  grouping, 
as  in  a  picture.  Unless  an  artist  is 
stage  manager,  tableaux  are  best 
made  by  copying  an  actual  paint- 
ing as  nearly  as  possible  in  group- 
ing, costume  and  background  ;  or,  if 
an  engraving  be  copied,  the  colors 
may  be  arranged  at  pleasure.  The 
chief  thing  to  remember  as  regards 
colors  is  that  the  picture  must 
neither  be  too  sombre  nor  contain 
brilliant  colors  close  together, 
whether  on  the  figures  or  in  the 
background.  As  it  is  very  difficult 
for  the  performers  to  keep  perfectly 
still,  tableaux  can  be  shown  for 
only  a  few  seconds  at  a  time,  and  it 
is  well  to  raise  and  lower  the  curtain 
several  times.  The  great  changes 
of  scene  necessary  between  the 
tableaux  and  the  short  time  during 
which  they  can  be  shown  often 
makes  such  exhibitions  tiresome, 
and  everything  possible  should  be 
done  to  reduce  the  waits  between 
the  scenes.  To  this  end  no  per- 
former should  take  part  in  two 
consecutive  tableaux,  and  as  soon 
as  the  curtain  falls  on  one  scene 
the  actors  in  the  next  should  be 
ready  to  take  their  places.  If  possi- 
ble, one  background  should  be  ar- 
ranged behind  anoth^.,  so  that  it  is 
necessary  only  to  take  away  the  first 
to  show  the  second.  One  method 
is  to  make  three  frames,  represent- 
ing picture-frames,  at  the  rear  of  the 
stage,  either  with  or  without  sepa- 
rate curtains.  Tableaux  can  be  ar- 
ranged behind  these  during  the  ex- 
hibition of  one  on  the  stage.  It  is 
then  necessary  only  to  lower  the 
curtain  while  the  actors  leave  the 
stage,  raise  the  background  curtain 
which  concealed  the  frames  in  the 


rear,  and  then  raise  the  stage-cur- 
tain again,  disclosing  the  new  tab- 
leau. If  the  frames  have  separate 
curtains  they  may  be  raised  and  low- 
ered alternately,  one  tableau  being 
prepared  while  another  is  exhibited. 
Some  of  the  frames  may  be  made 
so  as  to  show  only  the  head  and 
shoulders,  in  which  case  it  is  merely 
necessary  for  the  actors  to  stand 
behind  them.  The  background,  in 
the  case  of  small  frames,  should  be 
black  or  very  dark  cloth.  The  il- 
lusion is  heightened  by  having  fine 
black  gauze  stretched  between  the 
stage  and  the  audience.  Instead 
of  an  ordinary  curtain  several  cur- 
tains of  white  gauze  may  be  let 
down,  one  by  one,  and  then  raised 
in  the  same  way;  the  effect  being 
to  cause  the  picture  to  fade  away 
gradually.  This  is  especially  effec- 
tive when  some  slight  change  in 
the  position  of  the  actors  is  all  that 
is  necessary  between  two  tableaux. 
One  of  the  frames  at  the  rear  may 
be  used  to  show  a  sort  of  panorama, 
a  line  of  figures  passing  slowly  be- 
hind it,  each  stopping  for  a  few 
seconds  at  the  proper  place.  The 
figures  may  represent  historical  or 
mythological  characters ;  and  a  lec- 
turer may  describe  them,  pointing 
to  each  with  a  wand.  In  all  tab- 
leaux, since  the  figures  are  seen  on 
one  side  only,  no  care  need  be  taken 
of  that  part  of  the  costume  turned 
away  from  the  spectators.  The 
faces  should  be  colored  or  made  up 
in  the  same  way  as  for  theatricals. 
TAG,  A  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  one  of  whom 
tries  to  touch  or  "  tag  "  any  of  the 
others  he  can.  If  he  succeeds,  the 
one  tagged  must  take  his  place. 
No  player  can  be  tagged  when 
touching  the  "  goal,"  or  "  bye," 
which  is  any  object  agreed  upon, 
such  as  a  tree,  fence,  or  stone. 
Sometimes,  instead  of  some  partic- 
ular object,  anything  made  of  a 


TAG 


701 


TAKE  CARE 


given  material  is  considered  a 
"  bye  " — such  as  anything  of  stone, 
iron,  or  wood.  The  game  is  then 
called  "  Stone  Tag,"  "  Iron  Tag," 
or  "Wood  Tag,"  as  the  case  may 
be.  The  first  tagger  is  generally 
selected  at  the  opening  of  the  game 
by  COUNTING  OUT. 

Cross  Tag.  There  is  no  goal 
in  this  form  of  the  game,  but  any 
player  who  is  chased  can  be  relieved 
by  any  other  player  running  be- 
tween him  and  the  one  trying  to 
tag  him.  The  latter  must  then  run 
after  the  player  who  ran  between, 
till  he  in  turn  is  relieved.  When 
any  one  is  tagged,  he  must  take  the 
pursuer's  place  as  before. 

Tree  Tag.  Each  player  chooses 
a  tree  as  his  goal,  and  cannot  be 
captured  while  touching  it  except 
by  some  other  player's  going  around 
it  three  times.  When  any  player  is 
touched  by  another,  or  captured  at 
his  tree,  the  tree  of  the  one  who 
captures  him  becomes  his  goal. 
The  game  ends  when  all  the  play- 
ers are  at  one  tree. 

Squat  Tag.  When  a  player 
who  is  pursued  is  tired,  he  is  al- 
lowed to  stoop  or  squat  close  to 
the  ground,  the  pursuer  not  being 
allowed  to  touch  him  while  in  this 
position.  The  number  of  squats 
allowed  varies  from  two  to  eleven. 

King's  Land.  A  kind  of  Tag 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
one  of  whom,  representing  the 
king,  stands  within  boundaries 
agreed  upon  at  the  beginning  of 
the  game.  The  other  players  can 
be  touched  by  him  only  when  they 
venture  inside  the  boundary ;  and 
when  they  do  so  they  call  out, 
"I'm  on  king's  land;  king  can't 
see  !"  or  similar  words.  By  running 
in  and  out  again  on  all  sides  they 
strive  to  confuse  the  king  and 
divert  his  attention  from  one  to 
the  ether. 

In  Connecticut  the  forbidden 
land  is  sometimes  called  Van  Die- 
men's  Land,  in  New  York  Dixie's 
Land,  and  in  Philadelphia  Golden 


Pavement.  The  name  for  it  in 
Devonshire,  England,  is  Judge 
Jeffrey's  Land,  from  the  cruel 
judge  of  that  name  who  lived  in 
the  reign  of  James  II. 

This  game  is  sometimes  called 
Rook's  Castle,  and  the  old  English 
name  for  it  was  Tom  Tiddler's 
Ground.  The  German  boys,  when 
they  play  it,  say : 

"  King,  I'm  in  your  land  ; 
I'll  steal  your  gold  and  silver  sand  !  " 

In  France,  the  king  is  called  the 
Crow,  and  French  children  playing 
this  game,  say,  "  I  am  in  your 
castle,  Crow,  and  I  shall  always  be 
there." 

A  similar  game,  though  not  a 
game  of  Tag,  is  KING'S  CASTLE. 

Several  kinds  of  Tag  are  played 
in  France.  In  one,  called  Chat 
Percht  (Cat  on  a  Perch),  a  player 
cannot  be  caught  when  his  feet 
do  not  touch  the  ground  ;  as,  for 
instance,  when  he  is  on  a  bench 
or  clinging  to  a  tree.  .  Chat  Coupt 
(Cut  Cat)  is  our  Cross  Tag.  In  a 
kind  called  Mere  Garuche  (Mother 
Garuche ;  probably  from  gare, 
meaning  "  take  care ! ")  the  players, 
called  Children,  as  they  are  caught 
must  hold  the  hands  of  the  first 
pursuer,  and  thus  all  must  pursue 
together.  Any  pursuer  may  seize 
and  detain  whomever  he  can  ;  but 
the  original  pursuer,  Mother  Ga- 
ruche, must  touch  him  before  he  is 
regarded  as  caught. 

Gorilla.  A  kind  of  Tag  in 
which  the  pursuer  is  called  the 
Gorilla.  The  other  players  howl 
and  make  any  kind  of  noise,  but 
the  Gorilla  keeps  perfectly  quiet. 
As  soon  as  he  touches  any  player 
he  begins  to  howl,  while  the 
touched  player,  becoming  Gorilla, 
stops  howling.  The  players  know 
who  is  Gorilla  by  his  silence,  and 
can  thus  avoid  him. 

TAKE  CARE.  A  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons  in  several 
ways.  In  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon, flour  is  packed  tightly  into  a 
bowl,  which  is  then  turned  over 


TALKING  MACHINES. 


702 


TEA-KETTLE 


and  removed,  leaving  the  flour  in  a 
mound.  On  top  of  this  is  placed  a 
small  coin.  The  players  in  turn 
then  remove  each  a  part  of  the 
flour  with  a  knife,  and  whoever  lets 
the  coin  fall  must  pick  it  from  the 
flour  with  his  teeth.  Sometimes 
each  one  says  "  take  care  "  as  he 
cuts  off  his  portion  of  the  flour, 
and  the  game  thus  receives  its 
name. 

There  are  many  substitutes  for 
the  flour  and  coin.  One  of  the 
best  is  a  card-house  of  two  cards 
on  a  pile  made  of  the  rest  of  the 
pack  loosely  thrown  together. 
Each  player  removes  one  card,  and 
he  who  allows  the  card-house  to 
fall  must  pay  a  forfeit.  The  game 
may  be  played  out  of  doors  with  a 
little  flag  stuck  in  a  pail  of  sand, 
from  which  each  player  removes  a 
little  on  the  end  of  a  stick. 

TALKING  MACHINES,  A  ma- 
chine to  say  the  word  "  Mamma  " 
can  be  made  as  follows:  Take  a 
toy  trumpet,  and  hold  ing  the  small 
end  in  the  mouth  place  the  two 
hands  over  the  funnel.  By  blow- 
ing through  the  trumpet  and  open- 
ing and  shutting  one  hand  the 
syllable  "  Ma "  can  be  produced 
quite  plainly.  By  repeating  this 
the  word  "  Mamma  "  can  bespoken. 
A  very  good  imitation  of  the 
human  voice  can  be  made  also  by 
stretching  two  india-rubber  bands 
across  the  end  of  an 
empty  spool  (see 
illustration).  The 
edges  of  the  bands 
should  be  close  to- 
gether without 
overlapping.  On 
blowing  through 
the  other  end  of  the 
spool  the  bands  vi- 

Talking  Spool.      brate    like.  th.f    h,U' 
man  vocal    chords, 

and  make  a  sound  something  like 
the  voice,  which  changes  with  the 
force  of  the  breath. 

TASTE,  Experiments  on,  I.  To 
find  which  of  the  company  has 


the  most  delicate  sense  of  taste, 
dissolve  a  little  sugar  in  water  so 
as  to  make  a  slightly  sweet  solu- 
tion. Pour  half  of  this  into  a  glass 
and  replace  it  with  pure  water. 
Put  half  the  diluted  liquid  into  a 
second  glass,  replace  it  with  pure 
water,  and  so  on  till  the  liquid  can- 
not be  distinguished  from  ordinary 
water.  The  liquid  must  not  be  too 
strong  to  begin  with,  or  too  many 
dilutions  will  be  required.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  keep  the  glass- 
es in  proper  order,  as,  if  they 
should  be  mixed,  it  would  spoil  the 
experiment.  Now  place  on  the 
table  the  glass  containing  the 
strongest  solution,  and  one  of  pure 
water,  and  let  the  company  enter 
one  at  a  time,  blindfolded.  Give 
each  to  drink  several  times  from 
the  two  glasses,  in  any  order  you 
please,  asking  him  after  each  taste 
whether  he  had  pure  or  sweet- 
ened water.  Care  should  be  taken 
to  have  glasses  alike,  and  filled  to 
the  same  height.  Those  who  tell 
incorrectly  are  considered  "  out." 
Those  who  make  no  mistake  take 
part  in  a  similar  trial  in  which  the 
next  weaker  solution  is  used.  This 
goes  on  till  only  one  is  left  who 
can  taste  the  sugar-water,  who  is 
declared  to  have  the  most  delicate 
taste. 

The  experiment  may  be  tried 
over  again,  using  first  salt  and 
then  vinegar,  instead  of  sugar.  It 
will  often  be  found  that  he  who  has 
the  most  delicate  taste  for  sugar 
cannot  detect  acids  as  easily  as 
some  one  else. 

2.  Prepare  three  glasses  of  water, 
dissolving  a  little  quinine  in  one, 
salt  in  the  second,  and  leaving  the 
third  pure.  After  holding  some 
of  the  bitter  or  salt  water  in  the 
mouth  for  a  few  seconds,  swallow 
some  of  the  pure  water,  and  it  will 
taste  sweet. 

TEA-KETTLE.  A  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons,  one  of 
whom  leaves  the  room  while  the 
others  agree  upon  a  word  with  sev- 


TEETOTUM 


703 


TELEGRAPHS 


eral  different  meanings,  or  upon 
two  or  more  words  pronounced 
alike.  The  player  who  went  out 
now  returns  and  asks  each  in  turn 
a  question.  The  word  or  words 
agreed  on  must  be  introduced  sev- 
eral times  in  the  answer,  but  instead 
thereof  the  word  "tea-kettle" 
must  be  substituted.  If  the  word 
is  compounded  with  another  or 
with  a  prefix  or  suffix  the  word 
"  tea-kettle  "  must  be  similarly  com- 
pounded. Thus,  suppose  rain, 
rein,  reign,  to  be  the  selected 
words.  The  first  question  may 
be,  "  How  do  you  do?  "  to  which 
the  answer  is  returned :  "  Not  very 
well,  for  I  was  out  yesterday  in  the 
biggest  tea-kettle  of  Queen  Victo- 
ria's tea-kettle."  The  next  may  be 
asked,  "Do  you  enjoy  riding?" 
"  That  depends  on  the  tea-kettles, 
and  also  on  whether  it  is  tea-ket- 
tle-ing or  not."  The  player  from 
whose  answer  the  word  is  guessed 
becomes  questioner  in  turn,  leaving 
the  room  while  another  word  is  de- 
cided on. 

TEETOTUM.     See  TOPS. 

TELEGRAPHS.  The  electric  tel- 
egraph is  described  in  C.  C.  T.  un- 
der this  head.  A  simple  one  on 
Morse's  system  may  be  made  as 
follows :  To  telegraph  between  two 
stations  requires  two  sounders,  two 
keys,  a  battery  and  a  line  of  wire. 

Sounder.  Make  a  small  electro- 
magnet (see  MAGNETS)  about  two 


Fig.  i. 

inches  long.  Fasten  it  on  its  side 
on  a  strip  of  board  by  tacking  strips 
of  cloth  or  leather  over  it,  and  from 
a  piece  of  bent  wire  over  it  suspend 
the  armature  by  threads  so  that  it 


will  hang  as  close  as  possible  to 
the  poles  without  touching  them. 
(See  Fig.  i.)  When  a  current  passes 
through  the  magnet  wire  the  arma- 


u 


Fig.  2. 


ture  will  be  attracted  and  will  make 
a  clicking  sound.  Put  in  two  brass 
screws  behind  the  armature,  so  that 
it  will  touch  them  as  it  hangs,  and 
then  attach  it  by  pieces  of  elastic 
to  another  screw  at  a  distance  of 
two  or  three  inches,  so  that  the 
elastic  will  pull  it  back  against 
the  screws  when  the  current  is  off, 
thus  making  another  click.  The 
elastic  must  not  be  so  strong  as  to 
prevent  the  magnet's  drawing  the 
armature  to  itself.  The  mode  of 
holding  back  the  armature  is  shown 
on  a  larger  scale  in  Fig.  2. 

Key.    Procure  two  strips  of  brass, 
one  two  inches  long  and  the  other 


Fig.  3. 

four.  Punch  a  hole  in  one  end  of 
each  and  screw  them  to  the  same 
board  with  the  sounder,  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  the  free  end 
of  the  long  piece  just  lying  across 
the  middle  of  the  short  one.  Bend 
the  long  piece  upward  a  little,  near 
the  screw,  so  that  in  its  natural  po- 
sition it  will  not  touch  the  short 
piece.  (See  Fig.  3.)  By  pressing 
the  end  of  the  long  piece  d@wn, 
contact  can  be  made  between  the 
two,  and  if  they  are  to  be  left  in  con- 


TELEGRAPHS 


704 


TELEGRAPHS 


tact  the  long  piece  can  be  caught 
under  the  free  end  of  the  short  one 
by  turning  it  aside  on  the  screw  as 
a  pivot.  (See  Fig.  4.)  The  wires 


Fig.  4. 

are  attached  to  the  strips  by  being 
wound  once  around  the  screws, 
just  before  screwing  them  down 
tight. 

Battery.  The  best  battery  to 
use  is  a  Gravity  (see  ELECTRIC 
BATTERIES),  but  any  other  will  do 
except  the  Leclanche  and  similar 
cells,  which  weaken  very  fast  when 
the  current  is  passing.  In  a  tele- 
graph the  current  has  to  pass  all 
the  time,  for  if  the  circuit  were 
broken  at  one  station  it  would  be 
impossible  to  signal  from  the  other 
when  a  message  was  to  be  sent. 
The  best  place  for  the  battery  is  in 
a  box  under  the  table  on  which  the 
instruments  stand. 

Line  Wire.  The  size  of  the  wire 
between  the  stations  depends 
somewhat  on  distance.  In  tele- 
graphing from  one  room  to  anoth- 
er in  the  same  house,  small  insula- 
ted wire  may  be  used,  which  may 
ie  secured  along  the  edge  of  the 
floor,  where  it  will  not  be  seen,  by 
means  of  double-pointed  carpet 
tacks.  If  the  line  is  to  be  out- 


doors ordinary  telegraph  wire 
should  be  used,  which  is  fastened 
to  trees  or  posts  by  insulators,  so 
that  the  current  may  not  be  drawn 
away.  Glass  insulators  may  be 
bought  of  a  dealer  in  telegraph  sup- 
plies, but  simple  ones  can  be  made 
of  rubber  tubing  cut  into  pieces 
about  an  inch  long.  A  nail  is  driven 
through  the  tubing  lengthwise  into 
a  tree,  and  the  wire  is  wound  once 
or  twice  around  it. 

Ground  Connection.  Where  the 
two  stations  are  in  the  same  house, 
the  circuit  consists  of  wire  both 
ways,  but  where  the  line  passes 
outdoors  the  current  passes  one 
way  through  the  wire,  and  back 
through  the  ground.  Where  there 
are  gas  pipes,  connection  with  the 
ground  can  be  made  by  simply 
winding  one  end  of  the  wire  tightly 
around  one  where  it  is  exposed. 
Where  there  are  no  gas  pipes  a  wire 
must  be  carried  to  the  ground, 
where  the  end  is  attached  to  a  cop- 
per plate  about  a  foot  square  and 
buried  deep  enough  to  be  con- 
stantly in  moist  ground. 

Connections.  The  different  in- 
struments may  be  connected  in  any 
order  desired,  but  the  following 
directions  should  be  observed  by 
those  who  wish  exact  instructions. 
Connect  one  wire  of  the  battery 
with  the  ground  wire,  and  the  oth- 
er with  one  end  of  the  wire  around 
the  electro-magnet  of  the  sounder. 
The  other  magnet  wire  is  connect- 
ed with  one  of  the  brass  strips  of 


Fig.  5.— B.  Battery.    GG.  Ground  plates.    KK.  Keys.    L.  Line. 
PPP.  Poles.    SS.  Sounders. 


the  key,  and  the  other  strip  with 
the  line  wire,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
5.  -At  the  other  station  the  same 
connections  are  made,  except  that 
there  is  no  battery,  so  that  one  of 


the  magnet  wires  is  connected 
directly  to  the  ground  wire.  If 
there  are  to  be  one  or  more  stations 
between  the  end  ones,  each  must 
have  its  key  and  sounder.  The 


TELEGRAPHS 


70S 


TELEGRAPHS 


wire  is  "  grounded  "only  at  the  end 
stations.  The  connections  are  best 
made  by  brass  binding  screws, 
which  can  be  bought  of  a  dealer  in 
telegraph  supplies  ;  but  they  can  be 
made  almost  as  well  by  winding  the 
ends  of  the  wires  tightly  around 
each  other,  and  pounding  them 
close  together  with  a  hammer. 
The  better  the  connections  the 
better  the  telegraph  will  work. 

Telegraphing.  The  alphabet  used 
is  the  Morse,  described  in  C.  C.  T. 
This  consists  of  a  combination  of 
dots  and  dashes.  To  make  a  dot, 
the  key  is  merely  tapped  down 
with  the  finger,  so  that  contact  is 
made  for  an  instant  only.  To  make 
a  dash  it  is  held  down  a  little  long- 
er. The  operator  at  the  other  end 
must  read  the  message  by  sound. 
He  can  hear  the  click  made  by 
the  armature  striking  the  magnet 
when  the  key  is  pressed  down,  and 
the  click  made  by  its  hitting  the 
screws  behind  it  when  the  key  is 
raised  and  the  elastic  pulls  it  back. 
If  the  interval  between  these  two 
clicks  is  short,  he  knows  a  dot 
has  been  made;  if  a  little  long- 
er, a  dash.  With  a  little  prac- 
tice it  will  be  easy  to  read  thus, 
even  when  messages  are  sent 
very  swiftly.  To  practice  read- 
ing it  is  not  necessary  to  have 
a  telegraph  instrument — any- 
thing which  will  make  two 
clicks  in  the  same  manner 
will  do;  for  instance,  a  stick 
moved  backward  and  forward 
between  two  fence  palings. 

The  keys  must  be  kept  press- 
ed down  all  the  time  at  all  sta- 
tions, except  when  a  message 
is  being  sent.  A  signal  or  call, 
consisting  of  any  arrangement 
of  dots  and  dashes,  must  be 
agreed  on,  to  be  given  before  a 
message ;  and  no  message  should 
be  sent  till  the  signal  has  been 
given  and  answered,  showing  that 
some  one  is  at  the  other  station  to 
receive  it.  The  answer  may  con- 
sist of  a  repetition  of  the  signal  or 


some  other  combination  of  dots 
and  dashes.  If  there  are  more 
than  two  stations,  each  must  have 
a  different  call,  for  all  the  sounders 
on  the  line  click  when  a  message  is 
sent. 

Wheatstone  Telegraph.  In  this 
telegraph  the  receiving  instrument 
consists  of  a  galvanometer,  and  the 
key  is  replaced  by  a  commutator, 
or  arrangement  for  reversing  the 
current. 

Galvanometer.  The  instrument 
described  in  the  article  under  this 
head  can  be  used,  but  a  pin  must 
be  stuck  in  the  dial  card  just  on 
each  side  of  the  needle,  so  that  it 
may  move  only  a  small  fraction  of 
an  inch,  otherwise  time  would  be 
lost  in  waiting  for  it  to  stop  swing- 
ing. When  the  current  flows  one 
way  the  needle  turns  to  the  right, 
and  when  it  is  reversed,  to  the  left. 
The  Morse  alphabet  may  be  used, 
one  direction  meaning  a  dot  and 
the  other  a  dash. 

Commutator.  A  simple  commu- 
tator, or  current  reverser,  can  be 


Fig.  6. 


made  as  follows :  Fasten  two 
strips  of  brass  C  and  D  (see  Fig.  6) 
to  a  block  of  wood  by  screws  at  C 
and  D,  and  at  the  other  end  fasten 
two  cross  strips,  A  E  and  B  F,  the 
former  passing  below  and  the  latter 
above  the  two  first  strips.  Bend 


TELEGRAPHS 


706 


TELEGRAPHS 


the  strips  C  and  D  upward  so  that 
when  at  rest  they  will  press  against 
B  F.  Join  the  line  wires  to  C"  and 
Z?and  the  battery  wires  to  A  and  B. 
Then,  by  pressing  down  the  strip  D, 
the  current  travels  in  the  direction 
of  the  arrows  marked  i,  and,  if  the 
strip  C  be  depressed,  in  the  other 
direction.  There  must  be  a  battery 
at  each  end  of  the  line  ;  but,  as  will 
be  seen  by  observing  the  way  the 
commutator  makes  connections, 
only  the  battery  at  the  signalling 
station  furnishes  current  to  the 
wire. 

Electro-Chemical  Telegraph.  Dis- 
solve some  ferrocyanide  of  potas- 
sium in  water,  and  soak  unglazed 
paper  in  the  solution.  Connect 
the  paper  with  the  negative  pole 
of  an  ELECTRIC  BATTERY,  and  con- 
nect the  positive  pole  with  a  steel 
nail.  Write  with  the  nail  on  the 
paper,  and  a  blue  mark  will  be 
produced.  This  is  because  the 
chemical  on  the  paper  is  decom- 
posed by  the  electricity,  forming 
Prussian  blue.  Now  let  one  person, 
with  the  paper  and  nail,  remain  in 
one  room  and  the  wire  which  con- 
nects with  either  pass  through 
another  room,  through  a  key,  to 
make  and  break  the  circuit.  The 
person  with  the  nail  draws  it  across 
the  paper  so  as  to  make  a  straight 
line,  while  another  telegraphs  with 
the  key,  using  Morse's  alphabet. 
The  dots  and  dashes  will  appear  in 
blue  on  the  paper,  since  whenever 
the  key  is  down  the  current  passes 
and  the  Prussian  blue  is  formed, 
but  when  the  key  is  up  the  nail 
makes  no  mark  at  all. 

Flash  Telegraph,  The  simplest 
way  to  telegraph  by  flashes  of 
light  is  to  place  a  common  kero- 
sene lamp  in  a  soap  box,  cutting 
a  hole  in  the  top  to  admit  the 
chimney,  and  boring  several  holes 
in  the  bottom  to  admit  air.  At 
the  end  is  a  hole  about  two  inches 
in  diameter,  covered  by  a  shut- 
ter made  of  a  flat  piece  of  wood 
screwed  loosely  to  the  box  by  one 


corner,  so  that  it  can  swing  down 
over  the  hole.  Each  telegrapher  has 
a  box  arranged  in  this  way,  and  the 
signals  are  sent  by  opening  and 
shutting  the  shutters.  The  best 
way  is  to  use  the  Morse  alphabet, 
opening  the  shutter  for  only  an 
instant  to  represent  a  dot,  and 
longer  for  a  dash.  This  telegraph 
can  be  used  as  far  as  the  light  of  a 
kerosene  lamp  can  be  seen.  To 
distinguish  the  light  from  that  of 
other  lamps  near  it  the  hole  may 
be  covered  with  colored  glass.  If 
the  apparatus  is  to  be  used  in  the 
open  air  some  kind  of  glass,  either 
clear  or  colored,  must  be  put  over 
the  hole  to  prevent  the  wind  from 
putting  out  the  lamp. 

Heliograph,  or  Sun  Telegraph. 
The  flash  telegraph  just  described 
can  be  used  only  for  short  distances, 
but  the  sun's  rays,  reflected  by  a 
mirror,  can  be  seen  twenty  or  thirty 
miles,  and  sometimes  even  farther. 
The  sending  and  receiving  stations 
are  usually  on  the  tops  of  high  hills. 
To  be  sure  that  the  ray  is  sent  in 
just  the  right  direction,  the  mirror 
must  first  be  made  steady  and  yet 
free  to  turn.  It  may  be  supported  on 
a  tripod  or  gimbals,  such  as  a  com- 
pass is  hung  on,  but  a  simpler  way 
is  for  a  boy  to  hold  it  firmly  in  his 
lap  as  he  sits  on  the  ground.  For 
long  distances  a  large  mirror 
several  feet  square  should  be  used. 
Scratch  away  a  bit  of  the  silvering 
as  large  as  a  pin-head  from  the 
back  and  then,  looking  through 
the  hole  thus  made  toward  the 
place  where  the  signal  is  sent,  bring 
some  small  object  into  the  line  of 
sight.  The  object  must  be  steady 
and  not  large  enough  to  obstruct 
the  beam.  The  best  thing  is  a  bit 
of  wire  supported  on  another 
tripod,  or,  more  simply,  nailed 
against  a  tree  so  that  it  projects  to 
one  side.  Now,  all  the  boy  with 
the  mirror  has  to  do  is  to  see  that 
he  keeps  it  steady  and  throws  his 
beam  of  light  on  the  wire,  for  this 
is  in  line  with  the  distant  point 


TELEGRAPHS 


707 


TELEPHONE 


where  the  signal  is  to  be  sent. 
The  light  can  be  cut  off  for  a  great- 
er or  less  time  by  holding  a  piece 
of  cloth,  a  board,  or  a  coat  in  front 
of  the  mirror,  and  thus  the  Morse 
alphabet  can  be  used  as  before. 

Other  Uses  of  the  Morse  Alphabet. 
This  alphabet  can  also  be  adapted 
to  hundreds  of  other  systems  of 
telegraphy  where  electricity  is  not 
used.  Wherever  two  kinds  of  sig- 
nals can  be  sent  from  one  point  to 
another  where  they  are  observed 
by  any  of  the  senses,  one  signal  can 
be  used  as  a  dot  and  the  other  as  a 
dash,  and  hence  they  can  be  com- 
bined to  form  letters.  The  follow- 
ing examples  show  how  the  signals 
can  be  received  through  any  of  the 
five  senses. 

Hearing.  Two  persons  may  com- 
municate with  each  other  by  long 
and  short  whistles  or  by  raps  on  a 
table. 

Sight.  Besides  the  flash  tele- 
graph described  above,  motions  of 
the  hand  or  of  a  flag  to  the  right  and 
left  may  represent  dots  and  dash'es, 
or,  by  night,  lanterns  of  two  differ- 
ent colors  may  be  used,  one  for 
dots,  the  other  for  dashes.  In  a 
crowded  room  two  persons  may 
thus  communicate  by  motions  of 
the  head  or  finger,  unnoticed  by 
the  rest  of  the  company. 

Touch.  Taps  with  the  finger  or 
light  scratches  with  a  pin  may  be 
used  in  the  same  way. 

Smell.  A  person  blindfolded  and 
having  his  ears  stopped  may  have 
a  message  sent  him  by  means  of 
two  odors,  for  instance  by  holding 
a  rose  and  a  violet  near  his  nostrils. 

Taste.  Two  substances  may  be 
touched  to  the  tongue  in  like  man- 
ner, or  an  ordinary  electric-tele- 
graph message  may  be  received  by 
means  of  the  GALVANIC  TASTE, 
the  end  of  one  wire  being  placed 
on  the  upper  surface  of  the  tongue 
and  the  other  beneath  it,  and  the 
electro-magnet  being  dispensed 
with.  This  requires  some  practice, 
but  has  been  done  successfully. 


TELEPHONE.  The  electric  tele- 
phone  is  described  in  C.  C.  T.,  un- 
der this  heading.  An  acoustic  or 
non-electric  telephone  which  works 
well  for  short  distances  can  be 
made  as  follows :  Procure  two 
pieces  of  smooth  pine  boa.d  six- 
teen inches  long  by  thirteen  wide, 
and  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick. 
Cut  in  each  a  hole  nine  inches  in 
diameter,  and  bevel  the  edges  of 
the  holes  on  one  side  of 
the  board  (see  Fig.  i). 
To  the  ends  of  each 
board,  on  the  side  not 
bevelled,  nail  strips  of 
pine  three  inches  wide, 
one-half  inch  thick,  and 
thirteen  inches  long,  so  that  the 
side  view  will  be  as  in  Fig.  2. 

Now  buy  a  calfskin  drum-head 
(which  can  be  obtained  of  a  dealer 
in  musical  instruments),  and 
cut  out  of  it  two  round  pieces 
large  enough  to  be  tacked 
over  the  holes  in  the  boards 
just  prepared.  The  skin 
which  is  placed  on  the  bev- 
elled side  of  the  hole  should  " ""'  " 
not  be  stretched  tightly  over  it, 
but  only  enough  to  smooth  it.  The 
tacks  must  be  put  in  close  together, 
and  about  half  an  inch  from  the 
edge  of  the  skin.  The  skin  is  now 
stretched  by  hanging  a  weight  to 
it.  In  an  old-fashioned 

©copper    cent    bore    two 
holes  large  enough  to  ad- 
mit   number    15    copper 
F  wire   (Fig.    3).      Pass    a 

piece  two  or  three  feet 
long  through  one  hole  and  back 
through  the  other,  twist  the  ends 
together  (Fig.  4)  and  then 
pass  them  through  a  hole 
exactly  in  the  centre  of  the 
skin,  from  the  tacked  side. 
Place  the  board  on  the 
edges  of  two  tables  (Fig.  5), 
so  that  the  wire  will  be  be- 
tween them,  and  hang  to  it  about 
thirty  pounds.  Wet  the  skin  on 
both  sides  with  a  moistened  sponge, 
and  it  will  stretch,  forming  a  con- 


Fig.  4- 


TELEPHONE 


708 


TELEPHONE 


cave  surface  (Fig.  6).  After  two  or 
three  hours,  when  it  is  dry,  remove 
the  weight,  and  the  skin  will  keep 
this  shape.  This  arrangement  is 


Fig.  6. 


called  the  "  disk."  It  may  be  bor- 
dered with  leather,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
7.  Now  bore  a  hole  in  the  wall  of 
the  house  where  the 
telephone  wire  is  to 
pass  through  it,  and 
screw  the  disk  to  the 
wall  so  that  the  hole  in 
the  middle  will  be  ex- 
actly opposite  that  in 
the  wall  (see  Fig.  8).  For  the  "  line 
wire"  from  one  disk  to  the  other 
(which  is  fastened  in  like  manner 
at  the  other  end  of  the 
line)  number  15  copper 
wire  is  the  best.  One  end 
of  the  wire  is  passed 
through  the  hole  in  the 
wall  and  that  in  the  disk, 
from  the  outside,  through 


Fig.  7. 


a  copper  cent,  or  large  button,  as 
described  above  (Fig.  4),  then  out 
again,  and  secured  by  twisting 
around  the  main  wire.  The  wire 


L 


must  not  touch  the  sides  of  the  hole 
through  which  it  passes,  nor  must 
it  touch  a  tree  or  wall  between  the 
two  stations.  If  it  must  pass  around 
a  corner  it  must  be 
kept  from  touching 
by  means  of  little 
loops  of  cord  called 
insulators.  The  best 
insulators  are  made 
of  pieces  of  cord 
four  inches  long  and 
three-sixteenths  of 
an  inch  in  thick- 
ness. The  ends  are 
brought  together 


Fig.  8. 


(Fig.  9)  and   secured   by   winding 
with  fine  copper  wire  (Fig.  i  o).     As 
many  of  these  insu- 
lators as  are  needed 
are    strung   on   the 
wi^e  before  it  is  put 
up  (Fig.  1 1),  and  the 
wire   can    be    kept 
uu     away  from  any  ob-  „.** 

Fig-  9-  {      .  J  Fig.  10. 

stacle  by  tying  one 
to  a  tree  or  pole  (Fig.    12).    The 
wire  should  never  be  bent  at  a  right 
angle,  but  two    insu- 
lators may  be  used,  as 
in  Fig.   13,  where  the 
wire  a  b  is  seen  carried 
around  a  corner. 

The  wire  attached 
to  the  disk  at  the  far- 
ther end  should  be  on- 
ly a  few  feet  long,  and 
the  main  wire  should  F- 
be  tightened  before 
the  two  pieces  are  connected.  The 


Fig.  la. 


tightening  can  be  done  by  a  pulley 
screwed  to  the  outside  wall  of  the 
house  at  the  farther  station.  When 
the  line  is  as  tight  as  possible,  one 


person  should  hold  it  while  another 
fastens  to  it  the  short  wire  from 
the  other  disk  by  making  a  "  tele- 
graph splice,"  shown  in  Fig.  14. 


TELEPHONE 


709 


TENNIS 


The  tighter  the  wire  the  better 
the  telephone  will  work.  If  it  still 
sags  it  may  be  tightened  by  tying 
it  by  insulators  to  the  limbs  of 


Fig.  13. 


trees  above  it,  thus  making 
it  higher  in  the  middle 
than  at  the  ends.  In  speak- 
ing, the  mouth  should  be 
held  directly  in  front  of 
the  button  on  the  disk, 
about  six  inches  from  it. 


Fig.  14. 

Lovers'  Telegraph.  A  simple 
acoustic  telephone  made  of  tin  box- 
es, paper  and  string.  Remove  the 
top  and  bottom  from  two  baking- 
powder  boxes,  and  over  one  end 
of  each  tie  tightly  a  piece  of  parch- 
ment paper  (see  SULPHURIC  ACID, 
experiment  4).  Through  a  hole 
in  the  middle  of  each  paper  pass 
one  end  of  a  piece  of  waxed 
cord,  and  prevent  it  from  pulling 
through  by  knotting  it.  The  cord 
thus  connects  the  two  boxes  ;  and 
if  a  person  holding  one  speak  into 
it,  he  can  be  heard  by  one  who  holds 
the  other  box  to  his  ear.  The  cord 
between  the  boxes  must  not  touch 
anything.  If  the  cord  is  too  long, 
its  weight  will  break  the  parch- 
ment paper,  but  if  the  heads  of 


V 


Lovers'  Telegraph. 

the  boxes  are  made  of  drum-head 
skin  it  can  be  made  much  longer. 


TENNIS.  A  game  played  with  a 
ball  and  a  bat  strung  with  gut, 
called  a  racket.  There  are  two 
kinds — Court  Tennis,  or  Tennis 
proper,  and  Lawn  Tennis.  The 
latter  is  more  common  and  simpler. 


Rackets. 

and    will    therefore     be     described 
first. 

Lawn    Tennis  is  played   by  two, 
three,  or  four  persons,  on  a  piece  of 
ground  called  a  court,  of  the  shape 
and  size  shown  in  the   diagrams. 
The  balls  are  of  hollow  rub- 
ber covered  with  cloth ;  the 
rackets,     or     racquets,    are 
strung  with  cord  or  gut,  as 
seen  in  the  illustration. 

The    courts    may    be    on 
smooth   turf   or    hard    bare 
ground,  or  the  game  may  be 
played    indoors    on    a  bare 
wooden   or  cemented    floor 
The  lines  are   marked   out- 
doors with   whitewash,   powdered 
marble  dust,  high  grass  or   white 


TENNIS 


710 


TENNIS 


tape,   and   indoors  with  chalk    or  I  which  a    net  is  strung  across  the 


paint, 
grams, 


At   A  and  B,   in  the  dia- 
are    two    posts,    between 


court.    The  smaller  rectangles  into 
which  the  lines  divide  the  court 


A,  Pole. 
Side  !  Line. 


Side  i  Line. 

B,  Pole. 

SINGLE  COURT  (FOR  TWO  PLAYERS). 

Dimensions :  Length,  78  feet ;  Width,  27  feet;  from  Net  to  Service  Lines,  21  fctt. 
(Height  of  net,  centre  3  feet,  sides,  3%  feet). 


A,  Pole. 

Side  i  Line. 

Service 

Side  Line. 

d 
c 

1 

c 

1-1 

3 

B 

B 

i 

• 

I 

ervice 

Side  Line. 

Side  !  Line. 

B,  Pole. 

DOUBLE  COURT  (FOR  TWO,  THREE,  OR  FOUR  PLAYERS). 

Dimensions  :    Length,  78  feet ;  Width,  36  feet ;  Net  to  Service  Line,  21  feet ;  Service  Side 

Line  to  Side  Line,  4}^  feet.    (Height  of  net,  center  3  feet,  sides  3%  feet.) 

are  also  called  courts.  The  illus-  ting  the  side  lines  and  ladies'  fig- 
tration  given  below  represents  a  ures,  it  will  represent  a  two-handed 
four-handed  game ;  but,  by  omit-  I  erame  as  well. 


TENNIS 


711 


TENNIS 


The  two-handed  game  will  be 
described  first.  The  players  decide 
by  lot  who  shall  have  the  first  turn, 
and  on  which  side  of  the  net  each 
shall  play.  Usually  one  throws  a 
racket  into  the  air  and  the  other 
calls  out  "rough"  or  "smooth." 
Each  racket  has  a  rough  and  smooth 
side,  and,  if  the  one  that  calls  has 
named  correctly  the  side  that  falls 
uppermost,  lie  may  take  choice  of 
turns  or  choice  of  courts  as  he 
pleases.  Otherwise  his  opponent 
has  the  same  privilege.  If  the  win- 
ner of  the  toss  elect  to  choose  which 
turn  he  will  take,  his  opponent  has 
choice  of  courts,  and  vice  versa. 
Each  player  now  goes  to  his  own 
side  of  the  net,  and  the  one  who  has 
obtained  the  first  serve  standing  be- 
hind the  rear  line  of  his  court  (called 
"  base  line  ")  at  the  right,  as  shown 
in  the  figure  (see  Rule  6  below), 
strikes  the  ball  with  his  racket  over 
the  net  and  into  the  court  next  the 
net  on  his  left.  This  is  called  "  serv- 
ing." If  the  ball  fails  to  go  over  the 
net  or  strikes  in  the  wrong  court  it  is 
said  to  be  a  "  fault"  and  the  server 
must  try  again.  If  his  second  service 
is  also  a  fault  it  is  called  "  doubles," 
and  his  opponent  scores  a  point. 
If  the  ball  touch  the  net,  but  go  over 
it,  it  does  not  count  as  a  service, 
but  is  called  a  "let,"  and  played 
over  again.  While  the  player  is 
serving,  his  opponent,  who  is  called 
the  "  striker-out,"  stands  where  he 
pleases.  When  a  fault  is  made  he 
cries  out  "  Fault."  When  he  gets 
a  good  ball  he  must  strike  it,  after 
it  has  bounded  once,  so  that  it  will 
pass  over  the  net  into  any  of  the 
courts  on  the  opposite  side.  This 
is  called  "  returning  "  the  service. 
After  the  return,  the  ball  may  be 
struck  either  on  the  first  bound  or 
before  it  has  bounded.  If  the  lat- 
ter, it  is  said  to  be  "  volleyed."  The 
players  strike  the  ball  from  one  to 
the  other  across  the  net  in  this  way 
till  one  of  them  fails,  either  by 
missing  the  ball  entirely,  or  by  strik- 
ing it  into  the  net,  or  by  sending  it 


beyond  the  boundary  of  the  entire 
court.  His  opponent  then  scores 
a  point.  After  the  service  a  ball  is 
good  even  if  it  strikes  the  net  in 
going  over.  When  two  faults 
have  been  made,  or  either  player 
does  not  return  the  ball  properly, 
there  must  be  another  service  by 
the  same  player  as  before,  but  this 
time  from  the  left  of  his  service 
line  into  the  court  next  the  net  on 
his  right,  his  opponent  changing 
position  also  so  as  to  receive  the 
service.  The  same  player  serves 
each  time  till  the  game  is  ended, 
first  from  one  rear  court  and  then 
from  the  other.  His  opponent  serves 
in  the  second  game,  and  they  alter- 
nate thus  as  long  as  they  play;  but 
a  player  must  always  serve  from 
the  right  at  the  beginning  of  a 
game,  no  matter  which  court  he 
served  from  last. 

The  method  of  scoring  in  Lawn 
Tennis  is  peculiar.  When  a  player 
has  no  points  his  score  is  called 
"  Love,"  and  when  neither  has  a 
point  the  score  is  "Love- All."  The 
first  point  a  player  scores  is  called 
"  Fifteen,"  the  second  "  Thirty," 
the  third  "  Forty,"  and  the  fourth 
"  Game,"  except  as  noted  below. 
The  state  of  the  score  is  described 
by  calling  out  together  the  points 
of  the  players,  that  of  the  server 
first.  Thus  "  Forty-Love  "  means 
that  the  server  has  forty  to  his  op- 
ponent's nothing,  and  "  Fifteen- 
Forty"  that  he  has  fifteen  to  his 
opponent's  forty.  "  Thirty-All  " 
means  that  each  has  thirty.  The 
one  whose  score  reaches  the 
"  Game "  point  first,  wins.  But 
whenever  the  score  is  "  Forty- All  " 
it  is  called  "  Deuce,"  and  then  the 
next  point  is  not  "  Game,"  but 
"Advantage"  (usually  called  "  "Van- 
tage"). If  the  player  winning 
'Vantage  gains  the  next  point,  he 
scores  Game,  otherwise  the  score 
is  brought  down  to  Deuce  again. 
Hence,  .when  the  score  is  once 
Deuce,  the  game  often  lasts  a  long 
time  with  evenly-matched  players. 


TENNIS 


712 


TENNIS 


When  the  server  has  'Vantage, 
the  score  is  called  'Vantage  In ; 
when  his  opponent  has  it,  'Vantage 
Out.  When  a  player  has  won  six 
games  he  has  won  a  "  set,"  no  mat- 
ter whether  his  opponent  has  won 
five  games  or  none  at  all ;  so  an  or- 
dinary set  may  include  from  six  to 


eleven  games.  Where  the  players  are 
evenly  matched  it  is  often  agreed 
that  "  'Vantage  sets "  shall  be 
played.  In  this  case  no  player  wins 
till  he  is  two  games  ahead  of  his 
opponent,  and  a  set  may  therefore 
consist  of  any  number  of  games 
over  eleven  (see  Rule  23). 


Double  Lawn  Tennis. 


In  reporting  the  score  of  a  set 
the  number  of  games  won  by  each 
player  is  given,  separated  by  a  dash. 
The  score  of  a  series  of  sets  is  rep- 
resented by  several  such  combina- 
tions, separated  by  commas;  and 
in  each  the  first  number  is  the 
score  of  the  winner  of  the  whole  se- 
ries. Thus  the  abbreviated  score 
"Jones  beat  Smith  6-0,  4-6,  6-j;  " 


means,  that  in  the  first  set,  Jones 
won  six  games  to  Smith's  none,  in 
the  second,  four  to  Smith's  six,  and 
in  the  third,  six  to  Smith's  five, 
thus  winning  two  out  of  three  sets. 
During  the  game  each  player 
tries  to  make  his  opponent  fail, 
sometimes  by  striking  the  balls  into 
an  unexpected  part  of  the  court  or 
-fi«-o»  <y  nne  side  of  the  court  and 


TENNIS 


713 


TENNIS 


then  on  the  other,  so  as  to  tire  him 
out  in  running  forward  and  back- 


Fig,  i. 

ward  to  return  them.  Sometimes 
the  balls  are  so  struck  that  they 
will  bound  in  an  unexpected  direc- 


Fig.  a. 

tion.    This  is  done  by  "cutting,"  as 
will  be  explained  below.    Some  of 


the  different  modes  of  striking  the 
ball,  in  service  and  return,  are  shown 
in  the  figures.  Figs.  1-3  and  6 
represent  methods  of  service,  and 
Figs.  7-10  return  strokes.  Practice 
and  judgment  are  required  to 
choose  the  proper  one.  Some  tennis 
players  stand  close  to  the  net  after 
they  have  served,  and  volley  all  the 
balls  the  more  difficult  way;  others 
prefer  to  stand  at  the  service  line  and 
take  most  of  them  on  the  bound. 


Fig.  3- 

To  cut  the  ball  is  to  strike  it  so 
that  it  will  spin  in  the  air,  by  hold- 
ing the  racket  not  squarely  but  a 
little  siclewise.  If  it  be  made  to 
spin,  as  shown  by  the  curved  arrow 
in  Fig.  4,  while  moving  from  left  to 
right  in  the  direction  of  the  large 
arrows,  the  spin  will  tend  to  make 
the  ball  roll  forward  along  the 
ground,  so  it  will  bound  forward 
much  closer  to  the  ground  than 
might  be  expected.  In  Fig.  5  the 
spin  tends  to  make  the  ball  roll 
backward  along  the  ground,  so  it 
will  bound  not  so  close  to  the 
ground  as  it  otherwise  would ;  it 


TENNIS 


714 


TENNIS 


may    bound    straight   up,   or    even 
backward   a   little.     By    giving   the 


Q 


Fig.  4. 


Fig-  5- 


ball 


a  spin  in  other  directions  it 
can  be  made  to  bound  in  various 
ways.  With  practice  it  is  possible 
to  tell  from  the  way  a  ball  is  struck 
just  what  kind  of  a  cut  it  has  been 
given,  and  so  what  kind  of  a  bound 


Fig.  6. 

to  expect .  so,  skillful  players  gener- 
ally use  the  cuts  only  in  connection 
with  very  swift  strokes.  A  stroke 
that  is  sometimes  used  close  to  the 
net  is  made  by  loosening  the  hold 
on  the  racket  just  as  it  hits  the  ball. 
The  ball  thus  bounds  very  little 
from  the  racket,  and  simply  drops 
over  the  net,  very  close  to  it.  In 
playing,  it  is  often  necessary  to 
strike  the  ball  while  running,  and 
good  players  learn  to  vary  the  force 
of  their  strokes  according  as  they 
fun  with  the  ball  or  against  it.  The 


various    ways    in    which   the  racket 
must  be  held,  according  as  the  ball 


Fig.  7- 

is  high  or  low,  to  the  right  or  left, 
can    best   be    learned    by   practice. 


Some  players  learn  to  use  the  racket 
with  either  hand. 


TENNIS 


715 


TENNIS 


In  serving,  the  different  methods 
of  striking  a  ball  can  he  made  more 
effective  than  in  returning;  for  in 
serving  the  player's  own  time  can 
be  taken,  and  he  can  throw  his  ball 
into  the  air  to  strike  it  as  he  wishes ; 
but  in  returning  there  must  be  no 
delay  and  the  ball  must  be  taken  as 


Fig.  9. 

it  comes,  often  with  a  spin  or  in  an 
awkward  place.  It  is  therefore  of 
great  importance  to  learn  to  serve 
well. 

Three  and  Four-Handed  Lawn 
Tennis.  The  game  is  played  by  one 
person  against  two,  or  by  two  on  a 
side.  The  court  is  widened  for  the 
play  after  the  service,  but  the  ser- 
vice courts  remain  the  same  size,  as 
shown  in  the  figure  already  given. 

In  the  three-handed  game  the 
single  player  serves  every  alternate 
game.  In  the  four-handed  game, 
the  order  of  serving  and  receiving  is 
agreed  on  at  the  beginning  of  the 
set,  and  continues  the  same  till  the 
end,  but  partners  must  serve  alter- 
nately. (See  Rules  31-34,  below.) 
After  the  service  all  the  players 
take  part  in  the  game,  one  on  each 
side  usually  playing  close  to  the  net, 


and  the  other  in  the  rear,  or  one 
playing  in  left  and  the  other  in  right 
hand  courts,  called  "  playing  sides." 

RULES  OF  THE   GAME. 

(As  adopted  by  the  National  Lawn  Tennis 

A  ssacfation.) 

The  Court,  i.  The  Court  is  78 
feet  long  and  27  feet  wide.  It  is 
divided  across  the  middle  by  a  net, 
the  ends  of  which  are  attached  to 
two  posts,  standing  3  feet  outside  of 
the  court  on  either  side.  The  height 
of  the  net  is  3  feet  6  inches  at  the 
posts,  and  3  feet  in  the  middle.  At 
each  end  of  the  court,  parallel  with 
the  net,  and  39  feet  from  it,  are 
drawn  the  base  lines,  the  ends  of 
which  are  connected  by  the  side 
lines.  Halfway  between  the  side 
Hues,  and  parallel  with  them,  is 
drawn  the  half  court  line,  dividing 
the  space  on  each  side  of  the  net 
into  two  equal  parts,  the  right  and 
left  courts.  On  each  side  of  the  net, 
at  a  distance  of  21  feet  from  it,  and 


10. 


parallel  with  it,  are  drawn  the  ser- 
vice lines. 

The  Balls.  2.  The  Balls  shall 
measure  not  less  than  2^|  inches, 
nor  more  than  T.\  inches  in  diameter  ; 
and  shall  weigh  not  less  than  iy| 
ounces,  nor  more  than  2  ounces. 

The  Game.    3.    The    choice    of 


TENNIS 


716 


TENNIS 


l§ 


a 

B 

• 

W/JSPMM 

pamfflmp. 

0 

a 

c 

Court  Tennis  Court. 


sides,  and  the  right  to 
serve  in  the  first  game, 
shall  be  decided  by  toss  ; 
provided  that,  if  the  win- 
ner of  the  toss  choose  the 
right  to  serve,  the  other 
player  shall  have  choice  of 
sides,  and  vice  versa,  or 
the  winner  of  the  toss 
may  insist  upon  a  choice 
by  his  opponent.  If  one 
player  choose  the  court, 
the  other  may  elect  not  to 
serve. 

4.  The     players     shall 
stand  on  opposite  sides  of 
the  net  ;  the   player  who 
first  delivers  the  ball  shall 
be  called  the  server,  and 
the     other     the     striker- 
out. 

5.  At   the   end  of   the 
first  game  the  striker-out 
shall  become  server,  and 
the   server  shall    become 
striker-out  ;    and    so    on 
alternately  in  all  the  sub- 
sequent games  of  the  set, 
or  series  of  sets. 

6.  The     server      shall 
serve   with   one   foot    on 
the   ground    immediately 
behind  the  base  line ;  the 
other   foot   may  be   any- 
where except  touching  the 
base    line   or  the  ground 
within     the     court.     He 
shall   deliver  the   service 
from  the  right  to  the  left 
courts,    alternately  ;    be- 
ginning from  the  right. 

7.  The      ball      served 
must    drop  between   the 
service     line,     half-court 
line,  and  side  line  of  the 
court,  diagonally  opposite 
to  that  from  which  it  was 
served. 

8.  It  is   a  fault  if  the 
server   fail    to   strike  the 
ball,  or  if  the  ball  served 
drop  in  the  net,   or    be- 
yond    the     service    line, 
or  out  of  court,  or  in  the 


TENNIS 


717 


TENNIS 


wrong   court ;  or   if   the   server   do 
not  stand  as  directed  by  law  6. 

9.  A  fault  cannot  be  taken. 

10.  After  a  fault  the  server  shall 
serve   again    from    the   same   court 
from    which    he   served    that   fault, 
unless   it    was   a   fault    because   he 
served  from  the  wrong  court. 

1 1.  A  fault  cannot  be  claimed  after 
the  next  service  is  delivered. 

12.  The  server  shall  not  serve  till 
the  striker-out  is  ready.     If  the  latter 
attempt  to  return  the  service,  he  shall 
be  deemed  ready. 

13.  A   service   or  fault   delivered 
when    the   striker-out   is   not  ready 
counts  for  nothing. 

14.  The  service  shall  not  be  vol- 
leyed,  that   is,  taken  before   it   has 
touched  the  ground. 

15.  A  ball  is   in  play  on   leaving 
the  server's  racket,  except  as  pro- 
vided for  in  law  8. 

16.  It  is  a  good  return,  although 
the  ball  touch  the  net ;  but  a  service, 
otherwise  good,  which  touches  the 
net  shall  count  for  nothing. 

17.  The   server  wins   a  stroke  if 
the    striker-out    volley    the   service, 
or  if  he   fail   to  return  the   service 
or  the   ball   in   play ;   or   if   he   re- 
turn  the    service    or    the    ball    in 
play    so    that    it   drops   outside   of 
his     opponent's     court ;    or    if     he 
otherwise  lose  a  stroke  as  provided 
by  law  20. 

18.  The  striker-out  wins  a  stroke 
if  the  server  serve   two  consecutive 
faults;  or  if  he  fail  to  return  the  ball 
in    play ;   or  if   he    return    the    ball 
in    play    so    that   it   drops   outside 
of   his   opponent's   court  ;  or   if   he 
otherwise  lose  a  stroke  as  provided 
by  law  20. 

19.  A    ball    falling   on    a   line   is 
regarded    as    falling    in    the   court 
bounded  by  that  line. 

20.  Either  player  loses  a  stroke  if 
the  ball  touch  him,  or  anything  that 
he  wears  or  carries,  except  his  racket 
in  the  act  of  striking  ;  or  if  he  touch 
the  ball  with  his  racket  more  than 
once  ;  or  if  he  touch  the  net  or  any 
of  its  supports  while  the  ball  is  in 


play ;  or  if  he  volley  the  ball  before 
it  has  passed  the  net. 

21.  In  case  a  player  is  obstructed 
by  any  accident,  not  within  his  con- 
trol,  the    ball   shall    be   considered 
a  "  let."     But    where   a   permanent 
fixture  of  the  court  is  the  cause  of 
the    accident,   the    point    shall    be 
counted.     The   benches  and  chairs 
placed   around   the   court   shall    be 
considered  permanent  fixtures.     If, 
however,   a    ball    in   play   strike    a 
permanent     fixture     of    the    court 
(other     than      the     net     or     posts) 
before   it   touches   the   ground,  the 
point  is  lost ;  if  after  it  has  touched 
the    ground,    the    point     shall     be 
counted. 

22.  On  either  player  winning  his 
first  stroke,  the  score  is  called  15  for 
that  player  ;  on  either  player  winning 
his  second  stroke  the  score  is  called 
30  for  that  player  ;  on  either  player 
winning   his  third    stroke,  the  score 
is  called  40  for  that  player;  and  the 
fourth  stroke  won  by  either  player  is 
scored  game  for  that  player,  except 
as  below  :  If  both  players  have  won 
three    strokes,   the   score   is   called 
deuce ;  and  the  next  stroke  won  by 
either   player   is   scored   advantage 
for  that  player.       If  the  same  player 
win   the   next   stroke,  he   wins   the 
game  ;  if  he  lose  the  next  stroke,  the 
score   returns   to   deuce  and   so  on 
until  one  player  wins  the  two  strokes 
immediately   following  the  score  of 
deuce,  when  game  is  scored  for  that 
player. 

23.  The   player  who  first  wins  six 
games  wins  the  set;  except  as  below : 
If  both  players  win  five   games,  the 
score  is  called  game  all ;  and  the 
next   game  won    by  either  player  is 
scored    advantage   game   for   that 
player.     If  the   same  player  win  the 
next   game,  he   wins   the   set ;  if  he 
lose  the  next  game,  the  score  returns 
to  games  all ;  and  so  on,  until  either 
player  wins  the  two  games  immedi- 
ately following  the  score  of  games 
all,   when    he    wins    the    set.     But 
the  committee  having  charge  of  any 
tournament  may  in  their  discretion 


TENNIS 


718 


TENNIS 


modify    this   rule   by   the   omission 
of  advantage  sets. 

24.  The  players  shall  change  sides 
at  the  end  of  every  set  ;  but  the  um- 
pire,  on  appeal  from    either   player 
before    the    toss    for  choice,   shall 
direct  the  players  to  change  sides  at 
the  end  of  the  first,  third,  fifth,  and 
every  succeeding  alternate  game  of 
each  set ;  but  if  the  appeal  be  made 
after  the  toss  for  choice,  the  umpire 
may  only  direct  the  players  to  change 
sides   at  the  end  of  the  first,  third, 
fifth,  and  every  succeeding  alternate 
game   of   the   odd,  or  deciding,  set. 
If  the   players  change  courts  in  the 
alternate     games     throughout     the 
match  as  above,  they  shall  play  in 
the  first  game  of  each   set  after  the 
first   in    the   courts   in    which    they 
respectively  did  not  play  in  the  first 
game   of   the  set    immediately  pre- 
ceding. 

25.  When  a  series  of  sets  is  played, 
the    player    who   served    in  the  last 
game  of  one  set  shall  be  striker-out 
in  the  first  game  of  the  next. 

26.  In  all  contests  the  play  shall 
be  continuous  from  the  first  service 
till    the   match   be   concluded ;  pro- 
vided,  however,    that    between    all 
sets    after    the    second    set    either 
player   is   entitled    to   a  rest,  which 
shall  not  exceed  seven  minutes  ;  and 
provided,  further,  that  in  case  of  an 
unavoidable  accident,  not  within  the 
control  of  the  contestants,  a  cessa- 
tion of  play   which    shall  not  exceed 
two  minutes  may  be  allowed  between 
points ;    but   this   proviso   shall    be 
strictly  construed,  and  the  privilege 
never  granted    for  the   purpose   of 
allowing  a   player   to     recover    his 
strength   or  wind.     The   umpire  in 
his  discretion  may  at  any  time  post- 
pone the  match  on  account  of  dark- 
ness   or    condition    of   the   ground 
or   weather.     In   any  case  of  post- 
ponement, the   previous  score  shall 
hold   good.      Where   the   play    has 
ceased  for  more   than   an    hour,  the 
player  who  at  the  cessation  thereof 
was  in   the  court  first  chosen  shall 
have  the  choice  of  courts  on  the  re- 


commencement of  play.  He  shall 
stay  in  the  court  he  chooses  for 
the  remainder  of  the  set.  The  last 
two  sentences  of  this  rule  do  not  ap- 
ply when  the  players  change  every  al- 
ternate game  as  provided  by  rule  24. 

27.  If   a    player  serve  out  of  his 
turn,  the  umpire,  as  soon  as  the  mis- 
take  is   discovered,  shall    direct  the 
player  to    serve   who  ought  to  have 
served.     But   all  strokes  scored  be- 
fore such  discovery  shall  be  counted. 
If  a  game  shall  have  been  completed 
before  such  discovery,  then  the  ser- 
vice in  the  next  alternate  game  shall 
be  delivered  by  the  player  who  did 
not  serve  out  of  his  turn,  and  so  on 
in  regular  rotation. 

28.  There   shall   be  a  referee  for 
every  tournament,  who    shall   have 
general     charge     of    the     matches. 
There  shall  be  an  umpire  for  each 
match  and  as  many  linesmen  as  the 
players   desire.      The   umpire   may 
act  as  linesman  also.     The  umpire 
shall    have    general   charge   of   the 
match   and   shall   decide    upon  and 
call  lets  and  also  decide  whether  the 
player    took   the   ball   on    the   first 
or    second     bounce.     The     umpire 
shall  also  decide  any  question  of  in- 
terpretation   or   construction    of  the 
rules  that  may  arise.      The  decision 
of   the   umpire   upon    any   question 
of   fact,  or   where  a  discretion  is  al- 
lowed   to    him    under   these   rules, 
shall  be  final.    Any  player,  however, 
may   protest  against  any  intrepreta- 
tion    or    construction    of  the   rules 
by   the   umpire,  and   appeal   to   the 
referee.     The   decision    of  the    ref- 
eree  upon   such   appeal   should   be 
final. 

The  court  shall  be  divided  be- 
tween the  linesmen,  and  it  shall  be 
their  only  duty  to  decide  each  for  his 
share  of  the  court  where  the  ball 
touched  the  ground,  except,  how- 
ever, the  linesmen  for  the  base  line, 
who  shall  also  call  foot  faults.  The 
linesman's  decision  shall  be  final. 
If  a  linesman  is  unable  to  give 
a  decision,  because  he  did  not  see, 
or  is  uncertain  of  the  fact,  the  urn- 


TENNIS 


719 


TENNIS 


pire  shall  decide  or  direct  the  stroke 
to  be  played  again. 

THREE-HANDED  AND  FOUR-HAND- 
ED GAMES. 

29.  The  above  laws  shall  apply  to 
the   three-handed   and   four-handed 
games,  except  as  below  : 

30.  For  the  three-handed  and  four- 
handed  games  the  court  shall  be  36 
feet   in    width  ;    4^   feet   inside   the 
side  lines,  and    parallel    with    them, 
are    drawn    the   surface   side    lines. 
The   service  lines  are  not  drawn  be- 
yond the  point  at   which  they  meet 
the  service  side  lines,  as  shown  in  the 
diagram. 

31.  In  the  three-handed  game,  the 
single    player   shall   serve   in    every 
alternate  game. 

32.  In  the  four-handed  game,  the 
pair    who    have    the    right    to  serve 
in  the  first  game  shall  decide  which 
partner   shall    do   so ;  and    the   op- 
posing pair  shall  decide  in- like  man- 
ner   for    the    second    game.      The 
partner  of  the  player  who  served  in 
the   first   game   shall   serve   in    the 
third,  and   the  partner  of  the  player 
who  served  in  the  second  game  shall 
serve   in    the  fourth,  and  the   same 
order  shall  be  maintained  in  all  the 
subsequent  games  of  the  set. 

33.  At  the   beginning  of  the  next 
set,  either  partner  of  the  pair  which 
struck  out  in  the  last  game  of  the 
last   set   may  serve  ;  and  the  same 
privilege  is  given  to  their  opponents 
in  second  game  of  the  new  set. 

34.  The    players    shall    take  the 
service   alternately   throughout    the 
game  ;    a    player   cannot    receive   a 
service  delivered  to  his  partner  ;  and 
the  order  of  service  and  striking  out 
once  established  shall  not  be  altered 
nor    shall    the    striker-out    change 
courts  to  receive  the  service,  till  the 
end  of  the  set. 

35.  It  is  a  fault  if  the  ball  served 
do  not  drop  between  the  service  line, 
half-court  line,  and  service  side  line 
of  the  court,  diagonally  opposite  to 
that  from  which  it  was  served. 

36.  It  is  a  fault  if  the  ball  served 
do  not  drop  as  provided  in  law  35, 


or  if  it  touch  the  server's  partner  or 
anything  he  wears  or  carries. 

Court  Tennis.  Tennis  played  in- 
doors in  a  court  or  room,  a  plan  of 
which  is  given.  The  court  nearly 
fills  an  entire  building,  which  is 
lighted  from  the  roof.  The  playing 
space  is  96  by  32  feet,  and  is  sur- 
rounded on  three  sides  by  a  corridor 
(a,  a,  a)  about  6  feet  wide,  called  the 
Penthouse,  with  a  sloping  roof  about 
7  feet  high.  The  part  of  the  Pent- 
house at  the  rear  of  the  court  is 
called  the  Dedans,  and  is  occupied 
by  spectators.  It  is  separated  from 
the  court  by  an  open  grating,  c  c, 
while  the  rest  of  the  Penthouse  is 
closed,  except  for  spaces  at  b  b, 
through  which  the  court  is  entered, 
and  for  six  small  square  windows — 
three  in  each  court.  The  floor  of  the 
court  is  of  smooth  asphalt,  and  the 
walls  are  covered  with  cement  and 
painted  black  to  the  height  of  18 
feet.  Across  the  middle  of  the 
court  is  stretched  a  net ;  the  space 
on  one  side  of  it  is  called  the  Service 
side,  that  on  the  other  the  Hazard 
side.  On  that  wall  of  the  Hazard 
court  at  d  there  is  a  projection  like 
a  chimney,  called  the  Tambour,  and 
in  the  Penthouse  near  it,  at^,  there 
is  a  square  opening  called  the  Grille. 
Part  of  the  courts  is  divided  into 
spaces  called  Chases,  as  shown  in 
the  figure,  which  are  numbered  on 
the  wall  from  I  to  6.  The  server 
stands  in  the  Service  court  and 
serves  the  ball  on  the  wall  over  the 
Penthouse  at  g.  The  ball  must 
strike  on  the  Penthouse  roof,  and 
then  roll  off  into  the  receiving  court. 
The  player  in  the  Hazard  court 
strikes  it  on  the  bound  where  he 
likes,  so  long  as  it  first  strikes  the 
ground  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
net.  Thus,  he  may  strike  it  against 
the  nearest  wall  so  that  it  bounds 
back  across  the  net.  The  scoring  is 
as  in  Lawn  Tennis,  except  that  the 
server  may  win  a  point  by  sending 
the  ball  into  a  "  winning  opening" — 
that  is,  the  Grille,  or  the  window  in 
the  Penthouse  nearest  the  end  wall. 


TENNIS 


720 


TENNIS 


If  a  player  fail  to  strike  the  ball 
before  the  second  bound,  then,  ex- 
cept on  the  hazard  side  beyond  the 
service  line,  a  "  chase  "  is  said  to  be 
made.  Note  is  taken  of  the  cross 
line  at  which  the  ball  bounded  ;  but 
if  only  one  chase  is  made  it  does 
not  affect  the  score  till  one  of  the 
players  scores  forty,  when  they 
change  sides  and  "  play  for  the 
chase."  The  player  who  allowed 
the  chase  to  be  made  tries  to  re- 
turn the  ball  nearer  to  the  end  wall 
than  the  point  at  which  it  was 
marked,  in  such  a  way  that  it  will 
bound  a  second  time.  As  often  as 
his  opponent  returns  the  ball  he 
tries  again  until  he  either  succeeds 
or  misses.  If  he  succeed,  he  is 
said  to  "  win  the  chase  "  and  scores 
the  strike ;  if  not,  it  is  given  to  his 
adversary.  The  ball  need  not  be 
returned  if  it  fall  "  worse "  than 
the  marked  chase — that  is,  nearer 
the  net  on  either  side — in  which 
case  the  chase  is  lost  without 
farther  play.  Whenever  two  chases 
are  marked,  the  players  change 
sides  and  play  for  them  at  once. 
In  playing  for  chases,  as  in  other 
play,  he  who  sends  the  ball  into 
a  "winning  opening"  gains  the 
stroke. 

History.  Tennis  is  said  by  some 
to  be  derived  from  one  of  the 
Roman  ball  games  introduced  into 
Gaul  by  Roman  soldiers.  It  was 
mucli  played  in  Europe  in  the 
Middle  Ages,  at  first  by  kings  and 
nobles,  but  it  soon  became  popular 
with  the  common-people.  It  was 
introduced  into  England  early  in 
the  131)1  century.  From  being  an 
open-air  sport  it  came  to  be  played 
in  closed  courts,  probably  at  first 
the  court  of  a  castle  or  monastery, 
whence  the  irregular  shape  of  the 
present  court  had  its  origin.  In  early 
times  the  ball  was  struck  with  the 
hand,  and  the  French  still  call  the 
game  Jeu  de  Paume  (the  Palm 
Game).  Afterward  the  hand  was 
provided  with  a  glove,  as  is  still  done 
in  the  Basque  country.  On  the  glove 


strings  were  then  stretched,  and  then 
the  racket  was  invented.  At  one  time 
it  was  not  uncommon  for  one  player 
to  use  his  hand,  while  his  opponent 
had  a  racket.  The  outdoor  form, 
which  was  the  earlier,  as  has  been 
said,  continued  to  be  played  in  va- 
rious ways,  but  the  present  variety, 
as  played  here  and  in  England,  was 
introduced  in  England  about  1874. 
It  is  claimed  that  it  was  invented 
by  Major  Walter  Wingfield,  of  the 
the  British  army,  who  attempted 
unsuccessfully  to  take  out  a  patent 
for  it  in  that  year.  His  court  was 
divided  on  one  side  into  two  squares, 
while  on  the  other  the  server  stood 
in  a  diamond-shaped  space. 

Lawn  Tennis  soon  became  popu- 
lar, and  generally  took  the  place  of 
Croquet,  which  preceded  it.  In 
1881  a  National  Lawn  Tennis  Asso- 
ciation was  formed  by  the  chief 
clubs  in  this  country,  which  has 
since  given  a  tournament  every 
summer,  usually  at  Newport. 

The  origin  of  the  word  Tennis  is 
not  certainly  known.  Some  writers 
say  it  is  from  the  French  tenez ! 
(look  out !)  which  they  suppose  to 
have  been  the  exclamation  of  early 
players  when  the  ball  was  served. 
Other  suggest  that  it  is  from  the 
Latin  tcenia  (a  band),  for  the  mark 
or  line  over  which  the  balls  are 
served.  The  word  was  first  printed 
in  English  in  Gower's  "  Ballade  to 
King  Henry  IV."  (1561),  where  it  is 
spelled  "  Tennes  "  and  accented  on 
the  last  syllable ;  but  there  were 
many  other  ways  of  spelling  it,  such 
as  Tenise  and  Teneys.  The  word 
racket  (French  raquette)  is  said  by 
some  to  be  from  the  Latin  retis  (net), 
by  others  from  the  Dutch  racken  (to 
stretch),  and  by  others  from  the 
Low  Latin  racha  (the  wrist),  from 
the  old  manner  of  hitting  the  balls 
with  the  hand  or  wrist.  The  French 
outdoor  tennis  is  called  Longue 
Paume  (Long  Tennis),  and  is  played 
over  a  low  stretched  cord  instead  of 
a  net.  The  indoor  game  is  called 
Conrte  Paume  (Short  Tennis). 


TENNIS 


721 


THAUMATROPE 


Tennis  lost  its  popularity  in  France 
during  the  Revolution,  because  it 
was  played  so  much  by  the  nobility. 

The  peculiar  method  of  scoring 
in  Tennis  had  its  origin  thus  :  In 
France  the  "  chases  "  were  num- 
bered up  to  fourteen  ;  so  when  the 
first  stroke  was  won  the  marker 
called  out  "  Fifteen,"  for  a  lower 
number  would  mean  that  the  ball 
had  made  a  second  bound  at  the 
corresponding  chase.  A  stroke  thus 
came  to  be  called  Un  Quinze  (a 
Fifteen),  so  that  two  strokes  natu- 
rally scored  thirty,  and  three  strokes 
forty-five.  The  "  five  "  was  subse- 
quently omitted  from  the  last  num- 
ber. The  term  Deuce  is  from  the 
French  a  deux  (equal). 

When  the  doors  of  the  National 
Assembly  were  closed  by  the  King 
of  France  just  before  the  Revolu- 
tion, the  members  met  on  June  20, 
1789,  in  a  Tennis  court  in  Versailles, 
and  swore  that  France  should  have 
a  constitution.  This  oath  is  known 
in  history  as  le  serment  du  Jeu  de 
Paume  (the  Tennis  oath). 

Badminton.  A  kind  of  Lawn 
Tennis  in  which  shuttlecocks  (see 
BATTLEDORE)  are  used  instead  of 
balls.  It  may  be  played  in  a  parlor, 
or  in  the  open  air,  by  two,  four,  six, 
or  even  more  players,  divided  into 
two  opposing  sides.  The  court  may 
be  of  various  sizes,  but  the  best  is 
28  feet  long  by  20  broad,  the  service 
line  being  10  feet  from  the  base  line. 
The  net,  which  is  only  a  foot  deep, 
is  suspended  5^  feet  above  the 
ground.  The  rackets  used  are  the 
same  as  in  Lawfl  Tennis.  The 
shuttlecocks  are  usually  loaded  with 
lead  or  rubber,  and  are  sometimes 
made  so  that  they  may  be  tightened 
by  interlaced  strings.  The  game 
is  played  like  Lawn  Tennis,  except 
that,  as  shuttlecocks  cannot  bound, 
they  must  always  be  "  volleyed," 
and  when  one  falls  to  the  ground  it 
counts  against  the  player  missing  it. 
Badminton  is  named  from  the 
country-seat  of  the  Duke  of  Beau- 
fort, in  England. 


TENT  PEGGING.  See  MUMBLE- 
THE-PEG. 

THAUMATROPE.  A  toy  consist- 
ing of  a  square  or  a  disk  of  paste- 
board having  pictures  on  both  sides. 
The  disk  has  strings,  by  which  it 
can  be  twirled  so  rapidly  that  the 
eye  can  see  the  pictures  on  both  sides 
at  once.  This  is  possible  because 
the  image  of  anything  seen  remains 
in  the  eye  about  one-eighth  of  a  sec- 
ond, and  as  it  does  not  take  so  long 
as  that  for  the  disk  to  turn  around, 
the  images  of  both  sides  are  in  the 
eye  at  the  same  time.  Parts  of  a 
figure  may  be  represented  on  one 
side  of  the  disk  and  the  rest  on  the 
other  in  such  a  way  that  when  the 
disk  is  twirled  the  figure  is  seen 
complete.  Thus,  the  man  in  the 
illustration  will  appear  to  be  riding 
the  horse. 

Drawing  Thaumatrope  Figures. 
The  simplest  figures  to  draw  are 
those  whose  parts  do  not  have  to 
fit  together  very  exactly.  For  in- 
stance, a  cage  may  be  drawn  on 
one  side  and  a  bird  on  the  other, 
and  when  the  disk  is  twirled  the 
bird  will  appear  in  the  cage,  but  its 
position  does  not  matter  much.  The 
figure  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
disk  from  the  spectator  must  be  up- 
side down,  so  that  when  it  turns 
over  to  his  own  side  it  will  be  up- 
right. In  the  case  of  parts  of  figures 
which  must  fit  together  exactly  more 
care  is  required,  as  for  instance  when 
some  of  a  man's  limbs  are  drawn  on 
one  side  of  the  disk  and  the  rest  on 
the  other.  The  required  figure  should 
be  selected  from  a  book,  or  drawn 
entire  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  then 
the  parts  to  be  drawn  on  each  side 
of  the  disk  must  be  traced  on  separ- 
ate pieces  of  tracing  paper. 

Two  straight  lines,  A  B  and  C 
D,  must  be  drawn  across  the  picture, 
and  their  traces  lightly  penciled 
across  both  the  partial  drawings. 
One  of  the  partial  drawings  is  now 
pasted  on  one  side  of  a  piece  of 
pasteboard  and  pinholes  are  pricked 
through  it  at  A,  B,  C,  and  D,  or 


THAUiMATKOPE 


722 


THREE-FACED  PICTURES 


points  near  them  on  the  lines  ;  the 
oilier  partial  drawing  must  be  pasted 
on  the  other  side  ot  the  pasteboard 
upside  dim  ii.  but  so  that  the  lines 
A  13  and  C  D  join  the  pinholes  made 
from  the  oilier  side.  Thus  the  two 


Thaumatropes. 

partial  pictures  will  exactly  corre- 
spond in  position.  The  pasteboard 
is  now  cut  into  any  convenient  shape 
— a  disk  is  best,  but  not  necessary — 
and  the  figures  may  be  painted  or 
details  added  to  suit  the  maker.  It 
is  best  to  put  only  outlines  on  the 
tracing  paper,  so  that  the  work  will 


not  be  wasted  if  a  mistake  is  made 
in    pasting.      The     middle     strings 
must  be  fastened  at  the  ends  of  the 
line  A  li,  and  the  others,  if  there  are 
more  than  one,  at   equal  distances 
above  and    below,  so  that   the  card 
will  twirl  about   this   line ; 
otherwise  the    figures  will 
not    blend     correctly.       It 
does  not   matter  how    the 
lines   A    li   and    C    D  are 
drawn  in  the  first  place  so 
long    as    they    cross,    but 
their     position     must     be 
traced  exactly  on  the  par- 
tial drawings. 

Many  comical  effects  can 
be  produced  by  the  Thau- 
matrope.     A  man  may  be 
drawn  on  one  side   and  a 
bottle  on  the  other  so  that 
the  man  will  appear  to  be 
drinking  when  the  disk  is 
twirled.     In  the  same  way 
can  be  shown  a  house,  and  the  same 
house   in    flames ;    a   sleeping  man, 
and  the  same  man  attacked  by  rats, 
and  countless  other  designs.     If  the 
axis    on    which    the   card    twirls  is 
changed  a  little,  the  position  of  the 
figures  changes.     This   can    be   ef- 
fecled  by  using  two  strings  only  on 


BA 


Drawing  Thaumatrope  Figures. 


each  side,  and  having  one  of  these 
on  one  side  made  of  stiff  elastic. 
When  the  string  is  pulled,  the 
axis  of  the  card  will  change,  and 
with  it  the  relation  of  the  fig- 
ures. Thus,  in  the  case  of  the  man 
drinking,  the  hand  may  appear 


slightly  raised  at  first,  and,  on 
tightening  the  string,  piay  be  visibly 
lifted  to  the  mouth. 

THEATRICALS.  See  PRIVATE 
THEATRICALS. 

THREE-FACED  PICTURES.  Pic- 
tures which  will  appear  differently, 


THIRTY-ONE 


723 


THREAD  THE  NEEDLE 


according  as  they  are  viewed  from 
the  right,  the  left,  or  directly  in 
front.  They  can  be  made  as  fol- 
lows :  Select  any  three  pictures  of 


Fig.  i. 

exactly  the  same  size,  on  paper  of 
the  same  thickness.  Cut  them  in- 
to vertical  strips  about  one-third  of 
an  inch  wide,  numbering  the  strips 
in  each  case  so  that  their  relative 
places  may  be  remembered.  Then 
paste  the  strips  on  to  thin  paper; 
first  the  three  strips  numbered  one, 
then  those  numbered  two,  and  so 
on.  The  result  will  be  a  confused 
picture  as  wide  as  all  the  three  orig- 
inal pictures  together  and  of  the 


_  7~^-«^_Ut| 

—  c  iafo;  c  'aW  c  'ajbj  c  lajb; 

—  IJi     •     ;     I  i  ;     j  i  i 


Fig.  3. 

same  height  as  one  of  them.  (See 
Fig.  i,  where  the  three  kinds  of 
strips  are  lettered  a,  b,  and  c,  re- 
spectively). This  is  then  folded  up 
like  an  accordion  or  fan  (Fig.  2), 
every  third  strip,  c,  remaining  flat, 


while  the  others  are  pushed  to- 
gether. The  latter  are  now  pasted 
firmly  to  one  another,  so  that  the 
picture  seems  to  be  divided  verti- 
cally by  fences  or  partitions  of  pa- 
per. The  whole  may  now  be 
mounted  on  pasteboard  and  will 
show  one  or  the  other  of  the  three 
pictures,  according  to  the  point 
from  which  it  is  viewed. 

THIRTY-ONE.  A  game  of  cards 
played  with  a  full  pack,  by  any 
number  of  persons  not  exceeding 
sixteen.  Three  cards  are  dealt 
to  each,  and  three  more  are  placed, 
face  upward,  in  the  middle  of  the 
table.  Each  player,  in  turn,  ex- 
changes one  of  his  cards  for  one  in 
the  spare  hand,  until  some  one  is 
ready  to  show  his  hand,  or  stops 
changing.  The  highest  hand  is  one 
containing  cards  all  of  the  same  suit, 
the  sum  of  whose  pips  is  31  (reck- 
oning Ace  as  u,  and  face  cards  as 
i o  each).  Next  in  rank  are  three 
cards  of  a  kind  (three  Kings  being 
highest  and  three  Aces  lowest),  and 
after  that,  in  order,  hands  all  of 
the  same  suit,  the  sum  of  whose 
pips  is  less  than  31.  Whenanyone 
has  31  he  shows  his  hand  at  once, 
and  wins  the  game.  When  any  one 
cannot  better  his  hand  by  exchang- 
ing, and  still  has  not  31,  he  an- 
nounces the  fact,  and  then  the  oth- 
ers, in  turn,  can  each  exchange  once 
more,  after  which  all  show  their 
hands,  and  the  highest  wins. 

Another  way  of  playing  is  to  keep 
the  score  with  counters,  each  player 
being  given  two  or  three  at  the  be- 
ginning. He  who  has  the  lowest 
hand  puts  one  in  the  centre  of  the 
table,  and  the  game  goes  on  till  only 
one  has  any  counters  left.  That  one 
is  then  declared  the  winner. 

THREAD  THE  NEEDLE.  A  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
who  join  hands  to  form  a  line.  The 
player  at  one  end,  whom  we  will 
call  A,  and  the  one  at  the  other 
end,  whom  we  will  call  B,  begin  the 
game  by  a  dialogue  in  verse  as  fol- 
lows : 


THREE  ELEMENTS 


724 


THREE  LIVES 


How  many  miles  to  Babylon  ?  " 

Threescore  miles  and  ten." 

Can  I  get  there  by  candle-light  ?  " 
'  Oh  yes,  and  back  again." 
1  Then  open  the  gates  as  high  as  the  sky. 

And  let  King  George  and  his  train  pass 
by." 

B  and  the  player  next  him  then 
lift  their  joined  hands  as  high  as 
possible,  and  A,  with  the  others 
behind  him,  pass  under.  This  is 
then  repeated,  B  becoming  the  in- 
quirer and  threading  the  needle  in 
-his  turn. 

History.  The  game  is  an  old  one, 
and  the  verse  is  said  in  many  differ- 
ent ways,  one  variation  of  the  last 
two  lines  being : 

"  Then  open  the  gates  without  more  ado, 
And  let  the  King  and  his  men  pass  through." 

The  verse  is  sometimes  used  also 
in  a  game  like  PEELAWAY,  when  it 
ends : 

"  Yes,  if  your  legs  are  long  as  light, 
But  take  care  of  the  old  gray  witch  by  the 
hillside." 

Threading  Grandmother's  Needle. 
A  form  of  the  game  in  which  the 
dialogue  is  between  the  two  on  one 
end  and  the  others.  It  is  as  follows : 

"  Grandmother's  eyes  are  grown  so  dim 

Her  needle  she  can't  fill." 
"  Our  eyes  are  very  bright  and  good  ; 

Thread  it  for  her  we  will." 

THREE  ELEMENTS,  THE;  or, 
FISH,  FLESH,  AND  FOWL.  A 

game  played  by  any  number  of 
persons,  who  sit  in  a  circle.  One  of 
them,  who  is  chosen  in  any  way  the 
company  pleases,  stands  in  the 
middle,  holding  in  his  hand  a  hand- 
kerchief or  soft  ball.  This  he 
throws  suddenly  at  any  one  of  the 
players,  crying  out  one  of  the  three 
words  Earth,  Air,  or  Water,  and 
then  counting  ten.  If  the  player 
whom  the  ball  strikes  cannot  speak 
the  name  of  some  creature  that 
lives  on  or  in  the  element  named, 
before  the  other  has  finished  count- 
ing, he  must  pay  a  FORFEIT  and  take 
the  place  of  the  one  in  the  middle 
of  the  circle.  Otherwise  the  play- 
er in  the  middle  of  the  circle  must 
throw  the  ball  at  some  one  else. 


Sometimes  the  words  Fish,  Flesh, 
and  Fowl  are  used,  instead  of  the 
names  of  the  elements.  If  desired, 
the  forfeits  may  be  omitted. 

RULES  OF  THE  CAME. 

1.  The  name  of  the  element  may 
be  spoken  as  soon  as   the  ball  is 
thrown,  but  the  counting  may  not 
begin  till  it  strikes  the  player. 

2.  In  counting,  every  word  must 
be  pronounced  clearly. 

3.  In  case  of  doubt  as  to  whether 
the  name  of  the  creature  has  been 
spoken  before  the  counting  is  fin- 
ished,  a   majority  of  the   players 
shall  decide. 

4.  All  birds  shall  be  considered 
to  live  in  the  air. 

5.  Amphibious  animals  may  be 
regarded  as  living  either  in  water  or 
on  the  earth. 

THREE  KINGDOMS,  THE.  See 
TWENTY  QUESTIONS. 

THREE  LIVES.  A  word  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons. 
The  first  player  thinks  of  a  word 
and  gives  its  first  letter.  The  sec- 
ond thinks  of  one  beginning  with 
that  letter  and  gives  the  second  let- 
ter. The  third  thinks  of  one  be- 
ginning with  these  two  letters  and 
gives  the  third.  This  goes  on  till 
some  one  is  unable  to  think  of  a 
word  beginning  with  all  the  letters 
given,  or  till  some  one's  letter  fin- 
ishes a  word  of  four  or  more  letters. 
In  either  of  these  cases  the  player 
is  said  to  "lose  a  life,"  and  the  one 
next  in  order  begins  a  new  word. 
When  any  one  has  lost  three  lives 
he  drops  out  of  the  game,  and  the 
victor  is  he  who  remains  in  at  the 
last.  Thus,  suppose  the  first  player 
thinks  of  "  House,"  and  says  "  H." 
The  second  thinks  of  "Happy" 
and  says  "  A."  The  third  thinks  of 
"  Harness  "  and  says  "  R."  The 
fourth  thinks  of  "  Harpy,"  but  can- 
not say  "  P  "  because  that  com- 
pletes the  word  "  Harp,"  so  he 
thinks  of  "  Harlem  "  and  says  "  L." 
The  fifth  is  unable  to  think  of  any 
word  beginning  with  "  Harl,"  and 


THREE  THINGS 


725 


TIDDLEDY  WINKS 


so  loses  a  life.  When  only  two  or 
three  are  left  in  the  game  it  be- 
comes more  exciting,  each  one  try- 
ing to  give  the  word  such  a  turn 
that  the  next  will  either  not  be  able 
to  go  on  with  it,  or  will  be  forced 
to  complete  it.  When  a  player 
cannot  go  on,  and  has  thus  lost  a 
life,  he  may  require  from  any  one 
before  him  to  tell  what  his  word 
was;  otherwise  a  player  might 
merely  add  a  letter  without  think- 
ing of  any  word  at  all. 

THREE  THINGS,  A  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons  sitting 
in  a  row  or  circle.  The  one  who 
begins  gives  to  his  left-hand  neigh- 
bor the  names  of  three  things  be- 
ginning with  the  same  letter,  which 
the  latter  must  then  connect  in 
some  way,  and  then  give  three 
other  things  to  the  next  in  the  line. 
When  any  one  is  unable  to  connect 
the  names  he  receives  he  must  pay 
a  forfeit,  and  the  names  are  passed 
along  to  the  next  player.  Thus, 
the  first  player  gives  out  "  Hen, 
Ham,  and  Heaviness."  The  second 
says:  "The  hen  tried  to  eat  the 
ham.  and  found  that  heaviness  in 
the  crop  resulted.  I  give  Door, 
Dinner,  and  Duty."  The  third  says: 
"  I  opened  the  door  to  go  in  to 
dinner,  when  I  had  to  go  back  to 
fulfill  a  forgotten  duty,"  and  so  on. 

THROW  THE  HANDKERCHIEF. 
A  game  played  by  any  number  of 
persons,  who  sit  in  a  circle.  One 
stands  in  the  centre  and  begins  the 
game  by  throwing  a  handkerchief 
at  some  one  in  the  circle,  who  at 
once  throws  it  at  some  one  else, 
and  so  on.  If  the  one  in  the  centre 
can  touch  a  player  who  is  holding 
the  handkerchief,  or  can  catch  it 
when  thrown  by  any  player,  such 
player  must  take  his  place.  A  large 
towel  is  often  used  instead  of  a 
handkerchief.  It  should  not  be 
tied  in  a  knot,  but  allowed  to 
spread  out  when  thrown,  as  this  in- 
creases the  difficulty  of  throwing, 
and  the  fun  of  the  game. 

THROWING  LIGHT.   A  guessing 


game  played  by  any  number  of  per- 
sons. Two  of  the  players  privately 
agree  on  some  object,  and  then 
converse  about  it  without  naming 
it,  trying  to  mystify  the  rest  of  the 
company.  This  is  called  "  Throw- 
ing light "  on  the  object  chosen. 
As  soon  as  one  of  the  others  thinks 
he  has  guessed  it,  he  joins  in  the 
conversation,  and  aids  in  throwing 
light.  If  one  of  the  original  play- 
ers thinks,  from  what  he  says,  that 
the  guess  is  not  correct,  he  says  "  I 
challenge  you,"  and  the  guess  must 
be  whispered  in  his  ear.  If  it  is  in- 
correct, the  guesser  must  sit  with 
a  handkerchief  over  his  face  till  he 
is  able  to  "  throw  light  "  correctly. 
The  game  goes  on  thus  till  only  one 
of  the  players  is  left  in  the  dark. 
It  is  allowable  to  choose  two  words 
of  the  same  sound  but  different 
meanings,  as  in  HOW  DO  YOU  LIKE 
IT  ?  and  use  either  meaning  at 
pleasure,  so  as  to  make  "  throwing 
light"  more  difficult. 

THUS  SAYS  THE  GRAND  MUFTI. 
See  GRAND  MUFTI. 

TIDDLEDY  WINKS.  A  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
singly  or  as  partners,  on  a  table 
covered  with  a  thick  cloth.  Each 
player  is  provided  with  a  set  of  six 
small  counters  and  one  large  one, 
all  of  the  same  color,  the  different 
players  having  different  colored 
sets.  A  little  basket  or  cup,  gen- 
erally of  ivory  or  celluloid,  is  placed 
in  the  centre  of  the  table,  and  each 
player  ranges  his  small  counters  in 
front  of  him  in  a  line  about  eight 
inches  from  it.  The  object  of  the 
game  is  to  snap  each  of  the  smaller 
counters,  by  pressing  on  its  edge 
with  the  larger  one,  so  as  to  make 
it  jump  into  the  basket,  and  he 
wins  who  first  gets  all  his  counters 
in.  The  players  take  turns,  but  he 
who  is  successful  in  snapping  a 
counter  into  the  basket  has  the 
privilege  of  playing  until  he  fails. 
After  a  player  has  played  out  all 
his  counters  from  the  starting  line, 
he  can  play,  when  his  turn  comes, 


TIN,  EXPERIMENTS 


726 


TIP 


any  of  his  counters  wherever  it 
may  lie ;  but  he  is  not  allowed  to 
touch  any  of  his  adversary's  coun- 
ters, and  if  any  of  his  own  be  cov- 
ered, and  no  other  be  available, 
he  must  wait  until  his  adversary 
has  uncovered  one  before  he  can 
play.  A  player  may  not  intention- 
ally cover  any  of  his  opponents' 
counters.  If  a  counter  fall  off  the 
table,  it  must  be  replaced  one  inch 
from  the  edge  where  it  fell  off. 
Partners  sit  opposite  each  other, 
and  may  play  each  other's  counters 
after  they  have  left  the  starting 
line. 

Variations.  The  game  may  be 
played  with  several  variations  by 
marking,  around  the  basket  on  the 
cloth  with  French  chalk,  a  ring 
about  four  inches  in  diameter. 

1.  Any    counter    falling    within 
this  ring  is  to  be  considered  dead, 
the  winner  being  he  who  gets  most 
counters  into  the  basket. 

2.  Any  counter  falling  within  the 
ring  must  be  returned  to  its  place 
in  the  starting  line,  and  played  out 
by  the  player  at  his  next  turn. 

3.  If  a  counter  fall  within   the 
ring,  the  next  or  any  other  player 
during  that  round,  is  at  liberty,  if 
he  choose,  to  play  it  (instead   of 
his  own)  to  any  part  of  the  table  he 
may  consider  best  for  himself.     If 
it  be  not  played  thus,  the  player  to 
whom  it  belongs  can  play  with  it 
at  his  next  turn  in  the  usual  way. 

4.  Mark  on  the  cloth  any  figure, 
such  as  a  circle,  a  square,  etc.,  and 
divide  it  into  numbered  segments 
or  parts.     Several  games  may  be 
played    with    these,   the   counters 
scoring  according  to  the  number  of 
the  part  they  fall  in. 

Tiddledy  Winks  may  be  played 
also  as  a  PROGRESSIVE  GAME,  on 
any  number  of  tables. 

TIERCE.  See  Fox  AND  GEESE, 
II. 

TIN,  Experiments  with.  Tin  is 
described  in  C.  C.  T.  i.  Take  an 
ordinary  piece  of  tin-plate  and 
hold  it  over  the  flame  of  an  alcohol 


lamp  till  the  tin  begins  to  melt; 
then  thrust  it  into  cold  water.  This 
will  harden  it.  Rub  the  surface 
first  with  a  piece  of  paper  wet  with 
a  mixture  of  weak  nitric  and  hydro- 
chloric acids,  and  then  with  one 
wet  with  caustic  soda  dissolved  in 
water.  The  surface  of  the  tin  will 
then  be  seen  to  be  formed  of  crys- 
tals like  frost  on  a  window-pane. 

2.  Place  some  metallic  tin  (not 
tin-plate)  on  a  playing  card  and 
hold  it  over  the  flame  of  a  spirit 
lamp.  .The  tin  can  be  thus  melted 
without  burning  the  card  (see  illus- 
tration). The  reason  is  that  the 


Melting  Tin  on  a  Card. 

metal  conducts  heat  so  well  that  it 
leads  the  heat  away  from  the  card 
before  the  latter  has  time  to  burn. 
TIP.  A  game  played  by  any  num- 
ber of  persons.  A'pile  of  favors  is 
placed  on  a  table,  consisting  of  par- 
cels of  candy  or  any  desired  articles, 
and  each  takes  his  turn  at  selecting 
from  them.  Before  doing  so,  the 
player  turns  his  head  while  some 
one  touches  any  one  of  the  articles. 
This  is  called  the  Tip,  and  the 
player  may  select  and  keep  any  fa- 
vor he  pleases  till  he  touches  the 
Tip,  when  the  turn  passes  to  the 
next.  As  all  know  what  the  Tip  is 
except  the  one  selecting,  his  choice 
affords  much  amusement  to  the 
company. 


TIP  CAT 


727 


TIT-TAT-TO 


This  game  is  popular  in  Germa- 
ny, and  is  appropriate  for  children's 
parties. 

TIP-CAT.    See  CAT. 

TISSUE  PAPER,  Experiment  with. 
Make  a  cylinder  of  tissue  paper  four 
or  five  inches  high  and  two  or  three 
inches  in  diameter,  and,  standing 
it  upright  on  a  table,  set  it  on  fire 
from  above.  It  will  turn  to  cinder 
as  it  burns,  and  the  cylinder  will 
bend  inward  above  to  form  a  sort 
of  dome,  which  the  hot  air  under- 
neath, when  it  has  been  nearly  con- 
sumed, will  carry  up  into  the  air 
five  or  six  feet.  This  experiment 
often  has  to  be  tried  several  times 
before  it  succeeds,  but  when  it  does 
it  is  very  striking.  The  mass  of 
light  cinder  really  forms  a  small 
hot-air  balloon,  like  those  described 
under  FOURTH  OF  JULY. 

TIT-TAT-TO,  or  NOUGHTS  AND 
CROSSES.  A  game  played  by  two 
persons  on  a  slate,  or  with  pencil 
and  paper.  A  figure  is  first  marked 
on  the  slate,  or  paper,  like  the  one 
in  Fig.  i,  but  without  the  numbers, 
which  are  here  only  for  conven- 
ience of  reference.  The  players 
take  turns  in  putting  marks  in  the 


.  Fig.  i.—  Tit-tat-to. 

places  numbered  in  the  illustra- 
tion, and  each  tries  to  get  three  of 
his  own  marks  in  a  row,  and  to  pre- 
vent his  opponent  from  doing  so. 
One  player  usually  chooses  an  x 
for  his  mark  and  the  other  an  o. 
The  following  game  should  be 
played  out  on  paper.  The  num- 
bers refer  to  the  first  illustration. 


The   x's 


X 

o 
x 
o 

x 
o 

and 


i 

5 

2 

3 

7 
4 
8 
6 
o's 


are  now  are 


ranged  as  in  Fig.  2,  and  the  o's 
have  won.  The  winner  points  to 
his  row  of  three  and  says,  "  Tit,  tat, 
to  ;  three  in  a  row."  In  the  above 


O 


X 


Fig.  2.— Tit-tat-to. 

game  the  player  who  chose  x  for 
his  mark  made  a  mistake  in  his  last 
play.  If  he  had  put  his  mark  on  6 
instead  of  on  8,  he  would  have  pre- 
vented his  opponent  from  making 
a  row.  The  game  is  so  simple  that 
with  two  skillful  players  it  always 
endsinadraw;  that  is,  neither  gets 
a  row  of  three. 

Tit-tat-to  resembles  NINE  MEN'S 
MORRIS,  and  they  may  be  derived 
from  the  same  game.  The  ancient 
Romans  played  a  game  somewhat 

like  it,  as  we  learn 

from  a  passage  in 
Ovid  s  "  Art  of 
Lc»re."  In  Ireland 
the  game  is  called 
Tip  Top  Castle. 
The  game  of  GO 
BANG  also  seems  to 
be  a  form  of  it. 
In  Germany  the 


Fig.  3.— Muhlen- 
spiel. 


game  is  called  Muhlenspiel  (The 
Mill  Game),  and  played  with  peb- 
bles or  grains  of  corn  on  a  diagram 
like  Fig.  3. 


TIVOLI 


728 


TOBOGGANING 


The  pebbles  can  be  placed  on 
any  of  the  nine  places  where  lines 
meet,  and  whoever  first  gets  three 
in  a  row  says  "  Trip,  trap,  troll ; 
meine  muhle  ist  voll "  (Trip,  trap, 
troll ;  my  mill  is  full).  NINE  MEN'S 
MORRIS  is  called  by  the  Germans 
Doppelmuhle  (Double-Mill). 

TIVOLI.    See  BAGATELLE. 

TOAD,  THE.  A  SOLITAIRE  game 
of  CARDS,  played  with  two  packs. 
The  first  thirteen  cards  are  placed, 
as  they  appear,  in  one  pile,  called 


the  Toad.  The  rest  of  the  pack  is 
arranged  in  five  piles,  in  any  order 
the  player  wishes.  As  the  Aces  ap- 
pear they  are  placed  in  a  row,  and 
on  them  families  are  built  upward, 
without  following  suit.  The  top 
card  of  any  of  the  piles  may  be 
used  for  this  purpose.  The  player 
will  try,  of  course,  to  arrange  the 
piles  in  the  best  order  for  building, 
in  the  cases  where  it  is  allowed. 
Success  depends  on  the  order  in 
which  the  cards  fall  in  the  Toad. 


Toboggan. 


TOBOGGANING.     Coasting  on 
toboggans,  or  sleds  without  run- 


Manner  of  holding  Toboggan. 

ners.      Toboggans    are    made    of 
tough  elastic  wood  from  one-eighth 


to  one-quarter  of  an  inch  thick, 
and  vary  in  length  from  four  to 
eight  <feet,  and  in  breadth  from 
sixteen  to  twenty-four  inches. 
Across  the  upper  side  ribs  or  cleats 
of  wood  are  fastened  to  give  them 
strength,  and  along  the  side  are 
hand-rails,  to  which  the  coasters 
may  cling,  and  to  which  cushions 
are  often  strapped.  The  front  is 
bent  backward  in  a  curve  to  form 
a  sort  of  dashboard.  The  slides 
on  which  toboggans  are  used  are 
either  natural  or  artificial.  In  this 
country  the  latter  are  most  com- 
mon. Natural  slides  are  apt  to  be 
uneven,  and  contain  little  mounds, 
called  in  Canada  cahots,  which 
make  the  toboggan  leap  into  the 
air  and  cause  accidents.  The  ar- 
tificial slides  are  frameworks  of 
timber  supporting  a  slideway  of 
boards  which  is  covered  with  snow 
and  ice.  The  highest  point  may 
be  forty  or  fifty  feet  above  the 
ground.  These  slides  are  often 
built  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  where 
part  of  the  descent  is  natural. 
There  are  also  double  slides,  con- 
sisting of  two  slides  side  by  side, 
but  with  the  incline  in  opposite 
directions,  so  that  after  descending 
one  the  coaster  has  only  to  ascend 


TOBOGGANING 


729 


TOBOGGANING 


a  flight  of  steps  to  be  at  the  top  of 
the  other  slide.  At  the  top  of  the 
slide  is  a  starting  platform,  and 
leading  from  this  are  chutes,  or 
flat-bottomed  troughs,  in  which 
the  toboggan  runs.  There  may  be 
several  of  these,  each  from  four  to 
six  feet  wide,  with  raised  side- 
boards to  keep  the  toboggan  on 
the  chute.  Below  the  chutes  is 
generally  a  natural  slide  with  a 
very  slight  inclination,  and  some- 
times hay  is  placed  at  the  bottom, 
to  stop  the  toboggans.  On  one 
side  of  the  slides  is  a  flight  of  steps, 
and  by  its  side  a  dragway  on  which 
the  toboggans  are  drawn  up. 

The  plan  shows  how  such  a  slide 
is  built.  The  chutes  are  packed 
with  snow,  or  sometimes  with  a 
mixture  of  snow  and  sawdust 
mixed  with  water  and  allowed  to 
freeze.  If  the  packing  is  done 
properly,  the  surface  should  be 
perfectly  smooth,  and  the  tobog- 
gans will  attain  great  speed — often 
as  great  as  a  mile  a  minute.  The 
makers  of  one  kind  of  toboggan 
have  advertised  that  with  their 
toboggan  a  speed  of  three  miles 
per  minute  may  be  reached.  Yet, 
on  properly  built' slides  toboggans 
are  safer  than  ordinary  sleds, 
for  they  cannot  leave  the  chute ; 
and  as  they  have  no  runners  and 
are  close  to  the  ground,  they  rare- 
ly upset. 

Steering.  The  toboggan  is  guid- 
ed either  by  short  sticks  of  wood 
in  the  hands  or  with  the  foot. 
The  right  foot  is  generally  used,  and 
the  steerer  kneels  or  lies  on  his 
side.  The  principle  is  the  same  as 
that  by  which  a  sled  is  steered. 
By  touching  the  ground  with  the 
bit  of  wood  or  the  foot  on  one  side, 
that  side  is  made  to  go  slower  and 
the  toboggan  turns  in  that  direc- 
tion. A  toboggan  is  easier  to  steer 
than  a  sled.  On  some  slides  steer- 
ing with  bits  of  wood  is  forbidden, 
as  it  tears  up  the  surface. 

The  toboggans  made  in  Canada 
are  commonly  of  one  piece  of 


wood,  with  a  smooth  flat  bottom. 
Toboggans  are  made  in  the  United 
States  of  slats  rounded  on  the  bot- 
tom, so  that  each  is  a  sort  of  low 


CROSS  SECTION 
OF  PLATFORM. 


Plan  of  Slide. 


runner.  Some  toboggans  are  shod 
with  steel.  The  rail  at  the  side  is 
often  made  to  yield  to  the  motion 
of  the  toboggan,  so  that  it  bends 
easily.  The  screws  that  fasten  it 
should  not  appear  on  the  bottom, 


TOBOGGANING 


730 


TOOTHPICK  BOMB 


for  if  they  project  they  increase  the 
friction  and  tear  the  ice  on  the 
slide;  and  if  they  are  sunk  into 
the  wood,  the  snow  collects  in  the 
holes  and  roughens  the  bottom. 

Toboggan  Yachts.  Snow  yachts 
have  been  built  and  sailed  on  the 
prairies  of  the  great  West.  They 
are  shaped  and  rigged  like  ICE- 
BOATS, but  have  toboggans  instead 
of  runners,  the  rear,  or  steering  to- 
boggan, being  only  six  inches  wide. 
One  of  these  toboggan  boats  is 
thirty-two  feet  long  and  fourteen 
feet  beam,  has  a  mast  twenty  feet 
high  and  a  boom  twenty-two  feet 
long.  She  is  sloop-rigged,  and  is 
said  to  have  made  forty  miles  an 
hour.  Snow  yachts  cannot  sail 
close  to  the  wind.  (See  SAILING.) 
When  they  wish  to  "  go  about," 
they  do  so  by  "  wearing." 

Water  Toboggan.  A  toboggan 
used  by  bathers.  The  slide  is  cov- 
ered with  little  rollers,  over  which 
the  toboggan  glides  easily,  and  it 
ends  in  the  water.  T*he  coasters, 
clad  in  bathing  suits,  shoot  down 
the  slide  with  great  velocity  and 
over  the  surface  of  the  water  for 
many  rods.  When  the  force  of  the 
toboggan  is  spent,  it  is  allowed  to 
sink,  and  the  coaster  swims  to  the 
shore.  The  toboggan  is  recovered 
by  a  string  attached  to  it.  One  of 
these  slides  is  at  Fort  Hamilton, 
on  New  York  Bay. 

History.  The  word  toboggan  is 
a  corruption  of  the  Indian  odabag- 
gan.  Toboggans  were  used  by  the 
northern  Indians,  before  the  dis- 
covery of  this  continent,  for  the 
transportation  of  game,  furs,  and 
other  goods.  They  were  drawn 
either  by  dogs  or  by  men,  and  were 
well  adapted  for  travelling  on  the 
deep  snow.  They  were  originally 
fastened  together  entirely  with 
deer-thongs,  but  now  metal  rivets 
or  screws  are  used. 

During  the  French  and  Indian 
wars  and  in  the  Revolution  tobog- 
gans were  used  for  transporting 
military  stores  and  equipments  in 


northern  campaigns.  About  1835 
British  officers  in  Montreal  intro- 
duced tobogganing  as  a  sport  by 
coasting  down  Mount  Royal.  The 
sport  grew  quickly  in  popularity, 
and  the  artificial  slide,  which  had 
long  been  in  use  in  Russia,  was 


Russian  Slide. 

soon  introduced.  In  this  country, 
tobogganing  was  first  practised  in 
northern  New  England  near  the 
Canadian  boundary,  but  within  a 
few  years  it  has  been  popular  in 
other  regions.  In  1884  a  large 
slide  was  erected  in  Saratoga,  New 
York;  and  since  then  others  have 
been  built  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States.  At  the  "winter 
carnivals"  in  St.  Paul,  Minnesota, 
Burlington,  Vermont,  and  other 
cities — in  imitation  of  the  one  held 
annually  in  Montreal,  Canada — to- 
bogganing is  one  of  the  favorite 
sports,  and  there  are  parades  of  the 
members  of  toboggan  clubs,  clad 
in  gayly-colored  uniforms. 

TOM  TIDDLER'S  QROUND.  See 
TAG. 

TOOTHPICK  BOMB.  A  toy 
made  by  interlacing  four  wooden 
toothpicks.  Place  three  in  the 
form  of  a  triangle,  so  that  the  end 
of  each  rests  on  that  of  the  next. 
Now  push  them  together  as  far  as 
possible,  and  lock  them  by  weaving 
in  a  fourth  under  one  pick,  over 
the  next,  and  under  the  third.  This 
can  be  done  after  a  few  trials.  Lay 


TOPS 


TOPS 


the  bomb  on  a  plate,  with  one  end 
projecting  over  the  edge,  and  light 
that  end  with  a  match.  When  the 
end  has  burned  down  to  the  place 
where  two  picks  cross,  they  will  be 
released  and  their  spring  will  throw 
all  the  toothpicks  into  the  air. 

TOPS.  See  the  article  in  C.  C.  T. 
String  Tops.  The  string  is  wound 
sometimes  around  the  body  of 
the  top,  which  is  grooved  for  the 
purpose,  or  around  an  upright  peg 
at  the  upper  end.  The  former 
kind  is  spun  by  being  thrown  on 
the  ground,  while  the  end  of  the 
string,  ending  in  a  loop  or  button, 
is  retained  in  the  hand.  The  cuts 
show  the  way  of  holding  in  Eng- 
land and  this  country.  As  the  top 


English  Manner  of  Holding  Top. 

moves  through  the  air  the  string 
unwinds,  giving  it  a  whirling  mo- 
tion which  keeps  up  after  it  has 
struck  the  ground.  Other  tops 
have  generally  a  handle  by  which 
the  top  is  held  in  one  hand  while 
the  string  is  pulled  by  the  other. 
The  handle  is  loose  enough  to  allow 
the  top  to  whirl  as  the  string  un- 
winds, and  is  either  withdrawn 
when  the  top  is  set  going  or  re- 
mains on  the  top  as  it  spins.  Some 


American  Manner  of  Holding  Top. 

tops  can  be  set  going  in  the  air  and 
then  placed  on  the  floor. 

Whip  Tops  are  set  in  motion  by 
twirling  with  the  fingers,  and  then 


the  whirling  is  increased  and  kept 
up  by  whipping  the  top  with  a 
piece  of  cord,  usually  fastened  to  a 
whip  handle.  This  requires  some 


Whip  Top. 

skill.  An  eel-skin  is  said  to  make 
the  best  whip,  as  it  is  soft  and  clings 
to  the  top  when  it  strikes  it. 

Spring  Tops  have  a  handle  or 
cap,  fitted  over  the  upper  end, 
which  is  held  in  one  hand  while  the 
top  is  turned  round  by  the  other. 
This  winds  up  a  spring  in  the  han- 
dle, which,  when  the  top  is  placed 
on  the  floor,  is  set  loose,  and,  un- 
winding, spins  the  top,  when  the 
handle  is  then  pulled  off.  Spring 
tops  are  apt  to  get  out  of  order, 
and  are  not  much  used. 

Teetotums.  Little  tops  called 
teetotums  are  spun  by  twirling 
them  with  the  fingers.  They  have 
usually  from  four  to  eight  flat  sides 
or  edges,  on  each  of  which  is  a  letter 
or  number.  Teetotums  are  used 
in  playing  several  games,  to  deter- 
mine the  moves,  each  player  twirl- 
ing the  teetotum  in  turn  and  play- 
ing according  to  the  letter  or  num- 
ber that  is  uppermost  after  the  top 
has  fallen  on  its  side. 

Humming  Tops  are  made  hollow, 
with  a  hole  in  one  side,  past  which 
the  air  rushes  as  they  spin,  making 
the  air  within  vibrate  and  causing  a 
humming  sound.  (C.  C.  T.)  Some 
hummingtopsare  fitted  with  oneor 
more  reeds,  or  vibrating  tongues  of 
metal,  like  those  that  make  the 
sounds  in  a  parlor  organ,  and  they 
thus  give  a  district  musical  note, 


TOPS 


732 


TOPS 


sometimes  a  whole  chord.  They 
are  sometimes  arranged  so  that 
the  note  changes  as  they  spin  fast- 
er or  slower. 

A  humming  top  may  be  made 
from  an  ordinary  cylindrical  bak- 
ing-powder or  spice  box.  Make  a 
hole  exactly  in  the  middle  of  cover 
and  bottom,  and  push  a  lead  pencil 
through  the  box,  the  point  pro- 
jecting about  half  an  inch.  Lift 
the  cover  slightly  and  with  a  strong 
pair  of  scissors  cut  a  slit  in  the  box 
about  two  inches  long  and  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  wide.  Replace 


Humming  Top. 


the  cover,  and  the  top  is  complete. 
If  the  lid  does  not  fit  tight  it 
should  be  fastened  on  with  glue. 
It  is  spun  by  means  of  a  handle 
made  of  a  piece  of  lath  three  or 
four  inches  long  with  a  hole  in  one 
end  large  enough  to  admit  the 
lead  pencil  freely.  The  string  is 
wound  on  the  pencil  above  the  box, 
the  hole  in  the  handle  is  placed 
over  the  pencil,  the  end  of  the 
string  is  brought  up  through  the 
hole,  and  the  string  is  then  pulled 
with  one  hand  while  the  handle  is 
held  in  the  other.  These  tops  are 
often  made  by  boys  in  France. 

Color  Tops  or  Chameleon  Tops. 
Tops  bearing  a  flat  disk  or  plate 
painted  in  various  colors.  When 
the  top  is  spun,  these  colors  appear 
blended  or  mixed  together.  A 
loose  circle  of  paper  or  leather, 
with  part  cut  away,  is  placed  on 


Color  Top. 


the  disk,  and  may  be  pushed 
around  so  as  to  expose  different 
colors.  When  the  top  is  spinning, 


Design  for  Color  Top. — Fig.  2. 

if  this  piece  be  touched,  it  will 
move,  and  the  exposed  colors  will 
be  different,  so  that  the  top  will 
seem  to  change  its  color.  Rings 


TOPS 


733 


TOPS 


of  colored  paper  and  various  de- 
signs like  those  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration can  also  be  dropped  on  the 
disk  and  made  to  overlap  in  vari- 


Appearance  of  the  Spinning  Wires. 

ous  ways,  which  also  changes  the 
color  of  the  spinning  top.  Color 
tops  usually  have  a  hole  in  the  top 
of  the  stem,  into  which  bits  of  wire 
of  various  shapes  can  be  put.  When 
the  top  is  spinning,  these  wires 
whirl  round  so  rapidly  that  they 
look  like  glass  vessels  or  dishes. 
They  are  best  seen  against  a  black 
background.  Color  tops  are  usu- 
ally spun  in  little  glazed  saucers, 
so  that  they  keep  their  motion  for 
a  long  time. 
If  a  disk  with  rows  of  holes  in  it 


be  pJaced  on  a  spinning  color  top, 
the  central  hole  being  larger  than 
the  handle  of  the  top,  it  will 
gyrate  on  being  touched,  and  the 
holes  will  appear  like  a  delicate 
lace-pattern,  changing  with  each 
touch.  If  shining  steel  buttons 
be  glued  to  the  top  of  the  disk,  the 
appearance  on  spinning  will  be  still 
more  beautiful. 

French  Top.  A  case  in  which  are 
packed  a  number  of  small  tops 
shaped  something  like  saucers. 
The  case  and  its  contents  are  set 
spinning  in  the  usual  way,  and 


French  Top. 

then,  holding  it  by  a  loose  handle, 
the  spinner  shakes  the  case,  and 
the  tops  within  fall  out  one  by  one 
and  continue  to  spin  on  the  floor 


Dutch  Rackets. 


Dutch  Rackets.  A  game  played  I  stead  of  being  strung,  is  made 
with  a  top  and  a  racket,  D  (see  entirely  of  wood,  one  side  being 
illustration),  about  the  size  of  that  I  slightly  hollowed  and  the  other 
used  in  LAWN  TENNIS,  which,  in- '  fitted  with  little  cups,  each  of  which 


TOPS 


734 


TOPS 


is  marked  with  a  different  number. 
The  top  B  is  spun  on  the  hollowed 
side  of  the  racket  by  the  string  C, 
pulled  through  the  standard  A, 
and  the  player  then  tosses  it  into 
the  air,  turns  the  racket  over,  and 
catches  the  top  in  the  cups  in  suc- 
cession, till  it  falls  to  the  ground  or 
stops  spinning,  scoring  each  time 
the  number  marked  in  the  cup  in 
which  he  catches  it.  The  screw 
E  is  for  tightening  the  racket. 

Flying  Top.     A  toy  consisting  of 
a  stick  to  which  are  fastened  three 


Flying  Top. 

vanes  with  oblique  surfaces.  The 
string  is  wound  around  the  stick 
or  spindle,  which  is  then  placed  in 
a  stand.  The  end  of  the  string  is 
passed  through  a  hole  in  the  side  ol 
the  stand,  and  being  pulled  causes 
the  top  to  turn  rapidly  around. 
When  it  has  attained  sufficient 
speed  it  rises  high  in  the  air,  from 
the  action  of  the  vanes,  which  work 
in  the  same  way  as  the  screw  pro- 
peller of  a  steamer. 

Fly-Fly.  A  form  of  flying  top  in 
which  the  force  is  derived  from 
a  twisted  rubber  band.  The  flyer  or 
cap  holding  the  vanes  turns  freely 
on  the  spindle,  and  a  thick  piece 
of  india-rubber  is  fastened  to  the 
flyer  at  one  end,  and  at  the  other 
to  the  spindle.  If  the  spindle  be 
held  firmly  in  one  hand  and  the 
flyer  turned  with  the  other,  the 
rubber  will  be  twisted,  and  when  re- 


eased  it  untwists,  turning  the  fl;er, 
which  propels  the  Fly-Fly  through 
the  air.  (Figs.  1-3.)  The  height  to 
which  it  will  rise  depends  on  the 
size  of  the  vanes  and  the  elasticity 
of  the  india-rubber  band.  Fig.  2  is 
worked  by  pressing  down  and  pull- 


Fly-Fly . — Fig.  i. 

ing  upthe  beam  A  A, which  is  guard- 
ed by  a  slot  in  one  of  the  uprights. 
Magnetic  Top.  A  top  consisting 
of  a  flat  disk  of  iron  pierced  in  the 
middle  by  an  axle,  pointed  at  one 
end.  When  it  is  spun  like  any  oth- 
er top  and  a  magnet  is  presented  to 
it,  the  top  avoids  the  magnet,  be- 
ing repelled  instead  of  attracted, 
though  it  is  of  iron.  When  the 
top  is  still,  however,  or  spinning 
very  slowly,  it  is  attracted,  like  any 
other  piece  of  iron.  The  reason 
is  that  when  the  top  spins  fast  the 
magnet  induces  electric  currents  in 


TOPS 


735 


TOPS 


the  iron  disk,  which  really  becomes 
a  small  dynamo-machine.  The  ef- 
fect of  these  currents  is  to  repel  the 
magnet,  and  their  action  is  strong- 
er than  its  attraction  for  the  iron, 


unless  it  is  spinning  slowly.     With 


a  copper  top  the  repulsion  is  even 
greater  ;  but  the  tops  are  made  of 
iron  because  it  seems  stranger  that 
a  metal  which  is  usually  attracted 
by  a  magnet  should  ever  be  re- 


pelled. 


Fly-Fly.— Fig.  3. 


Travelling  Top.  A  top  which 
rolls  instead  of  spinning.  A  simple 
one  can  be  made  thus  :  Cut  out  a 
flat  circular  piece  of  wood  or  tin 
about  three  inches  in  diameter  and 
make  in  the  edge  two  notches  ex- 
actly opposite  each  other.  Tie  to- 
gether the  ends  of  a  piece  of  strong 


twine  about  three  or  four  feet  long 
and  pass  it  around  the  legs  just 
above  the  knees.  Twist  the  string 
by  means  of  a  stick  thrust  be- 
tween the  strings.  When  it  is 
twisted,  remove  the  stick  and  put 
the  disk  in  its  place,  the  string 
holding  it  by  the  notches  on  its 


TOPS 


736 


TOURMALINE 


edge.  Now  release  the  disk  and 
force  the  cord  to  untwist  swiftly  by 
pulling  the  knees  apart.  The  string 
will  make  the  disk  revolve  with  it 
till  it  has  untwisted. 

How  Tops  Spin.  When  not  in 
motion,  a  top  cannot  be  made  to 
stand  on  its  point,  but  when  it  is 
spinning  it  does  so  easily.  The 
reason  is  that  every  part  of  the  top 
is  then  moving  around  with  great 
force,  and  when  the  top  tips  a  little 
to  one  side,  so  that  the  part  on 
that  side  tends  to  fall  toward  the 
ground,  that  part  of  the  top  is 
whirled  around  quickly  to  the  other 
side  and  another  part  takes  its 
place.  The  falling  motion  is  there- 
fore turned  to  one  side,  and  instead 
of  tipping  over  the  top  merely  gy- 
rates; that  is,  the  stem  moves 
around  in  a  circle.  This  is  hardly  no- 
ticeable when  the  top  is  spinning 
very  fast,  but  as  the  rubbing  of  the 
point  against  the  floor  stops  it  grad- 
ually, it  gyrates  more  and  more,  and 
finally  touches  the  ground.  But 
tops  which  gyrate  or  "wabble" 
when  they  begin  to  spin,  usually 
become  quiet  in  a  few  seconds,  and 
remain  so  as  long  as  they  are  spin- 
ning fast.  They  are  then  said  to 
"  sleep."  The  motion  of  a  top  has 
been  studied  by  many  learned  men, 
and  requires  mathematics  to  ex- 
plain it  completely.  The  earth 
spins  in  its  course  like  a  great  top, 
and  it  also  gyrates  like  one,  but 
very  slowly,  the  North  Pole  taking 
more  than  25,000  years  to  describe 
one  of  its  circles. 

The  Romans  called  the  top  dux- 
urn,  the  name  of  the  box  tree,  be- 
cause they  used  that  kind  of  wood 
in  making  it.  It  is  alluded  to  by 
the  Latin  poets  as  a  children's  toy, 
and  has  been  a  favorite  with  all 
nations. 

TOURMALINE,  Experiments  with. 
Slices  of  the  mineral  called  tour- 
maline can  be  bought  of  an  opti- 
cian. If  one  slice  be  held  in  the 
left  hand  and  another  in  the  right, 
and  if  the  latter  be  slowly  turned 


around,  while  the  experimenter 
looks  through  them  at  the  sky,  it 
will  be  found  that  there  is  one 
position  where  it  is  impossible  to 


see  through  them.  (See  Fig.  i.) 
Looking  through  them  at  a  card 
pierced  with  a  hole  and  placed  be- 
tween the  experimenter  and  the 
light,  he  will  find  that  as  he  turns 
one  tourmaline  quite  around,  the 
hole  will  disappear  and  reappear 
again  twice.  While  they  are  in 
the  position  where  the  hole  cannot 
be  seen,  let  some  one  hold  a  very 
thin  piece  of  mica  between  them. 
The  hole  will  at  once  become  vis- 
ible, and  if  the  tourmaline  near- 
est the  eye  be  turned,  beautiful 
colors  will  be  seen,  changing  one 
into  another.  The  light,  after  it 
has  passed  through  the  first  tour- 
maline, is  said  to  be  polarized. 
Most  reflected  light  is  also  partial- 
ly polarized,  as  may  be  seen  by 
looking  through  one  tourmaline 
at  the  light  reflected  from  glass, 
polished  furniture,  water,  or  even 
from  the  sky.  When  the  tourma- 
line is  turned,  the  light  will  grow 
brighter  and  dimmer  by  turns, 
though  it  will  not  disappear  entire- 
ly. If  a  piece  of  mica  be  held  be- 
tween, as  before,  the  same  colors 
will  be  seen.  An  arrangement  for 
polarizing  light  by  reflection  may 
be  made  by  laying  on  a  board  a 
piece  of  glass  painted  black  on  the 
under  side,  and  supporting  on  one 
side  of  it  the  tourmaline,  mounted 
in  a  cork  which  fits  in  a  hole  in  an 
upright  bit  of  wood.  The  hole 
must  be  bored  diagonally,  so  that 
the  cork  makes  an  angle  of  about 
55  degrees  with  the  flat  glass.  This 
particular  angle  is  the  best,  but  it  is 
not  necessary  to  be  exact.  Place 


TRADES 


737 


TRAP  BALL 


Fi 


the  arrangement  in  front  of  a 
window  where  the  light  from  the 
sky  can  be  reflected  from  the  black 
glass  and  then  observed  through 
the  tourmaline.  The  latter  can  be 
turned  by  turning  the 
cork  in  the  hole.  On  do- 
ing so,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  light  reflected  from 
the  black  glass  is  well  po- 
larized. Examine  a  num- 
ber of  transparent  objects 
by  placing  them  just  be 
low  the  tourmaline,  and 
it  will  be  seen  that  some 
show  colors  and  some  do 
not.  CRYSTALS  of  different  sub- 
stances deposited  on  glass  should 
be  tried,  also  pieces  of  glass.  In- 
stead of  a  tourmaline,  an  arrange- 
ment of  crystals  called  a  Nicol 
prism  may  be  used.  This  is  still 
better,  as  it  allows  more  light  to 
pass.  It  can  be  bought  of  any 
dealer  in  scientific  apparatus. 

Glass  shows  the  prettiest  colors 
and  figures  when  it  is  in  a  state  of 
strain  from  uneven  cooling.  To 
prepare  it,  take  pieces  a  quarter  of 
an  inch  thick  and  about  an  inch  or 
an  inch  and  a  half  square,  and 
heat  them  red  hot  on  a  piece  of 
slate  in  a  coal  fire,  or  over  a  Bun- 
sen  burner.  Let  them  cool  on  a 
piece  of  cold  iron.  They  will  not 
break  if  they  have  been  heated 
enough.  Instead  of  the  tourma- 
line or  Nicol  prism,  the  following 
arrangement  may  be  employed. 
(See  Fig.  2.)  Bore  a  hole  length- 
wise through  a  cork  about  an  inch 
and  a  half  long,  and  then  cut  it  in 
two  diagonally,  making  an  angle 
of  about  34  degrees  with  the  axis, 
as  shown  in  the  picture.  Glue  to 
the  diagonal  surface  of  the  lower 
half  of  the  cork  six  plates  of  very 
thin  glass,  separating  them  by  tis- 
sue paper  glued  at  their  edges. 
Then  glue  on  the  upper  half  of  the 
cork,  so  that  the  round  hole  in  it 
seems  continuous  with  that  in  the 
lower  half.  Two  of  these  arrange- 
ments may  be  used  instead  of  the 


two  tourmalines,  or  one  may  be 
used  with  the  apparatus  for  polar" 
izing  by  reflection. 

Objects  can  be  made  of  thin 
sheets  of  mica,  which  show  beauti- 
ful colors  when  examined  by  polar- 
ized light.  Among  these  are  a 
piece  bent  into  a  half  cylinder, 
held  in  place  by  strips  of  gummed 
paper ;  two  such  half  cylinders, 
crossed  ;  a  cone,  made  by  cutting  a 
small  sector  out  of  a  mica  circle 
and  then  bringing  the  edges  to- 
gether; a  wheel,  each  of  whose 
spokes  is  twisted  a  little,  and  bars 
of  mica  crossed  in  various  ways. 

TRADES.  A  game  in  which  each 
of  the  players  pretends,  in  dumb 
show,  to  work  at  some  trade — the 
shoemaker  sewing  a  shoe,  the 
carpenter  hammering  or  sawing, 
etc.  One  of  the  company  is  chosen 
as  leader,  and  whenever  he  drops 
his  trade  for  that  of  another  player, 
that  player  must  take  up  the  one 
that  the  leader  has  just  left,  while 
all  the  others  stop  their  motions. 
Whenever  the  leader  resumes  his 
original  trade,  the  others  begin  to 
work  at  theirs,  as  at  first.  Any  one 
who  makes  a  mistake  must  pay  a 
forfeit. 

TRAP  BALL.  A  game  played  by 
any  number  of  persons  with  a  trap, 
bat,  and  ball.  The  trap  is  made  of 
wood,  of  the  size  and  shape  of  a  low 
shoe,  having  in  it  a  spoon-shaped 
lever,  arranged  as  shown  in  the  il- 
lustration. The  ball  is  like  a  small 


Trap  and  Ball. 

base  ball,  and  the  bat  like  a  short 
cricket  bat,  to  be  used  with  one 
hand.  The  players  divide  into  two 
parties,  one  of  which  takes  position 
in  the  field,  while  those  on  the 
other,  one  by  one,  take  turns  at 
the  bat.  The  batter  places  the  ball 
in  the  trap,  and  by  striking  the  free 


TRAP  BALL 


738 


TRAPPING 


end  of  the  lever  with  his  bat  sends 
the  ball  into  the  air.  He  then  tries 
to  hit  it  as  far  as  he  can.  If  he 
miss  his  stroke,  or  strike  the  ball 
beyond  the  side  boundaries,  or  if 
a  fielder  catch  the  ball  before  it 
touches  the  ground,  he  is  out,  and 
the  next  player  takes  the  bat.  Oth- 
erwise, the  fielder  who  stops  the  ball 
bowls  it  at  the  trap,  and  if  he  hits 
it,  or  the  ball  stop  within  a  bat's- 
length  of  it,  the  striker  is  out.  If 
not,  the  striker  estimates  the  dis- 
tance of  the  ball  from  the  trap 
in  bat-lengths,  and  calls  it  out.  If 
it  be  within  the  actual  distance,  he 
scores  toward  game  the  number  of 
bat-lengths  called;  but  if  it  be  more 
than  the  real  distance,  he  is  out. 
When  a  player  is  out,  he  takes  no 
further  part  in  the  game  till  all  his 
side  are  out,  when  the  sides  change 
places.  Those  who  do  not  go  out 
continue  to  strike  and  score,  in  or- 
der, till  all  are  out.  When  each 


side  has  finished  its  turn  at  the  bat, 
the  game  is  at  an  end,  and  the  side 
with  the  largest  score  wins. 

Sometimes,  instead  of  the  trap, 
a  piece  of  wood  called  a  Splent  is 
used.  A  little  hole  is  made  in  the 
ground  with  the  bat,  the  splent  is 
placed  with  one  end  in  the  hole, 
and  the  ball  is  put  on  that  end. 
When  the  end  of  the  splent  outside 
of  the  hole  is  struck  with  the  bat, 
the  ball  rises,  as  from  the  trap. 

Trap   ball   is  a  very  old  game. 


Old  English  Trap  Ball. 

The  illustration,  Irom  an  ancient 
English  manuscript,  shows  a  form 
of  it. 


Figure  Four  Trap. 


TRAPPING.  Catching  animals 
or  birds  by  means  of  traps  or  snares. 
It  is  not  considered  honorable  to 
trap  wild  game  that  is  usually  killed 
by  sportsmen  with  the  gun,  but 
troublesome  and  dangerous  ani- 
mals are  properly  caught  in  this 
way,  as  well  as  fur-bearing  creat- 
ures, like  the  mink  or  beaver.  The 
best  traps  are  the  common  steel 
traps,  to  be  bought  at  hardware 
stores,  and  which  are  made  of  sev- 
eral sizes.  An  easily  made  trap  Is 


the  Figure  Four,  so  called  from 
its  shape.  It  consists  of  a  heavy 
stone  or  log  supported  by  three 
notched  sticks  placed  as  shown  in 
the  picture.  The  separate  pieces 
are  shown  in  Figs,  i,  2  and  3,  and 
the  completed  trap  in  Fig.  4.  The 
animal  trying  to  remove  the  bait 
from  the  end  of  the  pointed  stick 
brings  the  stone  down  upon  him, 
and  is  crushed  to  death.  When  a 
log  is  used,  a  row  of  stakes  is  driven 
into  the  ground  on  each  side  of  it, 


TRAVELLER 


739 


TRUSSING  GAME 


and  it  falls  between  them.  For 
catching  animals  alive,  there  are 
various  forms  of  traps  made  of 
wire  or  wood.  The  simplest  is  a 
contrivance  having  a  swinging  door 
which  will  open  only  inward.  The 
animal  pushes  up  the  door  to  get 
at  the  bait,  and  is  unable  to  push 
his  way  out  again. 

A  trap  for  small  burrowing  ani- 
mals, called  the  Jug-trap,  is  made 
by  burying  a  jug  or  other  earthen- 
ware vessel,  having  a  hole  knocked 
cut  of  the  upper  part.  A  passage 
is  made  from  the  surface  to  the 
hole,  and  the  animal  entering  it 
falls  into  the  jug  and  is  caught. 

TRAVELLER,  THE.  A  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
one  of  whom  represents  a  traveller. 
The  others  are  numbered,  and  each 
receives  several  counters,  or  bits  of 
paper,  bearing  his  number.  The 
traveller  then  asks  them,  in  order, 
for  any  information  he  chooses 
about  the  places  to  which  he  is 
going.  As  soon  as  he  is  given  some 
that  is  correct  he  takes  a  counter 
from  whoever  gives  it,  and  asks  the 
next  player  a  different  question. 
After  a  specified  time,  or  number 
of  rounds,  the  traveller  examines 
the  counters  in  his  possession,  and 
the  player  who  gave  him  most  in- 
formation becomes  traveller  in  his 
turn. 

TRIC-TRAC.  See  BACKGAMMON. 

TRICYCLING.     See  CYCLING. 

TRIPLET.  A  game  of  cards 
played  by  three  persons  with  a  full 
pack  and  any  number  of  counters, 
which  are  divided  equally.  The 
dealer — the  player  who  cuts  the  low- 
est card  (ace  being  high) — gives 
two  cards  to  each.  Each  looks  at 
his  cards,  and  places  in  the  centre 
of  the  table  a  number  of  counters 
agreed  on  beforehand.  One  more 
card  is  then  given  to  each  by  the 
dealer,  who  turns  the  next  card  as 
trump.  Any  player  may  now  de- 
clare that  he  wishes  to  win  "  by 
hand,"  whereupon  all  must  show 
their  hands,  and  the  highest  wins. 


The  three  kinds  of  hands  in  or- 
der from  the  highest  to  the  low- 
est are  as  follows : 

1.  A  Triplet — three    cards  of    a 
kind.    'If  there    are  two  triplets, 
the  highest  wins,  but  one  contain- 
ing a  "  special  card,"  or  a  face  card 
of  trumps,  beats  any  other.     The 
"  special  cards  "  are  the  Three  of 
Trumps,  Spades,  and  Hearts. 

2.  A  Tierce — any  three  cards  in 
regular  order,  regardless  of  suit. 
If  there  are  two,  the  highest  wins, 
and  one  containing  a  special  card, 
or  face  card  of  trumps,  always  wins. 

3.  Three  of  a  suit,  according  to 
the  total  number  of  pips — a  special 
card  counting  13,  an  ace  12,  and  a 
court  card  1 1 .     If  one  of  two  other- 
wise equal  hands  contains  a  face 
card  of  trumps,  it  beats  the  other. 

If  any  one  wins  by  hand  there  is 
no  playing.  If  no  one  declares 
that  he  wishes  to  do  so  play  begins, 
the  eldest  hand  leading.  Suit  is 
not  followed.  In  play,  only  face 
cards  of  the  trump  suit  rank  as 
trumps.  No  card  can  be  taken  by 
one  of  the  same  color  unless  the 
latter  be  a  trump.  Any  card  of  a 
common  suit,  or  any  plain  card  of 
the  trump  suit,  may  be  taken  by  a 
higher  card  of  opposite  color;  but 
any  card  may  be  taken  by  a  trump 
face  card,  and  this  by  a  special 
card.  The  Threes  of  Clubs  and 
Diamonds,  when  not  trumps,  are 
the  lowest  cards  in  their  respective 
suits.  To  win  in  play,  a  player 
must  take  two  out  of  the  three 
tricks.  If  no  one  does  this,  the 
same  dealer  deals  again  from  the 
stock  without  shuffling  anew.  He 
who  wins  takes  all  the  counters  in 
the  middle  of  the  table  ;  but  if  no 
one  wins,  they  remain  and  accumu- 
late. 

TRUSSING  GAME,  THE.  A 
game  played  by  two  persons,  each 
of  whom  tries  to  overturn  the  oth- 
er, after  both  have  been  tied  or 
"  trussed,"  as  follows  :  The  player 
seats  himself  on  the  floor ;  his 
hands,  pi  iced  palm  to  palm,  are 


TRUTH 


740 


TUG  OF  WAR 


bound  together  at  the  wrist  with  a 
handkerchief,  and  his  legs  are  tied 
in  like  manner  above  the  ankles. 
The  knees  are  then  drawn  up,  the 
arms  placed  over  them,  and  a  stick 
about  four  feet  long  pushed  over 
one  arm,  under  botn  knees,  and 
out  again  over  the  other  arm. 
The  player  can  now  move  no  part 
of  his  limbs  except  his  toes.  If  he 
is  overturned  the  ends  of  the  stick 
prevent  his  falling  on  his  side,  but 
he  cannot  right  himself  without 
aid.  Two  players,  "  trussed  "  in 
this  way,  are  placed  opposite  each 
other  in  the  middle  of  the  room, 
their  toes  just  touching.  The  ob- 
ject of  each  is  to  tip  his  opponent 
over  by  means  of  his  toes,  and  he 
who  first  does  this  is  the  winner. 
If  either  of  the  players  falls  over, 
he  must  be  placed  in  position 
again  by  the  spectators. 

It  is  related  that  an  English 
gentleman,  having  captured  some 
thieves  in  his  house  at  night,  with 
his  servants'  aid,  "  trussed  "  them 
thus,  to  secure  them  until  morning, 
and  tipped  them  over  on  one  side, 
with  such  success  that  the  robbers 
were  not  able  to  move  from  the 
place  where  they  were  left. 

This  game  is  called  also  "  Chick- 
en Fight,"  or  "Cock  Fight." 

TRUTH.  A  game  played  by  any 
number  of  persons,  with  two  packs 
of  cards.  The  fust  pack  is  dealt, one 
card  at  a  time,  to  the  players ;  the 
second  is  placed  face  downward,  in 
front  of  one  chosen  as  leader  of  the 
game.  The  leader  begins  by  asking 
a  personal  question  beginning  with 
"  who,"  as  "  Who  is  the  prettiest  in 
the  room  ?  "  or  "  Who  will  be  mar- 
ried first  ?  "  at  the  same  time  turn- 
ing over  the  top  card  of  the  second 
pack.  The  one  of  the  players  who 
has  the  same  card  in  the  first  pack 
is  supposed  to  be  the  one  referred 
to  in  the  question.  He  must  hold 
up  the  card  matching  the  one 
turned,  as  soon  as  he  sees  it,  and 
then  give  it  to  the  leader,  who  lays 
the  two  cards  aside.  The  player  who 


had  the  matching  card  next  asks  a 
question,  the  leader  turning  up  at 
the  same  time  another  card  ;  and 
so  the  game  goes  on  till  the  cards 
have  all  been  used.  The  inquiries 
may  be  complimentary  or  other- 
wise. 

TUG  OF  WAR,  A  sport  in  which 
any  number  of  persons,  divided  in- 
to two  parties  or  "  teams,"  pull  a 
rope  in  opposite  directions.  The 
tug  may  be  pulled  in  two  ways:  in 
the  first,  there  is  no  limit  of  time, 
but  the  teams  pull  until  one  has 
pulled  the  other  over  a  given  line  ; 
in  the  second,  the  pulling  is  for  a 
certain  number  of  minutes,  and  at 
the  end  of  that  time  the  team  wins 
on  whose  side  the  middle  of  the 
rope  is.  In  both  methods  the  mid- 
dle of  the  rope  is  marked,  usually 
by  tying  a  piece  of  colored  cloth 
around  it,  and  a  person  acting  as 
judge  or  referee  holds  it  exactly 
over  the  line  as  he  gives  the  signal 
to  begin  pulling.  In  the  first  meth- 
od, instead  of  requiring  one  team 
to  be  pulled  over  the  line,  two 
points  in  the  rope  are  sometimes 
marked,  at  equal  distances  from 
the  middle  point,  and  the  team 
that  first  pulls  the  opposite  one  of 
these  across  the  line  is  the  winner. 

The  second  method  is  often  used 
indoors,  where  the  tug  is  pulled 
"  from  cleats  ; "  that  is,  where  each 
player  has  a  wooden  cleat  or  strip, 
nailed  on  the  floor,  to  brace  his  feet 
against  while  he  is  pulling. 

Four  men  make  a  team,  and  the 
one  furthest  from  the  cleat  is  called 
the  "anchor,"  the  one  nearest  the 
cleat  being  No.  i. 

The  rules  of  the  National  Ama- 
teur Athletic  Association  for  tugs 
of  war  are  as  follows : 

Tugs  of  war  shall  be  pulled  on 
cleats  made  of  wood  ;  same  to  be  at 
least  four  inches  thick,  six  inches 
high,  and  twenty-two  inches  long, 
and  at  least  six  feet  six  inches  apart. 
The  distance  from  the  clamp  in  the 
centre  to  the  first  cleat  on  either 
side  shall  be  not  less  than  six  feet. 


TUG  OF  WAR 


741 


TUNING  FORKS 


The  cleats  shall  be  set  on  edge 
and  bolted  to  the  board. 

The  rope  shall  be  a  man ila,  three 
stranded  rope,  not  less  than  four 
and  a  half  nor  more  than  five  inch- 
es in  circumference.  There  shall 
be  a  clamp  equi-distant  from  the 
first  cleat  on  either  side,  which  shall 
be  sufficient  to  hold  the  rope  in 
position  until  released. 

This  clamp  shall  not  make  any 
appreciable  kink  in  the  rope.  Any 
position  may  be  assumed  before 
the  pistol  is  fired.  No  mechanical 
device  shall  be  used  for  hold  ing  the 
rope.  No  belt  other  than  one  to 
protect  the  body  shall  be  used. 
The  flanges  to  hold  the  rope  in 
place  shall  not  be  constructed  so 
as  to  bind  on  the  rope  in  any  posi- 
tion that  the  anchor  may  assume. 
Leather  shields  and  gloves  may 
be  used,  and  adhesive  substances 
may  be  put  on  the  same.  The  belt 
shall  not  weigh  more  than  twenty 
pounds.  Competitors  shall  not  use 
weights  in  unlimited  pulls,  but  in 
pulls  limited  to  specified  weights, 
competitors  may  use  weights,  pro- 
viding the  total  weight  of  the  team, 
including  weights,  does  not  exceed 
the  limit. 

The  standard  time  limit  for  each 
pull  shall  be  five  minutes,  and  a  rest 
of  not  less  than  ten  minutes  shall  be 
allowed  each  competitor  between 
trial  pulls.  A  shorter  or  longer 
time  limit  may  be  agreed  upon  for 
other  than  championship  contests. 

When  tugs  of  war  are  limited 
to  teams  of  a  given  weight,  com- 
petitors shall  be  weighed  beforv 
competing.  They  shall  be  weighed 
as  they  pull ;  i.e.,  including  cloth- 
ing, shoes,  belt,  etc. 

The  weighing-in  shall  be  done 
immediately  before  the  pull. 

No  knot  of  any  kind  shall  be  tied 
in  the  rope,  and  the  rope  shall  not 
be  passed  more  than  once  around 
the  body  of  the  anchor. 

In  no  case  shall  any  man  pull  on 
more  than  one  team  in  a  contest, 
and  no  substitute  shall  be  allowed 


to  pull  on  any  team  that  has  pulled 
a  trial. 

In  case  a  team  gains  three  feet 
from  its  opponents,  it  shall  be 
awarded  the  pull. 

Immediately  before  the  pull  the 
captains  of  the  opposing  teams 
shall  draw  their  numbers.  If  there 
are  only  two  teams,  two  out  of  three 
pulls  shall  decide.  With  three 
teams — i  and  2  pull,  the  loser  pulls 
3,  and  the  winners  pull  the  final. 
With  four  teams — i  and  2,  3  and  4; 
the  winners  pull  the  final.  With 
more  than  four  teams,  have  a  pre- 
liminary round  of  as  many  contests 
as  the  total  number  of  contestants 
exceeds  4,  8,  16  or  32,  and  drop  the 
losers.  This  leaves  in  4,  8,  16  or 
32  contestants,  and  the  game  then 
proceeds  regularly  with  no  byes  or 
uneven  contests.  There  shall  be 
no  byes.  If  there  is  a  second  prize 
it  shall  be  competed  for  by  all 
teams  beaten  by  the  winning  team 
only. 

In  case  of  a  tie  both  teams  shall  be 
credited  with  a  win,  and  new  num- 
bers shall  be  drawn. 

No  pull  shall  be  awarded  by  less 
than  half  an  inch. 

The  individual  tug  of  war  shall 
also  be  governed  by  the  team  rules, 
and  the  contestants  must  pull  from 
the  first  cleat  from  the  clamp. 

History.  The  tug  of  war  had  its 
origin  in  a  boys'  game  sometimes 
called  in  England  "  French  and 
English,"  and  in  this  country 
"  English  and  Americans,"  in 
which  two  parties  pulled  one 
against  the  other  at  the  ends  of  a 
rope.  Since  it  has  been  reduced  to 
a  systematic  sport  it  has  found  a 
place  in  the  programmes  of  most 
athletic  meetings.  (See  ATHLET- 
ICS.) 

TUNING  FORKS,  Experiments 
with.  The  tuning  fork  is  a  two- 
pronged  instrument  used  by  mu- 
sicians to  tune  their  instruments 
by,  since  it  gives  a  pure,  true  note. 
Two  of  these  forks  will  be  needed, 
giving  notes  about  a  half  a  tone 


TUNING  FORKS 


742 


TUNING  FORKS 


apart.     They  may  be  bought  at  a 
music  store. 

A  tuning  fork  may  be  sounded 
by  rapping  it  on  the  edge  of  a  ta- 
ble, by  pressing  the  prongs  togeth- 
er with  the  teeth  and  then  sudden- 
ly releasing  them,  or  by  striking  it 
with  a  stick. 

EXPERIMENTS. 

Sound  a  tuning  fork,  and  while 
it  is  vibrating  touch  the  end  to  a 
bare  table.  This  sound  will  be 
greatly  increased.  This  is  because 
the  table  vibrates  in  sympathy  with 
the  fork,  so  that  there  is  a  larger 
sounding  surface. 

2.  Sound  the  fork  and  hold  it  in 
succession  close  to  the  mouths  of 
bottles  and   jars  of  various  sizes, 
pouring  in  water  while  the  fork  is 
vibrating.      When  the  volume   of 
air  in  the  jar  is  just  large  enough, 
it  will  vibrate  in  sympathy  with  the 
fork,  giving  out  a  loud  sound. 

3.  Turn  the  fork  around  slowly 
while  it  is  over  the  jar.     The  sound 
will  rise  and  fall  in  loudness,  being 
almost  nothing  when  the  corners 
of  the  prongs  a/e  toward  the  jar. 
Hold  the  fork  up  to  the  ear,  turn- 
ing it  in  like  manner,  and  the  same 
result  will  follow.     This  is  because 
in   this  position   the  sound-waves 
from   the    inside    of    the    prongs 
interfere  with  those  from  the  out- 
side. 

4.  Make   a  cardboard  or    paper 
roll,  just  large  enough  to  go  over 
one  prong  of  the  fork,  and  while  it 
is  in  the  position  where  it  makes 
least  noise,  either  in  front  of  the 
ear  or  over  the  jar,  slip  the  roll  over 
one  prong.     The  sound  will  at  once 
increase,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
waves  from  one  prong  are  cut  off 
and   cannot    interfere  with    those 
from  the  other. 

4.  Make  a  wooden  box  about  six 
inches  long,  four  inches  wide,  and 
two  inches  thick,  open  at  the  ends. 
This  is  called  a  resonance  box, 
and  makes  the  fork  sound  louder, 
just  as  a  table  does ;  but  it  is  more 
convenient,  because  it  can  be  car- 


ried about  in  the  hand.  Sound  a 
fork,  touch  it  to  a  resonance  box, 
and  walk  slowly  toward  the  wall 
with  the  fork.  The  note  given  will 
be  now  louder,  now  fainter.  This 
is  caused  by  the  interference  of  the 
sound  reflected  from  the  wall  with 
that  proceeding  directly  from  the 
fork. 

5.  Hold  two  forks  tuned  to  the 
same  note  on  resonance  boxes  sev- 
eral feet  apart.    They  can  be  tuned 
together  by  sticking  bits  of  wax  on 
the  prongs  of  the  one  which  gives 
the   highest   note.     The  wax  will 
load  the  prong,  making   it  move 
more  slowly  and  give  a  lower  note. 
Sound  one  of  the  forks,  and  after 
a  few  seconds  stop  it.     The  other 
one  will  be  found  vibrating  slightly. 
Its   note   can  often   be   heard   by 
placing  the  ear  to  the  opening  in 
the   resonance  box.     If  this  does 
not  succeed,  the  vibration  can  be 
detected  by  holding  against  one  of 
the  prongs  a  bit  of  glass  as  large 
as  a  pea,  fastened  to  a  thread  by 
means  of  sealing-wax.     This  is  a 
case  of   "sympathetic  vibration," 
other  examples  of  which  are  given 
under   VIOLIN.      The   experiment 
will  not  succeed  unless  the  forks 
be  tuned  to  the  same  note. 

6.  Load  one  of   the  forks  with 
wax  so  that  it  is  almost,  but  not 
quite,  in  tune  with  the  other.  Sound 
them  both  at  once,  and  "  beats  " 
will  be  heard,  just  as  in  Experiment 
5,  under  VIOLIN. 

7.  Sound   a    fork    and    dip  the 
prongs  into  a  basin  of  still  water. 
The  vibration   will  cause  curious 
ripples. 

8.  Gum  a  piece  of  tin-foil  or  a 
bristle  to  one  prong  of  a  fork  ;  set 
the  fork  vibrating,  and  then  draw 
it  over  a  piece  of  smoked  glass. 
The  vibration  of  the  fork  will  make 
the  bristle  draw  a  wavy  line  on  the 
glass. 

9.  Touch  one  end  of  a  long  rod 
or   pole  to   a  resonance  box,  and 
touch  a  vibrating  tuning  fork  to 
the  other  end.     The  rod  will  con- 


TUNING   FORKS 


743 


TUNING  FORKS 


duct  the  sound,  which  will  come 
apparently  from  the  box. 

10.  Sing  the  same  note  as  that 
given  by  a  tuning  fork.  Stop,  and, 
holding  the  mouth  in  exactly  the 
same  position,  hold  the  vibrating 
fork  close  in  front  of  it.  The 
mouth  will  act  like  the  jar  in  Ex- 
periment 2,  increasing  the  sound. 
If  the  mouth  be  fixed  as  if  to  sing 
any  other  note,  the  result  will  not 
be  the  same — the  sound  being  in- 
creased very  little,  or  not  at  all. 


11.  Bore  a   hole   in   a  block  of 
wood  about    an  inch  and   a   half 
square  and  fit  in  it  the  stem  of  the 
tuning  fork.     Place  a  tumbler  of 
water    on    a    resonance  box,  and 
after  sounding  the    fork,  dip  the 
block  in  the  water.    The  sound  will 
be  conducted  through  the  water  to 
the  box,  which  will  strengthen  it 
just  as  if  the  fork  had  been  placed 
directly  on  the  box. 

1 2.  Place  a  piece  of  window  glass 
three  inches  square  over  the  mouth 


Fig.  i. 


of  a  glass  tumbler,  seeing  that  it 
touches  the  rim  all  around.  Slide 
the  glass  slowly  to  one  side,  hold- 
ing a  vibrating  tuning  fork  to  the 
opening.  When  it  reaches  the 
right  size,  the  air  in  the  tumbler 
will  give  out  a  loud  sound,  in 
answer  to  the  fork.  (See  A,  in 
Fig.  i.) 

13.  Take  a  piece  of  thin  paper, 
and,  having  wet  it,  paste  it  over  the 
mouth  of  the  tumbler.  When  it  is 
dry,  cut  away  part  atone  end  so  as 
to  make  a  hole  bounded  by  the 
edge  of  the  tumbler  and  a  straight 
line.  Make  this  hole  small  at  first, 
but  cut  away  more  and  more  of 
the  paper  till  the  air  within  an- 
swers the  tuning  fork  as  before. 
Sprinkle  a  little  sand  on  the  paper 
and  sing  the  note  given  bjr  the 


fork.     The  sand  will  dance  up  and 
down.     (See  B,  in  Fig.  i.) 

14.  Tilt  the  tumbler  by  placing  a 
book  under  one  side  (see  B,  in  il- 
lustration), so  that  the  sand  almost 
runs  down  the  paper  by  its  own 
weight.     If  the  proper  note  be  now 
sung  in  any  part  of  the  room  the 
sand  will  begin  to  move  down  the 
paper,  but  it  will  not  move  for  any 
other  note.     If  the  gamut  be  sung, 
for  instance,  the  sand   will  keep 
still  till  its  own  note  is  reached, 
when  it  will  move  at  once. 

15.  Dip  the  mouth  of  a  tumbler, 
five  or  six  inches  deep,  into  a  soap 
solution  (see  SOAP  BUBBLES),  and 
then  slide  the  glass  plate  through 
the  soap  water  under  the  mouth. 
Take  tumbler  and  glass  out  of  the 
water  and  stand  them  on  the  table. 


TUNING  FORKS 


744 


TURKS  AND  RUSSIANS 


Slide  off  the  glass  while  sound- 
ing the  fork  as  in  Experiment  12. 
There  will  be  a  soap  film  over  the 
opening  thus  made,  which,  as  soon 
as  the  air  in  the  tumbler  responds 
to  the  fork,  will  be  covered  with 
curious  wrinkles.  To  see  these  to 
advantage,  the  light  of  the  sky 
must  be  reflected  from  the  film. 

16.  Tune  two  wide  -  mouthed 
bottles  or  glasses  of  equal  size,  by 
slipping  pieces  of  glass  over  their 


Fig.  a. 


mouths,  as  in  Experiment  12,  so 
that  each  will  strengthen  the  vibra- 
tion of  the  tuning  fork.  Stand  one 
upright  and  lay  the  other  on  its 
side  on  a  pile  of  books  so  that  the 
mouths  of  the  bottles  just  touch. 
The  bottle  on  the  books  is  kept 
from  rolling  off  by  bits  of  wax,  and 
the  glass  over  its  mouth  is  held  in 
place  in  the  same  way.  Vibrate 
the  fork  and  hold  it  horizontally 
between  the  mouths  of  the  bottles. 
A  position  will  be  found  where 
almost  no  sound  at  all  is  heard. 
This  is  because  the  sound  from  one 


bottle  interferes  with  that  from  the 
other.  If  a  piece  of  paper  be 
slipped  between  the  fork  and  the 
mouth  of  either  bottle  the  sound 
will  at  once  be  heard  again  (Fig.  2). 

17.  Suspend  alight  piece  of  card- 
board by  a  string  near  a  vibrating 
tuning  fork  ;    it  will  be  attracted. 
Hold  a  candle  flame  near  the  fork  ; 
it  will  be  repelled.     This  is  because 
the    sound-waves    in    air    attract 
bodies  heavier  than  air,  and  repel 
those  which  are  lighter. 

18.  Tie  a  silk  thread  six  inches 
long  to  one  prong  of  a  tuning  fork, 
and  to  the  other  end  of  the  thread 
fasten  a  button  or  other  object  of 
slight  aveight.      Vibrate  the   fork, 
holding    it    horizontally,  and   the 
thread  will  also  vibrate,  dividing  up 
into  segments,  between  which  are 
points  of  no  motion,  or  "  nodes." 
(See  VIOLIN,  Experiment  2.)     The 
number  of  segments  seen  when  the 
fork   is  held  with    prongs  side  by 
side  is  double  that  when  one  prong 
is  over  the  other.     The  number  of 
segments  is  also  greater  when  the 
weight  on  the  thread  is  less. 

TURKS  AND  RUSSIANS.  A  game 
played  by  two  persons  with  slate 
and  pencil.  About  a  quarter  of 
the  slate  is  marked  off  by  a  line  at 
each  end,  and  in  each  of  the  com- 
partments so  marked  off  are  made 
a  number  of  dots  about  the  size 
of  a  pin-head,  those  at  one  end 
representing  Turks  and  the  others 
Russians.  The  number  of  Turks 
and  Russians  may  be  large  or  small, 
as  agreed  on,  but  must  be  equal. 
At  one  end  of  each  compartment 
is  a  small  square  which  serves  as 
a  battery.  Each  player,  in  turn, 
places  the  point  of  his  pencil  in  his 
own  battery,  and  then  draws  a  line 
quickly  in  the  direction  of  his  ene- 
my's men.  The  line  must  have  no 
angles  in  it,  but  may  be  straight  or 
curved.  Those  dots  through  which 
the  line  passes  are  considered  dead 
men,  and  he  who  first  kills  all  of 
the  enemy's  men  is  the  winner. 
Sometimes  the  players  are  required 


TWELFTH  DAY 


745 


TWENTY  QUESTIONS 


to  shut  their  eyes  or  turn  away 
their  heads,  when  drawing  their 
lines. 

TWELFTH  DAY.  The  sixth  day 
of  January  ;  so  called  because  it  is 
the  twelfth  day  after  CHRISTMAS. 
It  is  also  the  feast  of  the  Epiphany, 
on  which  is  celebrated  the  visit  of 
the  three  Magi,  or  Wise  Men,  to  the 
infant  Christ.  In  ancient  times 
Twelfth  Night  was  celebrated  with 
great  merriment  and  many  games, 
and  Twelfth  Night  parties  are  occa- 
sionally given  now.  As  the  wise 
men  who  visited  Christ  are  said  by 
tradition  to  have  been  three  kings, 
one  of  the  chief  amusements  of 
Twelfth  Night  is  the  choosing  of  a 
King  and  Queen  by  means  of  col- 
ored beans  baked  in  cakes,  whence 
it  is  sometimes  called  the  "  Bean 
King  festival."  One  cake  is  cut 
into  pieces  and  given  to  the  boys 
and  the  other  to  the  girls,  and 
the  boy  and  girl  who  find  the 
beans  in  their  pieces  become  King 
and  Queen.  Cards  having  written 
on  them  various  titles,  such  as 
Prime  Minister,  First  Lady  in  Wait- 
ing, etc.,  are  now  placed  in  two 
bags,  the  boys'  titles  in  one  bag 
and  the  girls'  titles  in  the  other. 
Enough  blank  cards  are  mixed 
with  them  to  make  the  whole  num- 
ber equal  that  of  the  guests.  Each 
guest  now  draws  a  card  and  as- 
sumes the  title,  if  any,  written  on  it. 
The  hostess  may  provide  appropri- 
ate costumes  for  the  King,  Queen, 
and  Courtiers.  The  evening  is 
usually  spent  in  playing  games. 
Among  the  amusements  of  Twelfth 
Night  in  ancient  England  were  the 
blowing  up  or  burning  of  paste- 
board castles.  A  pastry  stag,  out 
of  which  flowed  blood  made  of 
claret,  was  sometimes  served  on  the 
table,  and  the  guests  pelted  each 
other  with  eggshells  filled  with 
rose-water.  Shakespeare's  play  of 
this  name  was  so  called  because 
written  for  a  Twelfth  Night  party. 
TWENTY  QUESTIONS,  A  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 


divided  into  two  opposing  parties, 
one  of  which  tries  to  find  out,  by 
twenty  questions  and  one  or  more 
guesses,  a  subject  chosen  by  the 
other. 

Captains.  In  order  to  avoid  con- 
fusion, questions  are  asked  and 
answered  only  by  the  captains  or 
leaders  of  the  two  parties  ;  but  be- 
fore each  question  there  is  a  con- 
sultation of  all  the  players  on  the 
side  that  is  to  ask  it,  and  the  best 
answer  is  decided  on  by  the  other 
side  in  the  same  way. 

Umpire.  An  umpire  is  generally 
chosen  beforehand,  to  decide  dis- 
puted points,  and  to  avoid  dispute 
he  may  take  down  in  writing  each 
question  and  answer  as  it  is  spoken. 

Time  Limit.  In  order  to  avoid 
taking  too.  much  time,  it  is  usual  to 
require  a  question  or  answer  to  be 
given  within  a  certain  time  after 
the  preceding  answer  or  question. 
This  time  limit  (usually  three  or 
four  minutes)  is  agreed  upon  at  the 
beginning  of  the  game. 

Guessing.  When  the  questioning 
side  have  asked  their  twenty  ques- 
tions, or  as  many  as  they  wish,  they 
proceed,  through  their  captain,  to 
guess  the  subject.  Sometimes  only 
one  guess  is  allowed,  sometimes  two 
or  three,  as  agreed  on  before  the 
game.  If  more  than  one  is  permit- 
ted, all  but  the  last  may  be  asked 
during  the  questioning.  Thus,  if 
there  are  to  be  three  guesses,  the 
questioners  may  ask  ten  questions, 
then  make  a  guess  ;  then  six  more, 
then  make  another  guess,  and  so 
on.  But  if  the  last  guess  is  wrong, 
wherever  it  may  be  made,  the  guess- 
ers  lose  the  game.  The  subject 
must  be  guessed  exactly  as  it  is 
chosen.  For  instance,  if  it  is  "  Mr. 
B.'s  left  eye,"  and  the  guess  be  "One 
of  Mr.  B.'s  eyes,"  the  answer  must 
be  "  No."  But  if  the  question  be 
asked,  "  Is  it  one  of  Mr.  B.'s  eyes?  " 
the  answer  is  "Yes."  Then,  if 
more  than  one  guess  is  allowed,  the 
right  and  left  eyes  can  be  guessed 
in  succession.  If  not,  "  Is  it  his 


TWENTY  QUESTIONS 


746 


TWENTY  QUESTIONS 


right  eye  ?  "  should  be  asked ;  and 
when  the  answer  "No"  is  given, 
the  guess  "  Mr.  B.'s  left  eye  "  will  of 
course  be  made.  But  if  the  party 
have  asked  their  twentieth  ques- 
tion, and  have  but  one  guess,  they 
must  take  their  chances  of  hitting 
it  correctly. 

GENERAL  ADVICE. 

Subject.  In  choosing  a  subject 
it  should  be  remembered  that  those 
that  appear  difficult  are  often 


easy  to  guess.  If  the  questioners 
are  skillful,  and  not  likely  to  over- 
look anything,  the  difficulty  de- 
pends simply  on  the  number  of  sep- 
arate things  that  must  be  found  out 
in  order  to  know  the  subject  defi- 
nitely. This  kind  of  difficulty  is  pos- 
sessed by  a  subject  like  "  The  sec- 
ond pane  of  glass  from  the  upper 
left  hand  corner  of  the  upper  sash, 
in  the  third  window  from  the  east- 
ern front  corner  of  the  second 


f 

/ 

VN\            ^ 

">.  \\ 

/ 

<?     / 

\\    \ 

1 

1 
1 

•—<         1 

i                     Thou 
t 

\       \    « 
»  v             •        'I 

QJ                                                                        *O      i* 

M                   1 
\           \                   Tb' 

7"  "7"T 

ng»                         /               / 

\ 

\ 

// 

\           ' 

\      \ 

/ 

\ 

\        ^^ 

**''      <fi       / 

\       ' 

^--  

^/      / 

Question  Diagram. 


story  of  the  New  York  City  Hall. 
Here,  after  finding  out  that  the 
subject  is  "  A  pane  of  glass,"  at 
least  seven  more  questions  are  re- 
quired to  locate  it,  since  questions 
like  "In  what  part  of  the  City  Hall 
is  it  ?  "  are  barred  out,  the  answer 
being  a  part  of  the  subject.  By 
making  the  subject  complex 
enough,  it  can  thus  be  made  im- 
possible to  guess  it  even  in  twenty 
questions  ;  but  subjects  of  this  kind 
do  not  add  to  the  interest  of  the 
game,  and  they  should  be  restricted 
by  rule. 
Another  kind  of  difficulty  is  pos- 


sessed by  subjects  which  are  either 
far  away  or  immaterial,  like  the 
"  Garden  of  Eden,"  or  "  Courage." 
A  beginner  might  be  quite  unable 
to  guess  either  of  these,  but  each 
consists  of  but  one  thing,  and  eith- 
er may  be  guessed  in  a  comparative- 
ly few  questions.  The  best  subjects 
are  those  that  combine  these  two 
kinds  of  difficulty,  as  "  The  petal  of 
a  rose  on  the  east  side  of  the  Garden 
of  Eden,"  or  "The  Courage  of  Israel 
Putnam  in  entering  the  wolf's  den." 
Subjects  may  also  be  adapted  to 
the  questioners.  If  they  are  not 
well  acquainted  with  history,  an 


TWENTY   QUESTIONS 


747 


TWENTY  QUESTIONS 


historical  subject  may  be  chosen, 
and  so  on. 

Questions!  In  playing  the  game 
the  questions  should  be  asked  ac- 
cording to  some  system,  and  the 
same  system  should  be  followed 
throughout.  If  one  idea  is  followed 
out  for  two  or  three  questions,  and 
then  abandoned  and  another  taken 
up,  twenty  questions  may  easily  be 
asked  without  getting  much  infor- 
mation. The  more  general  ques- 
tions should  be  asked  at  the  be- 
ginning, the  object  being  to  divide 
the  field  of  conjecture.  This  may 
be  made  evident  by  a  diagram 
(shown  on  the  previous  page)  sup- 
posed to  contain  all  the  things  in 
the  world.  These  are  divided  by 
the  vertical  black  line  into  Real 
and  Imaginary,  and  these  again  by 
the  horizontal  dotted  line  into 
Thoughts  and  Things.  The  space 
within  the  inner  circle  is  supposed 
to  be  the  Past,  that  between  the 
two  circles  the  Present,  and  that 
outside  the  Future.  So  if  the  ques- 
tion be  asked,  "  Is  it  real  or  imag- 
inary ?  "  and  the  answer  be  "  Real," 
everything  in  the  right  or  imag- 
inary side  is  left  out  of  considera- 
tion. If  the  questioner  next  finds 
out  that  it  exists  now,  he  may  con- 
fine himself  to  the  space  inside  the 
inner  circle,  and  so  on.  The  dia- 
gram can  be  made  much  more  elab- 
orate, or  divided  according  to  a 
different  plan.  The  one  given  will 
serve  as  an  illustration,  and  the 
reader  can  amuse  himself  by  trying 
to  construct  others. 

One  system  of  questioning  that 
may  be  followed  with  a  real  object 
is  to  locate  it  exactly,  which  may 
often  be  done  by  a  few  skillful 
questions.  The  object,  though 
real,  may  be  one  of  a  class,  as  "  a 
shoe,"  in  which  case  it  cannot  be 
located,  but  the  nearest  or  most 
prominent  one  of  the  class  may  be 
inquired  about.  Or,  instead  of 
locating  the  object,  its  form,  size 
and  color  may  be  found  out  exact- 
ly, or  its  use  may  be  investigated  ; 


but  whatever  line  of  questions  is 
begun  should  be  continued.  In 
some  cases,  however,  a  skillful 
player  will  see,  after  one  or  two 
questions,  that  the  kind  of  queries 
he  is  making  will  be  of  no  use,  and 
he  then  often  prefers  to  change  his 
tactics,  even  at  a  loss.  For  in- 
stance, if  the  first  few  questions  as 
to  form,  color,  and  size  show  that 
the  object  is  one  whose  appearance 
is  totally  unfamiliar,  so  that  a  full 
description  would  not  help  the 
questioner,  that  kind  of  questions 
should  be  abandoned.  If  the  ob- 
ject is  real  but  not  now  existing,  it 
is  a  good  plan  to  find  out  whether 
it  is  of  historical  interest. 

If  the  first  question  shows  that 
the  subject  is  imaginary,  it  should 
at  once  be  asked  whether  it  is 
mentioned  in  a  book ;  and  if  so, 
where.  Most  imaginary  subjects 
can  be  reached  thus.  If  the  object 
is  immaterial,  it  may  be  ascertained 
first  whether  it  is  an  event,  a 
thought,  a  quality,  a  sound,  etc. 
Such  subjects  are  generally  hard  to 
guess,  but  experience  will  suggest 
various  lines  of  questioning  that 
may  be  followed.  As  material  ob- 
jects are  easiest  to  guess,  a  quality 
of  character,  or  a  thought  is  often 
best  connected  with  some  person. 
The  question  may  be  asked,  "  Name 
some  person  who  possessed  this 
quality  of  character  in  a  high  de- 
gree." "  On  what  occasion  did  he 
show  it?"  etc.  Often  while  the 
questioner  is  following  out  his 
plan,  an  answer  will  give  him  a 
hint  of  some  "  short-cut"  to  the 
desired  end.  In  general,  the 
questioner  should  not  be  afraid 
to  ask  questions  in  the  begin* 
ning,  but  should  never  ask  par* 
ticular  questions  before  general 
ones.  Usually  he  can  cut  off  a  large 
part  of  the  field  of  possibility  left 
him,  at  each  stroke,  and  this  should 
be  his  general  object.  He  should 
never  alter  his  plan  of  attack  ex- 
cept for  some  special  reason.  If  a 
particular  question  be  asked  first, 


TWENTY  QUESTIONS 


748 


TWENTY  QUESTIONS 


it  is  often  wasted.  For  instance, 
suppose  the  subject  be  "  The  sound 
of  Patrick  Henry's  voice  in  the 
Virginia  House  of  Burgesses,"  the 
question,  "  What  is  its  shape  ? " 
would  be  useless,  and  would  not 
have  been  asked  had  the  questioner 
first  found  out  that  the  subject  was 
immaterial.  Beginners  often  waste 
many  questions  in  this  and  similar 
ways. 

When  the  questioners  are  al- 
lowed more  than  one  guess,  one  or 
two  may  be  made  in  the  midst  of 
the  game  to  test  a  theory ;  but 
when  only  one  is  allowed  it  should 
not  be  made  until  the  guessers  are 
sure  they  are  right,  unless  all  their 
questions  have  been  asked.  When 
the  questioners  think  they  know 
the  subject,  they  had  better  test 
their  knowledge  by  a  particular 
question  rather  than  by  a  guess ; 
but  this  should  never  be  done  un- 
less there  is  very  good  reason,  for 
if  the  suspicion  is  unfounded,  a 
question  has  been  wasted. 

Answers.  The  answering  side 
should  be  careful  to  tell  everything 
the  question  calls  for,  but  no  more. 
For  instance,  if  the  subject  be 
"  The  blue  Union  of  the  American 
Flag,"  and  the  question  is  asked, 
"  What  is  its  color  ?"  The  answer 
"  Blue "  would  not  be  correct. 
"  Blue  and  white  "  would  be  the 
proper  answer.  "  Blue  with  white 
spots  "  would  tell  also  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  colors,  which  is  more 
than  the  question  called  for. 

The  following  classified  examples 
of  subjects  may  be  valuable  to  the 
beginner  in  showing  him  how  they 
can  be  varied,  and  also  in  indicat- 
ing the  best  order  of  questioning  : 

MATERIAL  REAL  SUBJECTS. 

General. — A  book  ;  a  man  ;  a  ring. 
Particular. — The  blue  book  on  the 

table ;  Mr.  S.;  Mrs.  B.'s  ring, 
Complex. — The  third  book  from  the 

left  on  the  upper  shelf  of  alcove 

202  in  the  Blank  library,  etc. 
Historical. — Martin  Luther's  Bible ; 

Charles  II.;  the  ring  with  which 


Prince  Albert   wedded  Queen 
Victoria. 

MATERIAL    IMAGINARY    SUBJECTS. 

Particular.  —  The    book     Mr.   L. 

dreamed  about  the  other  night. 
Mythological. — The  Sibyl's  book  ; 

the  Cyclops  ;  the  ring  of  the 

Nibelungs. 
Fictitious.  —  Arthur     Pendennis ; 

Aladdin's  ring. 
Historical. — The  book  Job  wished 

his  enemy  to  write. 

IMMATERIAL  REAL  SUBJECTS. 

General. — Courage  ;  a  sound  ;  a 
thought;  an  event. 

Particular. — Mr.  B.'s  courage  ;  the 
ticking  of  the  clock;  Mr.  B.'s 
thought  about  this  subject ;  the 
party  yesterday. 

Complex. — The  first  note  Madame 
X.  sang  to  day,  in  her  first  solo 
at  the  opera. 

Historical. — Gen.  Custer's  courage 
at  the  Big  Horn;  the  cheers  that 
greeted  Sheridan  on  his  ride 
from  Winchester  ;  the  thoughts 
of  Napoleon  after  Waterloo; 
the  signing  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence. 

IMMATERIAL    IMAGINARY  SUB- 
JECTS. 

Particular.  —  The    courage    I 

thought  he  had. 

Mythological. — The  sound  of  Vul- 
can's hammer;  the  beauty  of 
Venus  ;  a  council  of  the  gods. 
Fictitious. — "  The  sound  of  ham- 
mers, blow  on  blow,"  in  Long- 
fellow's "  Building  of  the  Ship;  " 
the  shipwreck,  in  Shakespeare's 
"  Tempest." 

It  is  often  difficult  to  classify  a 
subject ;  for  instance,  some  might 
call  a  dream  real  but  immaterial, 
and  others  might  consider  it  im- 
aginary. 

The  first  of  the  two  sample  games 
which  follow  is  from  the  short 
treatise  on  Twenty  Questions  by 
"  Hotspur,"  and  was  played  in 
Lenox,  Mass.,  in  1880.  It  was  un- 
derstood at  the  beginning  that  the 
subject  was  Biblical.  The  second 
game  is  of  historical  interest,  the 


TWENTY  QUESTIONS 


749 


TWENTY  QUESTIONS 


questioner  being  George  Canning, 
English  statesman.  The  two  games 
show  also  the  advance  that  has 
been  made  in  questioning  since 
Canning's  time.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  most  of  the  questions  in  this 
second  game  are  alternative  ;  that 
is,  contain  the  word  "  or ; "  and 
each  question  systematically  cuts 
the  field  of  possibility  left  open  by 
the  last. 

Came  I. 

1.  Is  this  subject  mentioned  in 
the  Old,  or  in  the  New  Testament  ? 
— The  New. 

2.  In  what  book  ? — Acts. 

3.  With   whom  is  it  most  inti- 
mately   connected  ? — One   of  the 
Apostles. 

4.  What  was    his    name  ?  —  St. 
Paul. 

5.  Material  or    immaterial  ?  — 
Material. 

6.  What     are     its     component 
parts  ? — Vegetable  matter. 

7.  What  is  its  shape  ? — An  elon- 
gated oval. 

8.  What   is    its    size  ?  —  About 
three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  length, 
by  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch 
in  breadth  and  thickness. 

9.  What  is  its  color  ? — Yellowish. 

10.  What  is  its  use? — A  means 
of  preserving  life. 

11.  In    what    way?  —  Various 
ways. 

12.  On  the  especial  occasion  you 
have  in  mind,  in  what  way?  —  By 
being  thrown  away. 

1 3.  Whose  life  was  it  the  means 
of   preserving? — The  lives   of  St. 
Paul  and  his  companions. 

14.  Who    threw    it   away?  —  St. 
Paul  and  his  companions. 

15.  Where  were  they  when  they 
threw  it  away  ? — On   the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

1 6.  From  what  did   it  preserve 
their  lives  ? — From  death. 

17.  Death  in  what  form  ? — Death 
by  drowning. 

Correctly  guessed.  "  A  grain  of 
wheat  of  the  cargo  of  the  ship 
which  carried  St.  Paul  to  Malta." 


Came  II. 

1.  Does  it  belong  to  the  animal, 
or  the  vegetable  kingdom  ? — To  the 
vegetable. 

2.  Is  it  manufactured  or  unman- 
ufactured ? — Manufactured. 

3.  Is    it  a  solid,   or  liquid  ? — A 
solid. 

4.  Is  it  a  thing  entire  in  itself,  or 
in  parts? — In  parts. 

5.  Is  it  for  private  use,  or  public? 
—Public. 

6.  Does  it  exist  in  England,  or 
out  of  it? — In  England. 

7.  Is  it  single,  or  are  there  oth- 
ers of  the  same  kind  ? — Single. 

8.  Is  it  historical,  or  only  exis- 
tent at  present? — Both. 

9.  For  ornament,  or  use  ? — Both. 

10.  Has  it  any  connection  with 
the  person  of  the  king? — No. 

11.  Is  it  carried,  or  does  it  support 
itself  ? — The  former. 

1 2.  Does  it  pass  by  succession  ? — 
[Not  answered,  on  account  of  un- 
certainty; but,  by  agreement,  the 
question  was  counted  one  in  the 
game.] 

13.  Was  it  used  at  the  corona- 
tion ? — Yes. 

14.  In    the   Hall,  or    Abbey? — 
Probably  in  both ;  certainly  in  the 
Abbey. 

15.  Does  it  belong  specially  to 
the  coronation,  or  is  it  used  at  other 
times? — It  is  used  at  other  times. 

1 6.  Is  it  exclusively  of  a  vegetable 
nature,  or  is  it  not  in  some  parts  a 
compound  of  a  vegetable  and  min- 
eral ? — Exclusively  of  a  vegetable 
nature. 

17.  What  is  its  shape?   [Objected 
to    as  too    particular,    though    it 
would  now  be  considered  perfectly 
proper.    It  was  withdrawn,  and  not 
counted.] 

17.  Is   it  decorated,  or  simple? 
[Objected  to,  but  the  objection  not 
sustained.] — Simple. 

1 8.  Is  it  used  at  the  ordinary  cer- 
emonial of  the  House  of  Commons 
or  House  of  Lords? — No. 

19.  Is    it    ever    used   by   either 
House  ? — No. 


TWENTY  QUESTIONS 


75° 


TWENTY  QUESTIONS 


20.  Is  it  generally  stationary,  or 
movable  ? — Movable. 

Guessed  correctly  by  Mr.  Can- 
ning. '"The  wand  of  the  Lord 
High  Steward."  (The  Lord  High 
Steward  of  England  was  in  ancient 
times  the  first  officer  of  state  in  the 
English  court,  but  now,  as  at  the 
time  of  this  game,  there  is  no  reg- 
ular holder  of  the  office.  A  tem- 
porary Lord  High  Steward  is  ap- 
pointed to  take  part  in  coronations 
and  the  trials  of  peers.  He  has  a 
wooden  wand  of  office,  which  he 
breaks  when  his  duties  are  over.) 

Variations.  Several  variations 
are  sometimes  made  in  the  game. 
One  player  may  select  a  subject  and 
allow  the  others  to  question  him, 
either  through  a  captain  or  in  rota- 
tion. 

When  two  parties  play  one 
against  the  other,  the  captains  may 
be  dispensed  with,  and  the  ques- 
tions and  answers  given  by  the 
players  in  order. 

The  game  may  be  played  for 
points,  in  which  case  each  side 
questions  during  a  given  number 
of  games,  and  answers  during  the 
same  number,  the  players  on  the 
sides  remaining  the  same.  The 
number  of  questions  asked  in  each 
game  is  scored  to  the  askers,  wheth- 
er the  subject  be  guessed  or  not, 
and  the  side  having  the  less  num- 
ber of  points  wins.  In  this  way 
of  scoring,  to  guess  the  subject  in 
twenty  questions  counts  no  more 
than  to  fail  altogether.  This  may 
be  remedied  by  agreeing  that  a 
failure  to  guess  shall  count  more 
than  twenty  against  the  askers.  It 
may  be  agreed  that  the  answerers 
shall  be  limited  in  their  choice  of  a 
subject,  the  others  undertaking  to 
guess  it  in  less  than  twenty  ques- 
tions. Thus  the  subject  maybe  an 
event  in  American  History,  and  ten 
questions  may  be  allowed. 

When  the  game  is  played  by 
young  children,  more  than  twenty 
questions  may  be  allowed,  or  the 
number  may  not  be  limited  at  all. 


Learners  may  begin  with  a  large 
number  of  questions,  and  gradually 
diminish  it  as  they  become  more 
expert.  Skilled  players  think  that 
it  is  possible,  if  the  questions  are 
asked  properly,  to  guess  any  subject 
in  twenty  questions,  and  that  most 
subjects  can  be  found  out  in  from 
fifteen  to  eighteen. 

The  Three  Kingdoms,  or  Animal, 
Vegetable,  and  Mineral.  A  kind  of 
Twenty  Questions  in  which  the  first 
question  is  "  To  which  of  the 
three  kingdoms  does  it  belong?" 
or  "Is  it  Animal,  Vegetable,  or 
Mineral?"  It  was  formerly  con- 
sidered that  everything  in  nature 
belongs  to  the  Animal  kingdom, 
the  Vegetable  kingdom,  or  the 
Mineral  kingdom;  but  there  are 
many  things  hard  to  classify  thus, 
and  as  subjects  are  now  taken  that 
are  not  material — such  as  thoughts, 
words,  or  ideas — it  is  rarely  asked. 
In  the  old  game  of  Animal,  Vege- 
table, and  Mineral  the  number  of 
questions  was  often  unlimited, 
while  the  answers  were  required  to 
be  merely  "  Yes  "  and  "  No,"  as  in 
CLUMPS. 

RULES  OF  THE  GA  ME. 

1.  The  umpire  is  elected  by  ma- 
jority vote  before  the  game.   There 
is  no  appeal  from  his  decisions. 

2.  The  captains,  if  any,  shall  be 
chosen  by  vote  of  each  side. 

3.  The  parties  shall  determine  by 
lot  which  shall  question  first,  and 
afterwards  they  shall  do  so  alter- 
nately. 

4.  The  umpire  shall  takedown  in 
writing  the  subject  and  each  ques- 
tion and  answer. 

5.  The    subject    must    have,   or 
must  have  had,  an  actual  existence 
either  in  fact,  fiction,  or  imagina- 
tion.    It  may  be  material  or  imma- 
terial. 

[This  rule  bars  subjects  like  "  The 
sound  of  a  hammer  that  was  not 
heard  at  the  building  of  Solomon's 
temple,"  which  we  are  told  was 
once  actually  chosen.] 

6.  Any  question  may  be  asked 


TWENTY  QUESTIONS 


751 


TWIRL  THE  PLATTER 


whose  answer  is  not  part  of  the  sub- 
ject. For  instance,  if  the  subject 
be  "  A  button  on  Mr.  Smith's  coat," 
and  the  guessing  party  have  found 
that  it  is  a  button  on  some  one's 
coat,  it  is  not  allowable  to  ask  "  On 
whose  coat  is  it  ?  "  The  question 
"  With  what  person  is  it  most  near- 
ly connected  ?  "  is  often  objected  to 
for  a  like  reason.  The  legality  of 
this  question  and  others  in  doubt 
must  be  decided  by  the  umpire. 

7.  It  is  not  allowable  to  ask  two 
or   more  questions  at  once;  thus, 
"  What   is   its   shape    and    size  ? " 
must  count  as  two  questions. 

8.  If  there    are    captains,    they 
must  in  all  cases  give  the  questions 
and    answers,    and    no    attention 
need  be  paid  to  a  question  put  by 
any  other  player. 

9.  If  there  are  no  captains,  the 
questions  are  put  and  answered  by 
the  players  in  regular  order,  and  no 
question  asked  out  of  that  order 
need  be  heeded. 

10.  If  it  is  impossible  to  answer  a 
question  exactly,  as  correct  an  an- 
swer as  possible  must  be  given,  and 
at  the  same  time  its  defects  must  be 
pointed  out.     Thus,  if "  Napoleon's 
little   finger-nail  "  be  the  subject, 
and  the  question  be  "  What  was  its 
size  ?  "  although  of  course  the   ex- 
act answer  cannot  be   given,  the 
answer  should  be  "  Probably  about 
one-third  of  an  inch  in  diameter; 
we   do   not  know  exactly."     [The 
simple  answer,  "  We  do  not  know," 
though  literally  true,  is  not  allow- 
able in  such  a  case,  but  sometimes 
no  other  can  be  given  ,  in  which  case 
the  umpire  should  permit  it.J 

1 1.  A  vague  question  may  be  an- 
swered vaguely.     Thus,  "  Where  is 
it    situated?"     "In     the     United 
States."    The  question  in  this  case 
should  be,  "In  what  city  or  town  is 
it?" 

12.  An  answer  made  by  a  player 
not  a  captain,  or  out  of  regular  or- 
der is  not  counted  as  an  answer,  but 
the  questioners  may  use  whatever 
information  they  gain  from  it.     But 


the  answering  side  may  endorse  it 
if  they  please,  and  then  it  is  treated 
as  their  regular  answer. 

13.  When  the  players  ask    and 
answer  in  order,  any  one  may  de- 
cline to  take  his  turn,  and  must 
then  wait  until  the  next  round. 

14.  After  each  question  or  an- 
swer is  written  down  by  the  um- 
pire he  shall  call  "  Time,"  and  the 
following  answer  or  question  must 
then  be   given   within    the    time- 
limit  previously  agreed  upon. 

15.  If  any  side   fail  to  give  its 
question    or   answer    within    the 
time-limit,  the  opposing  side  gain  a 
question ;  that  is,  an  extra  question 
is  allowed  if  they  are  the  question- 
ers, and  one  less  if  they  are    the 
answerers.      A    question    is    thus 
gained  for  every  expiration  of  the 
time-limit;  thus,  if  the  time-limit 
be  five  minutes,  and  the  answering 
party  take  sixteen  minutes  to  con- 
sult over  an  answer,  the  askers  are 
allowed  twenty-three  questions. 

History.  Twenty  Questions  is 
said  by  some  persons  to  have  been 
invented  by  George  Canning,  the 
English  statesman,  who  was  born 
in  1 770,  and  it  is  sometimes  called  in 
England  the  Canning  Game;  but 
it  probably  existed  in  some  form 
long  before  his  time.  Not  only 
Canning  but  other  eminent  men, 
including  William  Pitt,  were  fond 
of  the  game.  Pitt  once  guessed 
the  subject  "The  stone  on  which 
Walworth,  Lord  Mayor  of  London, 
stood,  when  he  struck  Wat  Tyler 
down,  in  Richard  II. 's  time." 
About  1880  the  game  became  very 
popular  in  the  eastern  United 
States,  but  it  had  been  played  in 
this  country  many  years  before  that 
time. 

TWIRL  THE  PLATTER.  A  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons 
with  a  tin  or  earthenware  plate. 
The  players  stand  in  a  circle,  and 
one  of  them,  who  may  be  chosen  in 
any  way,  begins  the  game  by  twirl- 
ing the  plate  on  the  floor  in  the 
middle  of  the  circle,  calling  out  at 


TWIRLER 


75* 


TWIRLER 


the  same  time  the  name  of  one  of 
the  other  players.  That  one  must 
catch  the  platter  before  it  falls  to 
the  ground,  and  then  twirl  it  again, 
calling  out  the  name  of  some  one, 
as  before.  Any  player  failing  to 
catch  the  platter  before  it  falls  must 
pay  a  forfeit.  Sometimes  the  play- 
ers are  numbered,  and  the  one  who 
twirls  the  plate  calls  out  a  number 
instead  of  a  name. 

TWIRLER,  An  arrangement  for 
spinning  objects  rapidly,  used  in 
some  of  the  scientific  experiments 
described  in  this  book.  It  consists 
usually  of  two  wheels  fixed  on  a 
stand,  and  so  connected  by  a  band 
that  by  turning  a  handle  fixed  to 
one,  the  other  revolves  very  rapidly. 
The  object  to  be  twirled  is  fixed  to 
this  second  wheel.  Twirlers  can 
be  bought  of  dealers  in  scientific 
or  school  supplies,  or  its  place  can 
be  supplied  by  the  wheel  of  a  toy 
cart.  Turn  the  cart  bottom  up- 
ward, pin  or  tack  the  object  to  be 
twirled  to  one  side  of  the  wheel,  and 
twirl  it  from  the  other  side  with  the 
forefinger.  If  the  object  is  to  be 
twirled  horizontally  —  as,  for  in- 
stance, a  pail  of  water  —  the  cart 
may  be  placed  on  its  side  on  a  table 
with  the  wheel  to  be  used  pro- 
jecting over  the  edge.  The  cart  is 
kept  in  place  by  putting  a  weight 
on  it.  The  string  supporting  the 
object  is  now  tacked  as  near  the 
middle  of  the  hub  as  possible,  and 
the  wheel  twirled  as  before. 

An  excellent  twirler  can  also  be 
made  as  follows:  Support  aboard 


from  six  to  twelve  inches  wide  and 
a  few  feet  long,  by  placing  one  end 
under  the  top  of  a  door-way,  open- 
ing the  door  slightly,  so  that  the 
middle  of  the  board  rests  on  it. 
Over  the  free  end  of  the  board 


hang  a  circle  of  twine  so  long  that 
the  lower  end  reaches  within  two 
feet  of  the  floor.  This  end  should 
be  provided  with  a  hook.  If  the 
twine  now  be  twisted  and  the  ob- 
ject to  be  twirled  hung  on  the  hook, 
the  untwisting  of  the  cord  will 
make  the  object  spin.  It  will 
move  still  more  swiftly  if  it  is  as- 
sisted to  untwist  by  pressing  down- 
ward with  a  stick  just  above  the 
twisted  part.  A  flat  piece  of  cork 
may  be  strung  on  the  twine  a  little 
above  the  end,  and  kept  in  place 
by  knots.  On  this  colored  disks 
of  paper  may  be  placed,  producing 
the  same  effects  when  spun  as  the 
color  TOP. 


UGLY  MUG 


753 


UNCLE  JOHN 


u 


UGLY  MUGi  A  singing  game, 
played  by  any  number  of  persons. 
A  leader  is  chosen,  who  stands  fac- 
ing the  rest  of  the  company.  They 


must  imitate  every  gesture  that  he 
makes,  and  those  who  can  do  so 
sing  with  him.  He  sings,  to  the 
tune  given  below : 


put      my     right     hand 


I        put     my    right  hand    out, 


— I 1 — 

give      my     right    hand   shake,  shake,  shake,  and      turn      my  -  self        a  -   bout. 


As  he  sings  he  suits  the  action  to 
the  words,  first  stretching  out  his 
right  hand,  then  facing  in  the  op- 
posite direction  and  extending  it 
again,  then  shaking  it,  and  finally 
turning  back  to  his  first  position. 
In  like  manner  he  then  sings  : 

'  I  put  my  left  hand  in,"  etc. 
'  I  put  my  both  hands  in,"  etc. 
'  I  put  my  right  foot  in,"  etc. 
'  I  put  my  left  foot  in,"  etc. 
'  I  put  my  both  feet  in,"  etc. 
'  I  put  my  ugly  mug  in,"  etc. 

To  "  put  both  feet  in  "  the  play- 
ers jump  forward,  and  to  shake 
them  they  dance  up  and  down.  At 
the  last  line  the  players  stretch  their 
heads  forward.  Sometimes  those 
who  laugh  are  required  to  pay  for- 
feits. 

In  England  this  game  is  called 
"Hinkumbooby"  or  "Looby  Loo- 
by," and  the  verse  begins : 

"  Looby,  Looby,  Looby, 
All  on  a  Saturday  night." 

UNCLE  JOHN.  A  singing  game 
played  by  any  number  of  boys  and 
girls.  The  players  dance  hand  in 
hand  in  a  circle  singing : 

Uncle  John  is  very  sick ; 

What  shall  we  send  him  ? 
A  piece  of  pie,  a  piece  of  cake, 

A  piece  of  apple  dumpliag. 


What  shall  we  send  it  in  ? 

In  a  piece  of  paper. 
Paper  is  not  fine  enough  ; 

In  a  golden  saucer. 
Whom  shall  we  send  it  by  ? 

By  the  king's  daughter. 
Take  her  by  the  lily-white  hand, 

And  lead  her  o'er  the  water. 

The  dancers  then  sit  down,  and 
the  last  down  (supposing  it  to  be  a 
girl)  selects  a  friend  and  whispers 
in  her  ear  the  initials  of  some  boy. 
She  then  takes  her  place  in  the 
ring,  but  facing  outward,  while  the 
friend  announces  the  initials,  and 
the  players  again  circle  and  sing : 

"  X.  Y.,  so  they  say, 
Goes  a-courting  eight  and  day. 
Sword  and  pistol  by  his  side. 
And to  be  his  bride. 

He  takes  her  by  the  lily-white  hand 
And  leads  her  o'er  the  water  ; 

Here's  a  kiss,  and  there's  a  kiss 
For  Mr. 's  daughter." 

The  one  whose  initials  were 
given  then  kisses  the  girl  who 
gave  them ;  she  faces  inward,  and 
the  gajne  goes  on  as  before.  If  the 
player  last  down  was  a  boy,  his  full 
name  is  given  in  the  first  line  of 
the  last-quoted  stanza,  and  the 
initials  he  gives  are  inserted  in  the 
fourth  line. 


VALENTINE  PARTY 


754      VEGETABLE  INSTRUMENTS 


VALENTINE  PARTY.  An  enter- 
tainment at  which  each  guest 
gives  a  valentine  to  every  other. 
The  party  must  be  given  on  or 
near  St.  Valentine's  day,  February 
1 4th.  The  hostess  informs  each 
guest  beforehand  what  he  or  she 
is  expected  to  do,  and  at  least  a 
day  beforehand  each  guest  must 
send  in  his  valentine.  On  the 
evening  of  the  party  some  one 
appointed  by  the  hostess  reads 
them  all  aloud,  giving  each  to  the 
person  to  whom  it  is  addressed, 
after  it  is  read.  Assumed  names 
are  usually  signed  to  the  val- 
entines, which  may  be  sentimental 
or  ridiculous,  as  the  writer  pleases. 
Sometimes  each  guest  is  allowed 
to  write  as  many  or  as  few  val- 
entines as  he  wishes;  and  if  the 
hostess  finds,  on  looking  them 
over,  that  any  guest  has  received 
none,  she  either  writes  him  one  her- 
self or  asks  some  one  else  to  do  so. 

VEGETABLE  MUSICAL  INSTRU- 
MENTS. Rude  musical  instru- 
ments of  several  kinds  can  be  made 
from  trees  or  vegetables.  Some  of 
these  are  described  below. 

Willow  Whistles.  A  green  willow 
stick  from  two  to  five  inches  long 
is  cut,  as  in  Fig.  i.  The  bark  is 
loosened  by  pounding  it  carefully 
with  a  smooth  stone  or  the  handle 
of  a  pocket-knife  till  it  will  slip 
off.  A  thin  slice  of  wood  is  then 
cut  from  the  notch  A  to  the  end 
of  the  stick  at  B,  and  then  the 
bark  is  slipped  on  again.  (See  Fig: 
2.)  If  the  whistle  has  been  proper- 
ly made,  blowing  at  the  end  B  will 
make  a  shrill  noise. 

Willow  whistles  were  once  sup- 
posed to  have  the  power  of  causing 
rain.  Swiss  children,  when  they 
make  these  whistles,  sing  "  Franz, 
Franz,  lend  me  your  pipe,"  which 
is  supposed  once  to  have  been  an 
appeal  to  a  water  spirit. 

Squash  Trumpets.  From  the  leaf- 


stalk of  a  squash  or  pumpkin  vine 
the  leaf  is  cut  through  the  fleshy 
part  so  that  the  hollow  stalk  will 
be  closed  at  that  end.  A  slit  about 
an  inch  long  is  then  made  length- 
wise, close  to  the  closed  end. 
When  that  end  is  placed  in  the 
mouth  so  that  the  slit  is  entirely 
within,  a  harsh  note  may  be  pro- 
duced by  blowing.  If  little  holes 
are  cut  in  the  stem  different  notes 


Fig.  i. 


Fig.  4. 
Vegetable  Musical  Instruments. 

may  be  produced  by  stopping 
these  with  the  fingers ;  and  by 
cutting  them  at  the  right  distance 
apart — which  may  be  done  after  a 
few  experiments — a  tune  can  be 
played.  (See  Fig.  3.) 

Corn-stalk  Fiddle.  A  piece  of 
corn-stalk  is  cut  so  that  a  joint 
will  be  at  each  end.  Part  of  the 
edges  of  the  concave  side  are  then 
slit  so  as  to  detach  two  cords,  the 
joints  holding  them  at  the  ends. 
Then  two  bits  of  stick  are  cut,  of 
the  thickness  of  a  slate  pencil  and 
about  an  inch  long,  and  one  is 
pushed  under  the  cords  at  each 
end,  to  raise  and  tighten  them. 
This  makes  the  fiddle.  (Fig.  4.) 
The  bow  is  made  in  like  manner 


VIBRATING  RODS 


755 


VIBRATING  RODS 


of  a  smaller  piece  of  stalk,  and 
when  one  is  drawn  across  the  other 
a  squeaking  noise  results. 

VERBARIUM.    See  DICTIONARY. 

VIBRATING  RODS,  Experiment 
with.  Obtain  two  pieces  of  white 
pine,  each  four  feet  long,  one  inch 
wide,  and  quarter  of  an  inch  thick. 
On  the  flat  side,  close  to  the  end 
of  each,  fasten  with  wax  a  bit  of 


silvered  glass  one  inch  square. 
Fill  two  dry-goods  boxes  (A  and 
B,  Fig.  i)  about  fourteen  inches 
square,  with  sand,  to  serve  as 
steady  supports  for  the  rods.  Fas- 
ten one  rod,  C,  upright  to.  one 
of  the  boxes  by  two  screws  so  that 
the  rod  projects  above  the  box 
just  thirty  inches.  The  other  rod, 
D,  is  held  horizontally  across  the 


Vibrating  Rods— Fig.  i. 


side  of  the  other  box  by  two  bits 
of  wood,  F,  G,  screwed  across  it 
but  not  into  it,  so  that  the  rod  may 
be  slipped  forward  and  backward. 
Over  the  mirror  of  the  upright  rod 
is  pasted  a  piece  of  paper  one  inch 
square  with  a  hole  in  its  centre  a 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  A 
beam  of  light  from  a  heliostat  or  a 
lamp  is  allowed  to  enter  the  room. 
In  case  a  lamp  is  used,  it  must 
be  covered  all  but  the  opening 
through  which  the  light  passes, 
and  a  LENS  must  be  set  in  the 


beam  so  as  to  make  the  rays 
parallel.  The  box  supporting  the 
upright  rod  is  so  placed  that  the 
beam  falls  squarely  on  the  mirror 
at  the  end  of  the  rod.  The  other 
box  is  placed  on  a  table,  and  the 
horizontal  rod  is  slid  out  till  just 
thirty  inches  of  it  are  beyond  the 
box.  The  box  is  now  disposed  so 
that  the  beam  is  reflected  from  the 
upright  rod  to  the  mirror  on  the 
horizontal  rod,  and  thence  to  the 
wall,  or  a  screen  at  S,  where  it  ap- 
pears as  a  bright  spot.  If  the  up- 


VIBRATING  RODS 


756 


VIBRATING  RODS 


right  rod  be  made  to  shake  to  and 
fro  by  giving  it  a  pull  and  letting 
it  go,  the  spot  becomes  a  verti- 


cal line,  which  grows  shorter  and 
shorter  till  the  rod  stops.  In  like 
manner,  if  the  horizontal  rod  is 


Vibrating  Rods— Fig.  a. 


Vibrating  Rods— Fig.  3. 


Vibrating  Rods— Fig.  4. 


made  to  shake,  there  will  be  a 
bright  horizontal  line  on  the 
screen.  If  both  rods  together  be 
made  to  shake,  the  result  will  be  a 


figure  like  those  obtained  with  the 

DOUBLE      PENDULUM,     but 


more    clear   and    beautiful. 


much 
The 


kind  of    figure   depends    on   the 


VIOLIN 


757 


VIOLIN 


length  of  the  horizontal  rod.  With 
the  length  given  above — that  is, 
where  the  vibrating  rods  are  equal 
— it  will  be  like  that  in  Fig.  2.  Un- 
less the  rods  have  been  very  exact- 
ly adjusted,  the  figure  will  change, 
becoming  in  turn  each  of  those 
represented  in  the  illustration. 
Other  curves  are  shown  in  Figs.  3 
and  4,  and  many  others  still  will 
be  obtained  by  sliding  the  rod  D 
in  and  out. 

VIOLIN,  Experiments  with  a. 
These  can  be  tried  equally  well  on 
a  banjo,  or  guitar,  but  a  violin  bow 
is  necessary  for  some  of  them. 


1.  Loosen   all  the  strings  but 
one — preferably  one  of  the  middle 
strings.      Pluck  or  bow  it  first  ex- 
actly in  the  middle  and  then  close 
to    one    end,  listening   carefully. 
There  is  a  difference  in  the  sound, 
which  has  more  "  twang  "  when  the 
string  is  plucked  at  the  ends.   This 
is  because  the  note  given  by  the 
string  is  composed  of  several  faint 
ones,  called    "  overtones,"   beside 
the  loud  one  which  is  most  plain- 
ly heard,  and  more  overtones  are 
present  when  the  string  is  plucked 
at  the  end. 

2.  Press  the  finger  firmly  down 


Sonometer. 


exactly  on  the  middle  of  the  string, 
and  sound  it  again.  The  note 
heard  will  be  an  octave  higher  than 
the  original  note.  Touch  the  finger 
lightly  to  the  same  spot,  and  sound 
the  note  as  before.  The  result  will 
be  the  same,  but  by  looking  closely 
it  will  be  seen  that  both  halves  of 
the  string  are  vibrating.  By  press- 
ing the  string  at  a  third  its  length 
from  the  bottom  and  drawing  a 
bow  across  the  smaller  part,  the 
fifth  above  the  note  given  by  the 
whole  string  is  obtained.  By  touch- 
ing the  same  spot  lightly  and 
bowing  as  before,  the  whole  string 
can  be  made  to  vibrate,  the  longer 
part  vibrating  in  halves.  The  whole 
string  thus  vibrates  in  three  parts. 
The  points  between  the  vibrating 
parts,  which  are  almost  still,  are 
called  "  nodes."  If  it  cannot  be 
seen  that  the  string  is  vibrating  in 


parts,  bend  a  little  narrow  strip  of 
paper  and  hang  it  over  the  string 
where  the  node  ought  to  be.  When 
the  string  is  made  to  vibrate  the 
paper  will  be  agitated  only  a  little, 
whereas  if  it  be  moved  along  a  little 
way  it  will  shake  violently,  or  be 
thrown  off  the  string.  By  touch- 
ing different  points  of  the  string  a 
skilled  violin  player  can  make  it 
vibrate  in  four,  five  or  more  sec- 
tions. Notes  thus  produced  are 
called  "harmonics." 

This  experiment  will  succeed 
better  if  a  Sonometer  is  used,  which 
is  easily  made  as  follows :  Take  a 
piece  of  violin  string,  or  piano  wire, 
a  little  longer  than  the  table  you 
wish  to  use.  Tie  it  to  a  nail  at  one 
end  of  the  table  and  pass  it  over 
a  pulley  screwed  horizontally  into 
the  other  end.  To  the  end  of  the 
string  tie  a  tin  pail  filled  with  sand, 


VITESSE 


758 


VOLTAIC  PILE 


nails  or  scraps  of  iron.  It  may, 
instead,  be  fastened  to  a  second 
nail,  as  in  the  diagram,  but  the 
other  way  is  best,  as  the  pull  on 
the  string  can  then  be  easily  al- 
tered. The  string  should  now  be 
flat  on  the  table,  or  nearly  so. 
Cut  wedge-shaped  sticks  of  wood 
and  place  them  under  the  string, 
as  shown  in  the  picture  at  A,  B 
and  D.  By  letting  the  wedges  at 
the  ends  remain  and  moving  the 
third,  the  same  results  will  follow 
as  if  the  string  were  touched  with 
the  finger.  Two  ways  of  vibrating 
are  shown  in  the  diagram,  the 
nodes  being  at  C.  The  weight  of 
the  pail  can  be  varied  by  taking 
out  or  putting  in  nails  or  sand, 
thus  stretching  the  string  to  the 
desired  degree. 

3.  Sound    a    string    and    then 
touch  it  lightly  in  the  middle.     It 
will  give  the  octave  faintly. 

4.  Loosen  all  the  strings  of  a 
violin  but  two,  and  tune  those  to 
the  same  note,  pluck  one,  and  then 
stop  it ;  the  other  will  continue  to 
sound.     Tune  one  slightly  higher 
or  lower  than  the  other,  and  try 
the  same  experiment.    The  second 
String  will  still  sound,  but  not  as 
loud  or  as   long  as   before.     This 
is  called  "  sympathetic  vibration." 
The  notes  which  are  most  sympa- 
thetic, or  are  set  in  motion  most 
easily  by  a  vibrating  string,  are  the 
same   note,   its    octave,  the    fifth 
above  the  octave,  the  second  oc- 
tave, and  the  third  and  fifth  above 
that.    This  is  shown  best  by  experi- 
ments on  the  PIANO. 

5.  Tune  the  two  lower  strings  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  the  same  note, 
and  loosen  the  others.     Place  the 
ear  behind  the  drum,  if  the  instru- 
ment be  a  banjo,  or  close  to  the 
openings   in   the   body,  if  it  be  a 
violin  or  guitar.     Pluck  the  two 
strings  together,  and  the  resulting 
sound   will  be   heard,   first  louder 
and  then  softer,  in  waves  or  pul- 
sations.    These  are  called    beats. 
If  they  are  not  heard,  raise  or  low- 


er the  pitch  of  one  of  the  strings 
a  little.  The  beats  will  be  slower 
the  nearer  in  tune  the  two  strings 
are,  and  faster  the  farther  they 
are  apart;  but  if  the  notes  are  not 
very  near,  the  beats  will  be  so  fast 
that  they  cannot  be  distinguished. 
They  can  be  heard  still  better  with 

TUNING  FORKS. 

VITESSE.  A  game  played  by  two 
persons,  each  with  a  full  pack  of 
CARDS.  Each  player  sits  with  his 
pack  face  downward  before  him, 
and  at  a  signal  both  begin  to  turn 
over  their  cards  one  by  one,  face 
outward,  and  throw  them  on  the 
table.  They  do  not  take  turns,  but 
each  plays  as  fast  as  he  can,  repeat- 
ing as  he  does  so  the  names  of  the 
thirteen  cards  from  Ace  to  King, 
over  and  over  again,  one  for  each 
card  he  turns.  Whenever  the  card 
turned  is  the  same  as  the  one  called 
out,  he  must  lay  it  by  itself,  and 
begin  again  at  the  Ace  in  calling 
out.  The  player  who  first  lays 
aside  thirteen  cards  in  this  way 
wins.  But  if  a  card  is  once  passed 
that  should  have  been  thrown  out, 
the  player  must  go  on  as  if  it  had 
been  any  other  card.  The  game 
of  Vitesse  thus  requires  quickness 
of  hand  and  eye,  and  at  the  same 
time  close  attention,  and  a  prac- 
tised player  will  always  win  over  a 
beginner,  though  it  looks  so  sim- 
ple. 

The  word  Vitesse  is  French,  and 
means  Quickness. 

VOLTAIC  PILE,  A  kind  of  ELEC- 
TRIC BATTERY,  named  after  its 
inventor,  Alexander  Volta.  A  sim- 
ple one  may  be  made  as  follows : 
Take  a  glass  tube  about  an  inch  in 
diameter — an  argand  lamp  chim- 
ney from  which  the  lower  part  has 
been  removed  may  be  used.  Paste 
two  sheets  of  ordinary  gold  paper 
back  to  back  and  cut  out  disks  just 
large  enough  to  slip  into  the  tube. 
The  disks  can  be  cut  several  at  a 
time  by  first  folding  the  paper.  Cut 
an  equal  number  of  disks  in  like 
manner  from  silver  paper,  and  then 


VOWELS,  THE 


759 


WALKING  TRIPS 


make  a  pile  of  them,  gold  alter- 
nating with  silver.  The  tube  must 
thus  be  filled  with  the  disks  pressed 
together  as  tightly  as  possible,  and 
closed  at  each  end  with  a  cork, 
through  which  passes  a  wire  touch- 
ing the  end  disk.  A  LEYDEN  JAR 
may  be  charged  with  such  a  pile 
by  connecting  one  wire  with  the 
knob  and  the  other  with  the  outer 


coating.     The  electricity  in  the  pile 
will  last  a  long  time, 

VOWELS,  THE.  A  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons  who  sit  in 
a  row.  Each,  in  turn,  asks  a  question 
of  his  right-hand  neighbor,  at  the 
same  time  requiring  him  to  answer 
without  using  some  one  vowel.  If 
the  vowel  is  used  in  the  answer, 
the  offender  pays  a  forfeit. 


w 


WALKING  TRIPS.  In  making  a 
walking  trip  as  few  things  as  pos- 
sible should  be  carried,  as  every 
pound  of  weight  adds  to  the  fa- 
tigue. In  this  article  only  neces- 
sities are  considered. 

Outfit.  The  shoes  should  fit  the 
feet  easily,  and  the  soles  should 
be  neither  so  heavy  that  their 
weight  is  uncomfortable,  nor  so 
•light  that  the  feet  feel  through 
them  the  roughness  of  the  ground. 
Low  shoes  should  not  be  worn,  as 
they  admit  dust  and  dirt.  For 
climbing  rocky  hills  or  mountains 
heels  filled  with  iron  nails  are  best, 
as  they  hold  to  the  rocks.  Steel 
should  not  be  used,  as  it  is  hard  and 
slippery.  The  inside  of  the  sole 
should  be  perfectly  smooth.  A 
roughness  or  lump  which  would  not 
be  noticed  in  an  ordinary  walk  may 
become  painful  after  a  tramp  of 
twenty  or  thirty  miles.  The  best 
plan  is  to  wear  movable  leather 
in-soles.  As  soon  as  the  least  lump 
is  perceived  the  shoe  should  be 
taken  off,  the  sole  removed,  and 
part  of  its  under  surface  pared  off 
with  a  sharp  knife,  just  under  the 
uncomfortable  spot.  If  this  is  done 
faithfully,  the  soies  will  be  perfectly 
fitted  to  the  feet  at  the  end  of  a 
day's  walk,  and  the  trouble  of  doing 
it  will  be  amply  repaid  by  the  in- 
creased comfort.  This  simple  meth- 
od of  adapting  the  sole  to  the  foot 


was  devised  by  Russell  A.  Bigelow, 
a  New  York  lawyer.  Some  people 
put  sweet  oil  or  salve  on  the  feet 
when  they  begin  to  chafe,  and  they 
should  be  washed  frequently. 

The  other  articles  of  dress  may 
be  according  to  the  fancy  of  the 
wearer,  so  long  as  they  are  easy- 
fitting  and  comfortable.  For  warm 
weather,  gauze  underclothing  and  a 
loose  flannel  shirt  are  best,  with  a 
light  jacket  to  wear  when  not  walk- 
ing. For  colder  weather  the  shirt 
may  be  tighter  at  the  wrists  and 
neck  and  the  underclothing  thick- 
er. In  all  seasons  knee-breeches 
and  a  soft  hat  are  best.  One  can 
buy  a  knapsack,  which  may  be 
strapped  on  the  back,  or,  if  his  bun- 
dle is  small,  it  may  be  carried  in 
the  hand.  It  is  generally  better  to 
carry  a  small  weight  in  the  hand 
than  in  a  knapsack.  Other  articles 
that  may  be  carried  are  slippers,  to 
rest  the  feet  at  night  (some  think 
that  these  should  be  taken,  even  if 
nothing  else  is);  a  change  of  under- 
clothing; needle  and  thread  ;  but- 
tons ;  adhesive  plaster ;  fish-line 
and  hooks;  extra  handkerchiefs; 
pen,  ink  and  paper;  a  ball  of  twine 
and  matches.  If  the  trip  is  to  last 
more  than  a  few  days,  so  that  a 
change  of  underclothing  is  posi- 
tively necessary,  it  may  be  packed 
in  a  valise  and  sent  by  express  to 
some  town  on  the  road.  One  valise 


WALKING  TRIPS 


760 


WALKING  TRIPS 


can  usually  be  made  to  answer  for 
a  party  of  four  or  five. 

A  cane  or  staff  is  a  great  aid  in 
climbing,  or  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
day,  when  the  walker  is  tired ;  but 
as  it  is  often  in  the  way,  it  is  best  to 
cut  a  fresh  one  when  it  is  wanted. 

Shelter  and  Foodi  In  some  parts 
of  the  country  it  is  possible  so  to  ar- 
range the  trip  that  every  night  shall 
be  spent  at  a  hotel.  Otherwise  it  is 
necessary  to  ask  for  shelter  at 
farmhouses,  or  in  a  very  wild  coun- 
try to  CAMP  OUT  ;  but  this  requires 
extra  luggage.  In  some  parts  of 
the  United  States  it  is  very  easy  to 
get  shelter  for  the  night  at  a  farm- 
house ;  elsewhere  it  is  often  impos- 
sible. If  the  walking  party  wish  to 
stay  at  farm-houses,  they  should  in- 
quire beforehand  of  some  one  who 
knows  the  country  whether  they 
can  do  so  without  trouble.  The  mid- 
day meal  should  be  light,  unless  a 
rest  of  several  hours  is  taken  after 
it.  No  food  should  be  taken  when 
tired,  and  it  is  best  to  rest  at  least 
half  an  hour  before  eating.  The 
pedestrian  is  apt  to  be  very  thirsty, 
especially  on  a  warm  day.  Many 
authorities  say  that  no  water  at  all 
should  be  taken  while  walking,  and 
that  the  blood  should  be  cooled  by 
simply  bathing  the  wrists  and  tem- 
ples freely  at  intervals,  or  plunging 
the  arms  into  water  up  to  the  el- 
bows. Others  drink  freely  of  spring 
water.  Perhaps  it  is  best  for  each 
to  decide  for  himself  which  way  is 
best. 

Distance  and  Hours.  Unless  the 
walker  has  been  used  to  walking 
eight  or  ten  miles  a  day,  he  should 
go  not  more  than  fifteen  miles  on 
the  first  day,  and  increase  this  dis- 
tance by  two  or  three  miles  a  day 
till  he  feels  he  has  reached  the  limit 
of  comfort,  say  twenty-five  or 
thirty  miles.  The  tendency  of  be- 
ginners is  to  walk  as  far  as  they 
can  the  first  day,  with  the  result 
that  they  are  too  lame  on  the  next 
day  to  go  more  than  five  or  six 
miles  without  pain.  Ten  hours  a 


day  at  a  rate  of  three  miles  an 
hour  is  quite  enough.  In  a  long  trip, 
lasting  many  weeks;  the  muscles 
become  hardened,  and  much  more 
than  this  can  be  done  —  thirty-five 
miles  a  day,  or  perhaps  even  forty  ; 
but  this  is  an  extreme.  For  most 
boys  under  eighteen  years,  twenty 
miles  will  be  found  quite  enough ; 
and  this  distance  must  be  lessened, 
if  weight  is  to  be  carried.  The 
best  time  to  walk  is  in  the  morn- 
ing and  late  in  the  afternoon, 
taking  a  long  rest  at  noon,  before 
and  after  the  mid-day  meal.  It  is 
best  both  to  retire  and  to  rise  early. 
If  the  legs  and  feet  feel  hot  and  full 
of  blood  while  walking,  it  is  a  great 
relief  to  lie  on  the  back  and  hold 
them  up  as  straight  as  possible 
against  a  tree  or  wall  for  a  few 
minutes.  If  the  whole  body  is  tired, 
one  of  the  best  resting  postures  is 
to  lie  flat  on  the  face  on  the  ground. 
This  is  said  to  be  a  favorite  position 
with  the  Indians  when  tired.  But 
there  is  no  reason  why  more  than  a 
pleasant  degree  of  fatigue  should 
ever  be  felt,  if  the  walker  does  not 
overdo. 

The  walker  generally  suffers  from 
sunburn  during  the  first  two  or 
three  days,  but  it  usually  ceases 
after  a  time.  The  second  day  of 
the  march  is  generally  most  fatigu- 
ing. The  change  of  life  and  ex- 
citement often  keep  him  from 
sleeping  soundly  through  his  first 
night,  and  he  often  feels  tired  when 
he  wakes.  The  fresh  air  makes 
him  very  thirsty,  and  his  stomach 
often  becomes  disordered.  These 
symptoms,  however,  will  soon  pass 
away.  No  medicines  nor  alcohol 
should  be  taken,  though  laxative 
food,  such  as  fruits,  is  good. 

Routes.  The  general  road  to  be 
followed  should  be  studied  on  the 
map  before  starting,  leaving  the 
exact  route  to  be  decided  on  from 
day  to  day.  For  parts  of  the  country 
that  are  tke  resorts  of  tourists  there 
are  guide-books,  giving  the  best 
routes,  the  names  of  hotels  on  the 


WANDERING  CARD 


761 


WATCH,  EXPERIMENTS 


road,  and  much  other  information. 
If  part  of  the  route  lies  over  a 
country  where  there  is  no  road,  the 
direction  of  the  nearest  town  must 
be  found  out  from  a  map  or  other- 
wise. A  pathless  walk  of  more  than 
an  hour  requires  a  compass.  While 
walking  in  a  forest  it  is  necessary 
to  get  the  right  direction  only  at 
first;  it  can  be  kept  by  "lining" 
trees.  This  is  done  by  selecting 
three  trees  on  a  line  with  the  eye 
in  the  proper  direction;  after  the 
nearest  is  passed  another  is  taken, 
beyond  the  last,  so  that  three  are 
always  kept  in  view.  It  is  never  safe 
to  trust  to  instinct  to  keep  in  a 
straight  line  in  the  woods,  for  most 
people  naturally  walk  in  a  circle, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  one  leg  is 
slightly  stronger  than  the  other. 
Persons  lost  in  the  woods  have  oft- 
en travelled  thus  in  a  circle,  some- 
times for  days. 

Party.  A  large  party  is  more  en- 
joyable in  some  respects,  but  it  has 
the  disadvantage  that  some  will  al- 
ways want  to  walk  farther  than  oth- 
ers.and  that  it  is  difficult  to  agree  on 
the  route,  the  hours,  and  the  rest- 
ing places.  The  best  plan  is  either 
to  choose  a  leader  with  power  to 
decide  these  things,  or  for  all  to 
agree  to  follow  the  wishes  of  a  ma- 
jority. When  one  person  walks 
alone,  he  can  do  exactly  as  he 
pleases,  but  such  a  trip  is  apt  to  be 
lonely,  and  it  is  also  dangerous,  for 
in  case  of  accident  there  is  no  one 
to  give  or  obtain  aid. 

WANDERING  CARD.  A  SOLI- 
TAIRE game  of  CARDS,  played  with 
one  full  pack.  The  first  1 3  cards 
that  are  taken  from  the  pack  are 
laid  in  a  row,  as  they  come,  face 
upward.  The  next  13  are  laid  on 
these  in  the  same  order.  As  each 
of  the  second  13  is  played,  the 
number  of  the  pile  on  which  it  is 
placed  is  spoken,  and  if  the  num- 
ber of  pips  on  the  card  is  the  same, 
the  card  is  laid  aside,  and  the 
next  card  is  laid  on  the  next  pile. 
Knaves  count  as  n,  Queens  12, and 


Kings  13.  This  is  repeated  till  the 
pack  is  out,  when  there  will  be  four 
cards  in  each  pile,  except  where  a 
card  has  been  put  aside.  The  top 
card  of  those  laid  aside  is  now 
taken  and  slipped  under  the  pile 
having  the  corresponding  number. 
The  top  card  of  that  pile  is  slipped 
under  its  proper  pile,  and  so  on  till 
one  is  reached  that  is  in  its  proper 
place.  Then  the  next  card  of  those 
laid  aside  is  taken,  and  so  on  till 
all  have  been  used.  The  player 
has  won  if  the  pack  is  arranged  at 
the  end  of  the  game  in  13  piles 
each  of  which  contains  four  cards 
of  the  same  value. 

Clock,  The.  A  variation  of  the 
preceding  game.  Cards  are  placed 
in  twelve  piles  of  four  each,  face 
downward  in  a  circle,  and  num- 
bered to  correspond  with  the  fig- 
ures on  a  clock  dial.  The  thir- 
teenth pile  is  placed  in  the  centre. 
The  top  card  of  the  middle  pile  is 
now  turned  and  placed  face  up- 
ward under  its  proper  pile,  and  so 
on,  as  in  the  game  just  described. 
WATCH,  Experiments  with  a. 

1 .  Close  the  ears  tightly,  and  hold 
the  watch  firmly  between  the  teeth. 
The  ticking  will  be  heard  distinctly, 
because    the  sound  is  conducted 
through  the  teeth  and  the  bones 
of  the  head  to  the  inside  of  the  ear. 

2.  Let  one  person  hold  the  watch 
against  the  end  of  a  long  pole,  and 
let  another  press  the  other  end  of 
the  pole  against  his  ear,  or  hold  it 
between   his  teeth.    He  will  hear 
the  watch  tick  distinctly,  the  sound 
being  conducted  along  the  pole. 

3.  Let  one  person  hold  the  watch 
and  another  walk  slowly  away  till 
he  just  ceases  to  hear  the  ticking. 
Let  the  first  person  now  hold  the 
watch  in  front  of  a  con  cave  mirror, 
such  as  is  used  for  lamp  reflectors. 
The  second  person  will  find  that  he 
can  hear  the  watch  tick  if  his  ear  is 
directly  in  front  of  the  mirror,  but 
that  the  sound  ceases  if  he  moves 
to  one  side  or  the  other.    (See  RE- 
FLECTION OF  SOUND.) 


WATCH,  TRICK  WITH 


762 


WATER  DROP 


WATCH,  Trick  with. 

i.  To  indica.e  on  the  dial  of  a 
watch  the  hour  secretly  thought  of 
by  another.  Taking  a  pencil,  the 
performer  taps  with  it  the  hours 
on  the  dial,  asking  the  other  to 
count  the  taps  mentally,  beginning 
from  the  number  he  thought  of. 
Thus,  if  the  number  were  six,  he 
must  count  the  first  tap  as  seven, 
the  next  as  eight,  and  so  on.  He 
is  instructed  to  say  "Stop"  as 
soon  as  he  reaches  the  number 
twenty,  when  the  performer's  pen- 
cil is  found  to  point  to  the  number 
thought  of.  The  trick  is  performed 
as  follows :  The  first  seven  taps 
may  be  given  on  any  numbers 
whatever,  but  the  eighth  must  in- 
variably be  given  on  the  number 
XII,  the  ninth  on  XI,  and  so  on 
backward  around  the  dial.  When 
the  spectator,  having  reached  20, 
says  "  Stop,"  the  tap  will  be  made 
on  the  number  he  thought  of.  The 
reason  is  easily  understood  by 
those  who  understand  algebra.  Let 
x  be  the  number  thought  of.  Then 
the  first  tap  is  numbered  x+i  and 
the  eighth  x + 8.  But  if  x  —  i2,  x+8 
=20,  and  the  spectator  will  "Stop," 
therefore  the  tap  must  be  made  on 
the  figure  XII.  If  x  =  n,  x+8  =  i9 
and  x-i-9=2o,  therefore  the  ninth 
or  next  tap  must  be  made  on  the 
figure  XI,  and  so  on. 

WATCHMAN,  THE.  See  GOING 
TO  JERUSALEM. 

WATCHWORD  GAME,  THE.  See 
DICTIONARY. 

WATER  CLOCK.  A  device  for 
telling  time  by  means  of  water.  A 
simple  one  can  be  made  as  follows  : 
Stop  up  one  end  of  an  argand  lamp 
chimney  with  a  cork,  through 
which  passes  a  glass  jet  (see  CHEM- 
ICAL EXPERIMENTS)  drawn  out  so 
fine  that  water  will  pass  through  it 
only  in  drops.  Fill  the  chimney 
with  water,  marking  the  level  by  a 
scratch  made  with  a  diamond  or 
sharp  file.  As  the  level  slowly  falls, 
mark  it  anew  every  fifteen  minutes 
or  oftener,  as  desired,  making  lar- 


ger marks  every  hour.  The  chim- 
ney can  now  be  used  as  a  clock  by 
filling  if  and  letting  the  water  be- 
gin to  drop  exactly  at  some  hour. 
If  it  be  desired  to  distinguish  small- 
er inteivals  of  time,  the  water  must 
be  allowed  to  drop  out  faster,  so 
that  the  level  will  fall  more  quick- 
ly ;  but  then  the  clock  requires  fill- 
ing oftener,  unless  a  long  tube  be 
used.  The  marks  on  the  tube  will 
be  closer  together  at  the  bottom 
than  on  top,  for,  as  the  level  falls, 
the  pressure  decreases  and  the  wa- 
ter drops  out  more  and  more  slow- 
ly. To  be  exact,  the  clock  must  be 
kept  at  the  same  temperature,  as 
otherwise  the  water  will  flow  out  at 
different  rates  of  speed. 

The  water  clock  was  used  by  the 
Greeks,  who  called  it  Clepsydra 
(from  kleptein,  to  steal  away,  and 
hu(tor,  water). 

WATER  CUTTER.  See  CIRCU- 
LAR SAW. 

WATER  DROP,  Experiment  with 
a  large.  Across  a  barrel-hoop,  from 
fourteen  to  twenty-four  inches  in 
diameter,  stretch  thin  sheet  india- 
rubber.  Pour  water  on  it,  and 
it  will  sag  downward,  making  a  sort 
of  bowl.  Continue  to  pour  water 
in  gradually,  and  finally  the  rubber 
bowl  will  all  at  once  change  its 
shape.  Dip  out  a  little  water,  and  it 
will  take  its  old  shape  again.  The 
sheet  of  rubber  filled  with  water  is 
like  a  huge  water  drop,  only  it  can- 
not wholly  detach  itself  and  fall  to 
the  ground  like  a  real  drop.  The 
change  of  shape  can  also  be  pro- 
duced by  dipping  the  hand  into  the 
water.  An  amusing  way  of  show- 
ing the  experiment  is  to  drop  a 
coin  into  the  water  and  then  ask 
some  one  to  pick  it  out.  As  soon 
as  the  hand  is  thrust  under  water 
the  rubber  bowl  will  drop  down- 
ward, carrying  the  coin  farther  away 
from  the  hand.  To  perform  this 
experiment  properly  it  is  necessary 
that  the  rubber  should  be  neither 
too  tight  nor  too  loose  at  the  be- 
ginning. The  proper  tightness  va- 


WATER  MILL 


763 


WATER  WHISTLE 


ries  with  the  size  of  hoop,  and  is 
best  found  by  trial. 

WATER  MILL,  or  WATER  EN- 
CINE.  To  make  a  water  mill,  take 
two  glass  tubes  (see  CHEMICAL  EX- 
PERIMENTS) about  a  foot  long,  and 
bend  two  inches  of  each  at  each 
end  at  right  angles,  but  in  different 
planes,  so  that  if  the  bent  part  at 
one  end  be  held  vertical  that  at  the 
other  will  be  horizontal.  Looking 
along  the  tube  from  one  bend,  held 
vertical,  the  other  bend  must  be  in 
the  same  direction  in  both  tubes  ; 
that  is,  both  must  be  to  the  right, 
or  both  to  the  left.  Make  a  jet  at 
one  end  of  each  tube.  In  one  end 
of  a  glass  cylinder  (an  argand  lamp 
chimney  will  do),  fit  a  cork  or  rub- 
ber stopperwith  twoholes.  In  these 
holes  fit  those  ends  of  the  tubes 
at  which  the  jets  were  not  made. 
The  tubes  extend  in  opposite  di- 
rections, and  the  jets  therefore 
point  to  opposite  sides.  Suspend 
the  lamp  chimney  by  tying  a  string 
around  it  at  one  end,  and  then  fill 
it  with  water.  As  the  water  runs 
out  through  the  jets  the  reaction 
will  make  the  mill  spin  around. 

WATER  PRESSURE,  Experiments 
on.  i.  Bend  a  piece  of  glass  tubing 
into  the  shape  of  a  letter  U,  but 
with  one  branch  much  shorter  than 
the  other.  The  longer  branch  may 
be  six  inches  long  and  the  shorter 
one  inch.  Pour  mercury  into  the 
tube  till  it  stands  about  half  an 
inch  high  in  each  branch.  Thrust 
the  tube  under  water  so  that  the 
opening  of  the  long  branch  re- 
mains above  the  surface,  and  the 
mercury  will  rise  in  the  long  branch. 
The  deeper  the  tube  is  in  the  water 
the  higher  the  mercury  rises.  For 
a  depth  of  six  inches  it  rises  about 
half  an  inch.  The  mercury  is 
pushed  up  by  the  pressure  of  the 
water  on  the  smaller  branch  of  the 
tube,  and  the  pressure  increases 
with  the  depth  of  water. 

2.  Plunge  the  tube  to  any  depth 
in  a  pail  of  wate-,  say  five  inches  ; 
note  the  height  of  the  mercury,  and 


then  plunge  it  to  the  same  depth 
in  a  bath-tub  full  of  water.  The 
mercury  will  rise  to  the  same  height 
in  both  cases.  The  reason  is  that 
water  pressure  depends  on  the 
depth,  not  on  the  amount  of  water 
in  the  vessel. 

3.  Attach  a  thread  to  the  centre 
of  a   circular  disk  of    cardboard 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  in  diame- 
ter, by  passing  through  it  a  sewing 
needle  and  knotted  thread.     Pass 
the  thread  through  an  argand  lamp 
chimney  so  that  the  disk  can  be 
held  firmly  against  one  end  by  the 
thread.     While  it  is  so  held,  push 
that  end  of  the  chimney  down  into 
a  pail  of  water.    The  upward  pres- 
sure of  the  water  will  hold  the  disk 
to  the  end  of  the  chimney  without 
the  aid  of  the  string.     Pour  water 
into  the  chimney,  and  when  that 
on  the  inside  has  reached  the  level 
of  that  on  the  outside,  the  disk 
will  fall.     The  reason  is  that  the 
upward  pressure  of  the  water  on 
the  disk  is  just  equal  to  that  of  the 
water  that  was  poured  in,  so  that 
the  pressure  on  both  sides  balanced, 
and  there  was  nothing  to  hold  the 
disk  up. 

4.  To  the  end  of  a  glass  tube 
about  half  an  inch  in  diameter  tie 
tightly  an  india-rubber  bag  or  bal- 
loon, and  fill  the  balloon  with  water, 
which  may  be  colored,  to  make  it 
more  easily  visible.      Thrust  the 
balloon  into  water,  and  the  colored 
water  will  rise  in  the  tube  farther 
and  farther  as  the  balloon  sinks 
deeper. 

WATER  WHISTLE.  A  whistle 
may  be  played  under  water  by  at- 
tending to  the  following  directions: 
Buy  a  tin  whistle  or  flageolet  at  a 
toy  shop ;  close  the  hole  nearest  the 
mouth-piece  by  putting  wax  over  it, 
and  connect  the  mouth-piece  with 
a  water  faucet.  Stand  the  whistle 
upright  in  a  jar  tall  enough  to  hold 
it  and  turn  on  the  water,  which  will 
run  through  the  whistle.  Fill  the 
jar,  and  overflow  it.  If  the  flow 
be  now  carefully  regulated,  a  low 


WAX  WORKS 


764 


WEDGE,  EXPERIMENTS 


but  distinct  musical  note  will  be 
heard,  caused  by  the  water  flowing 
through  the  whistle. 

WAX  WORKS.  See  MRS.  JAR- 
LEY'S  WAX  WORKS. 

WEAVING.  The  process  of 
weaving  is  explained  in  C.  C.  T., 
in  the  article  Loom.  It  is  possible 


Weaving — Fig.  i. 

to  weave  on  a  small  scale  with  no 
other  tools  than  two  lead-pencils,  a 
piece  of  cardboard  and  some  yarn 
or  string.  Cut  the  cardboard  (which 
may  be  an  ordinary  visiting  card), 
as  shown  in  Fig.  I,  making  slits 


Weaving— Fig.  2. 

about  an  inch  long,  and  punching 
holes  half-way  between  them  along 
the  horizontal  line.  Lay  the  pen- 
cils on  a  table  so  that  about  two- 
thirds  of  each  will  project  over 
the  edge,  supporting  them  by  a 
book  laid  on  the  ends  (see  Fig.  2). 
The  pencils  should  be  about  six 


inches  apart.  Now  tie  one  end  of 
a  piece  of  yarn  several  yards  long  to 
one  of  the  pencils  near  the  table 
pass  the  other  end  through  the  first 
hole  in  the  card,  around  the  other 
pencil,  back  through  the  adjoining 
slit,  around  the  first  pencil,  through 
the  next  hole,  and  so  on — always 
passing  it  through  a  hole  in  one 
direction  and  back  through  a  slit. 
After  all  the  holes  and  slits  have 
been  passed  through  thus,  tie  the 
yarn.  The  yarn  thus  arranged 
forms  the  warp  of  the  cloth,  and 
the  card  takes  the  place  of  the 
healds,  for  by  pushing  it  up  and 
down  it  will  be  seen  that  one  set 
of  threads  is  brought  first  above 
and  then  below  the  other.  Cut  a 
shuttle  out  of  cardboard  in  either 
the  shapes  shown  in  Fig  i,  and 
wind  yarn  upon  it  for  the  weft. 
Pull  the  card  up,  pass  the  shut- 
tle between  the  warp  threads  in 
one  direction  ;  then  push  the  card 
down  and  pass  the  shuttle  back, 
and  continue  until  the  piece  of 
cloth  is  as  large  as  desired.  To 
take  the  place  of  the  batten,  and 
make  the  weft  threads  lie  close,  an 
ordinary  paper-cutter  can  be  used. 
WEDGE,  Experiment  with.  Hinge 
together  two  boards  about  a  foot 
square,  or  fasten  them  with  leath- 
er on  one  side.  Cut  a  piece  of 
wood  into  wedge  shape  and  place 
it  inside  the  hinged  boards  be- 
tween two  lead-pencils,  used  as 
rollers.  The  small  end  of  the 
wedge  must  be  turned  outward, 
and  its  angle  must  be  less  than  that 
made  by  the  hinged  boards.  On 
pressing  the  boards  together,  the 
wedge,  instead  of  rolling  inward  on 
the  pencils,  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected, is  pressed  outward.  This 
is  because  the  wedge  tends  to  move 
in  the  direction  which  allows  the 
boards  to  come  nearest  together.  If 
the  wedge  moved  inward  the  pencils 
would  also  roll  inward,  and  force 
the  boards  farther  apart.  If  the 
angle  of  the  wedge  be  equal  to  that 
of  the  boards,  it  will  not  move  at 


WEIGHING  IN  WATER 


765 


WHIRLWIND  BOX 


all  when  the  boards  are  pressed ; 
and  if  the  angle  is  greater,  it  will 
move  inward. 

WEIGHING  IN  WATER,  Experi- 
ments on,  i.  Weigh  a  piece  of 
metal  or  stone  with  a  pair  of  scales. 
Then  tie  the  object  to  one  of  the 
scale  pans  with  a  piece  of  string 
and  let  it  hang  in  a  glass  of  water 
while  weighing  it.  It  will  be  found 
to  weigh  less  than  before.  This  is 
because  the  water  partly  supports 
the  weight  of  the  object. 

2.  Fill   a  goblet  with   water  so 
that  it  runs  over,  and  then  float  on 
it  a  block  of  wood.     Some  of  the 
water  in  the  glass  will  be  forced 
out    by    the    wood.     Balance    an 
empty  glass   on  a  pair  of  scales. 
Place   the   wood    in   the   opposite 
scale   and   balance   it  by  pouring 
water   into   the   glass.     Pour  this 
water   into  the  first   goblet  used, 
and  it  will  just  fill  it  again.     The 
reason   is   that   any  floating  body 
displaces  a  quantity  of  water  ex- 
actly equal  to  its  own  weight. 

3.  Balance  a  glass  of  water  on 
one  pair  of  scales  and  hang  a  piece 
of  lead  from  one  pan  of  another 
pair,  balancing  this  also  by  weights. 
Let  the  lead  dip  into  the  water, 
when   both   balances  will    be  de- 
stroyed— the    pan   containing   the 
water    growing    heavier  and   that 
with  the  lead  growing  lighter.    Re- 
store  the   balance    again    in   both 
cases    by   pouring   sand    into  the 
lighter    pan.     Afterward    balance 
these   quantities   of    sand   against 
each  other,  and  they  will  be  found 
to  be  equal.     The  reason   is  that 
the   water  bears   up   part  of    the 
weight  of  the  lead,  but  adds  to  its 
own  weight  in  so  doing  by  an  equal 
amount. 

WHAT  IS  MY  THOUGHT  LIKE? 
A  game  in  which  one  of  the  play- 
ers thinks  of  an  object  and  then 
asks  each  of  the  others  to  guess 
what  that  thought  is  like.  When  all 
have  answered,  the  questioner  then 
tells  his  thought,  and  asks  each  of 
the  company  to  tell  how  his  guess 


resembles  it.  Much  skill  is  often 
required  to  give  a  good  answer. 

In  another  form  of  the  game 
each  writes  the  names  of  two  ob- 
jects on  separate  slips  of  paper,  and 
when  all  the  slips  have  been  well 
mixed  each  draws  two.  Each  then 
writes  in  verse  the  resemblance 
between  them,  and  finally  all  the 
verses  are  read  aloud.  This  game 
is  sometimes  called  Resemblances. 

WHIRLWIND,  THE.  A  game 
played  by  any  number  of  persons, 
all  but  one  sitting  in  chairs  placed 
close  together  in  a  circle.  The 
players  face  inward  and  one  stands 
in  the  centre  of  the  circle,  leaving 
one  chair  unoccupied.  At  a  sig- 
nal each  player  changes  to  the 
chair  just  at  his  right,  and  then  to 
the  next  one,  the  whole  circle  mov- 
ing around  thus  as  fast  as  possible. 
The  player  in  the  middle  tries  to 
secure  a  chair,  and  when  he  does 
so  the  one  on  his  right  must  take 
his  place. 

WHIRLWIND  BOX.  An  arrange- 
ment by  which  a  little  whirlwind 
can  be  made.  Take  a  soap-box, 
remove  the  bottom  and  fasten  the 


Whirlwind  Box. 

cover  to  the  box  with  hinges,  so 
that  it  will  open  and  shut  like  a 
door.  Place  a  handful  of  small 
bits  of  tissue  paper  in  front  of  tht 
box,  and  shut  or  open  the  door 
suddenly.  There  will  be  a  minia- 
ture whirlwind,  as  is  shown  by  the 
motion  of  the  bits  of  paper, 


WHIST 


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WHIST 


WHIST.  A  game  of  cards  played 
with  a  full  pack  by  four  persons,  two 
in  partnership  against  the  other  two. 
The  cards  rank  in  order  as  follows  : 
Ace,  King,  Queen,  Knave,  Ten,  Nine, 
Eight,  Seven,  Six,  Five,  Four,  Three, 
Two,  the  last  being  the  lowest.  In 
cutting  for  deal,  however,  the  Ace 
is  the  lowest  card.  Partners  are 
generally  decided  by  cutting  the 
cards,  the  two  highest  and  the  two 
lowest  playing  together.  The  one 
cutting  the  lowest  card  is  the  dealer. 
Each  player  deals  in  his  turn,  and 
the  right  of  dealing  goes  to  the  left. 
The  partner  of  the  dealer  shuffles 
the  cards  for  the  ensuing  deal,  and 
must  place  them  to  the  left  of  the 
next  dealer.  The  player  on  the 
dealer's  right  cuts  the  pack,  and  in 
dividing  it  must  not  leave  fewer 
than  four  cards  in  either  packet. 
The  dealer,  beginning  with  the  player 
at  his  left,  deals  one  card  at  a  time 
to  each  until  the  whole  pack  is  dealt, 
thus  giving  to  each  player  thirteen 
cards.  The  last,  or  trump  card,  is 
turned  face  up  on  the  table,  and  re- 
mains there  until  the  first  trick  has 
been  played,  when  the  dealer  takes 
it  into  his  own  hand.  Two  packs  of 
cards  are  usually  played  with,  to  save 
time,  the  second  pack  being  shuffled 
while  the  dealer  is  dealing  the  first. 
The  thirteen  cards  received  by  each 
player  is  termed  a  hand,  and  the  four 
hands  termed  a  deal.  The  player  at 
the  left  of  the  dealer  leads.  Each 
must  follow  suit,  if  he  can,  and  the 
highest  card  of  the  suit  led  wins  the 
trick.  The  winner  of  the  trick  then 
leads,  playing  a  card  of  any  suit  he 
chooses,  and  so  on  in  turn  until  all  the 
cards,  making  thirteen  tricks,  have 
been  played.  If  a  player  be  not  able 
to  follow  suit,  he  may  play  a  trump  or 
a  card  of  any  other  suit  he  chooses. 
If  he  trump,  he  wins  the  trick  (as 
trumps  take  all  other  suits),  unless 
another  player  trumps  over  him — 
that  is,  plays  a  higher  trump.  A 
player  renounces  when  he  does  not 
follow  suit  ;  if  he  renounces,  and  has 
cards  in  that  suit,  he  revokes.  When 


all  the  cards  have  been  played  out 
the  side  having  the  most  tricks 
counts  towards  game  one  point  for 
each  trick  taken  in  excess  of  six 
tricks.  Thus,  the  side  making  seven 
tricks  scores  one  point,  eight  tricks 
two  points,  and  so  on. 

The  game  of  ten  points,  called 
Long  Whist,  in  which  honors  are 
scored,  is  now  seldom  played.  The 
Honors  are  the  Ace,  King,  Queen, 
and  Knave  of  trumps.  If  two  part- 
ners hold  all  four  of  these,  either 
separately  or  together,  they  score 
four  points  towards  the  game.  If 
they  hold  any  three  of  them,  they 
score  two  points.  When  each  party 
holds  two  honors — that  is,  when 
they  are  evenly  divided — neither 
party  scores,  and  it  is  then  said  that 
"honors  are  easy."  The  honors 
can  be  counted  only  by  those  to 
whom  they  have  been  dealt,  and  not 
by  those  who  win  them  in  playing. 
They  must  be  announced  at  the  end 
of  the  hand,  and  before  the  first  card 
of  the  next  hand  is  dealt,  or  they 
cannot  be  counted. 

Short  Whist,  a  game  of  five  points 
where  honors  are  scored,  is  usually 
played  in  England.  In  playing  a 
rubber — which  is  the  best  two  out  of 
three  games — the  winners  gain  (i) 
a  treble,  or  gain  of  three  points, 
when  their  adversaries  have  not 
scored  ;  (2)  a  double,  or  gain  of  two 
points,  when  their  adversaries  have 
scored  less  than  three  ;  (3)  a  single, 
or  gain  of  one  point,  when  their 
adversaries  have  scored  three  or  four. 
The  winners  of  the  rubber  gain  two 
points,  called  the  rubber  points,  in 
addition  to  the  value  of  their  games. 
When  the  rubber  consists  of  three 
games  the  number  of  points  made 
by  the  losers  is  deducted  from  the 
number  made  by  the  winners. 

The  American  game  is  of  seven 
points  without  honors. 

A  good  player  usually  leads  from 
the  suit  in  which  he  has  most  cards 
(called  his  "  long  suit  ").  The  reason 
of  this  is  that  he  wishes  to  draw  all 
the  other  cards  of  that  suit  from  the 


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WHIST 


other  players.  Then,  when  all  the 
trumps  have  been  played,  if  he  gets 
the  lead  he  can  take  a  trick  with 
every  remaining  card  of  the  suit,  no 
matter  how  small  it  is.  When  a 
player  has  enough  of  the  highest 
cards  in  a  suit  lo  win  all  the  others 
from  the  other  players,  he  is  said  to 
have  "  complete  command  "  of  it. 
If  he  has  the  highest  cards,  but  not 
enough  to  win  all  the  others,  he  has 
temporary  command.  When  com- 
plete command  of  a  suit  has  been 
obtained,  as  described  above,  it  is 
said  to  be  "  established."  A  player 
will  know  by  his  partner's  lead  what 
the  latter's  long  suit  is,  and  can  aid 
him  in  establishing  it  by  leading  it  in 
turn.  As  the  success  of  this  plan 
depends  on  getting  an  opponent's 
trumps  out  of  the  way,  a  good  player 
leads  trumps  if  he  have  as  many 
as  five,  even  if  they  are  small  ones. 
The  particular  cards  that  should  be 
led  in  different  cases  are  given  in  the 
rhyming  rules  below. 

On  the  first  round  of  a  suit  second 
in  hand  should  usually  play  high,  if 
had  it  been  his  lead  he  would  lead 
high,  and  low  if  he  would  lead  low. 
but  on  the  second  round  he  should 
play  the  winning  card.  The  second 
player  should  not  trump  if  he  has 
many  trumps,  but  wait  till,  by  lead- 
ing them,  he  may  exhaust  those  of 
his  opponents.  But  if  he  have  only 
two  or  three,  the  best  way  to  use 
them  is  in  trumping. 

The  third  player  is  expected  to 
take  the  trick,  if  his  partner  has  not 
done  so,  or  at  any  rate  to  play  his 
best  card,  so  that  the  trick  will  cost 
the  fourth  player  as  dear  as  possible. 
But  if  he  hold  the  highest  card  out 
and  the  second  below  it,  he  often 
plays  the  latter,  which  is  called 
"finessing."  The  reason  for  doing 
this  is  that  the  chances  are  two  to 
one  that  the  fourth  player  does  not 
hold  the  next  to  the  highest  card. 
If  he  does,  the  third  player  loses  no 
more  than  he  would  have  done  by 
any  other  play:  if  he  does  not,  a 
trick  is  won.  This  combination 


of  cards — for  instance,  Ace  and 
Queen,  or  King  and  Knave — is 
called  a  Tenace  (French,  tenace, 
strong),  and  the  third  player  is  said 
to  "  finesse  against "  the  middle 
card.  A  player  should  particularly 
watch  his  left-hand  neighbor;  for  if 
the  latter  prove  weak  in  any  suit  it 
is  not  necessary  for  the  former  to 
play  so  high,  when  he  is  third  in 
order. 

The  fourth  player  should,  of 
course,  take  the  trick  with  as  small 
a  card  as  he  can,  if  his  partner  has 
not  already  taken  it. 

When  anyone  leads  a  suit  in 
which  he  knows  another  player  has 
no  card,  he  is  said  to  "  force  "  that 
player,  for  he  gives  him  no  choice 
except  to  lose  the  trick  or  to  trump. 
It  is  generally  considered  bad  for  a 
player  to  force  his  partner  when  that 
player  has  few  trumps,  for  it  is  then 
probable  that  his  partner  has  many, 
which  he  wishes  to  keep  till  he  can 
lead  them.  But  if  he  has  found  out 
that  his  partner  does  not  wish  to 
lead  trumps,  or  that  the  opponents 
do,  then  he  should  force.  It  is 
always  right  to  force  the  strong 
trump  hand  of  an  opponent. 

When  a  player  has  no  cards  of 
one  suit  and  his  partner  has  none  of 
another  suit,  it  is  often  of  advantage 
for  them  to  lead  those  suits  alter- 
nately. Thus,  suppose  A  has  no 
Spades  and  B  has  no  Hearts. 
When  they  discover  that  this  is  the 
case,  A  leads  a  Heart,  which  B 
trumps,  and  then  returns  a  Spade, 
which  A  trumps.  This  is  called 
cross-ruffing,  or  seesawing.  If  a 
player  sees  that  his  opponents  are 
likely  to  establish  a  cross-ruff,  he 
should  at  once  lead  a  trump,  no 
matter  how  low ;  for  even  if  the 
trick  is  taken,  it  requires  two  of  the 
enemy's  trumps  to  do  it,  while  in  a 
cross-ruff  each  of  those  trumps 
would  take  a  trick. 

When  a  suit  is  led  in  which  a 
player  has  no  cards,  and  he  either 
cannot  trump  or  does  not  wish  to  do 
so,  he  puts  on  the  smallest  card  of 


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768 


WHIST 


his  weakest  suit.  This  is  called 
"  throwing  away  "  or  "  discarding." 
When  a  player  is  strong  in  trumps 
and  wishes  them  led,  it  is  customary 
to  make  what  is  called  the  "signal 
for  trumps "  or  "  trump  signal." 
This  is  done  by  discarding  tirst  a 
rather  high  card  and  then  a  lower 
one,  instead  of  the  lower  one  first,  as 
would  he  the  ordinary  rule. 

Directions  how  to  play  Whist  have 
been  put  in  rhyme  by  William  Pole. 
Some  of  them  are  given  below  : 

Your  first  lead  makes  your  partner  understand 
What  is  the  chief  component  of  your  hand; 
And  hence  there  is  necessity  the  strongest 
That  your  first  lead  be  from  your  suit  that's 
longest. 

In  this,  with  Ace  and  King,  lead   King,   then 

Ace; 
With   King  and    Queen,  King    also   has   first 

place; 
With  Ace,  Queen,  Knave,  lead  Ace,  and  then 

the  Queen; 
With  Ace,  four  small  ones,  Ace  should  first  be 

seen; 
With  Queen,  Knave,  Ten,  you  let  the  Queen 

precede; 
In  other  cases,  you  the  lowest  lead. 

Ere  you  return  your  friend's,  your  own  suit 

play; 

But  trumps  you  must  return  without  delay. 
When   you   return  your    partner's  lead,    take 

pains 

To  lead  him  back  the  best  your  hand  contains. 
If  you  received  not  more  than  three  at  first, 
If  you  had  more,  you  may  return  the  worst. 

If  second  hand,  your  lowest  should  be  played. 
Unless  you  mean  "  trump  signal"    to  be  made; 
Or,  if  you've  King  and  Queen  or  Ace  and  King, 
Then  one  of  these  will  be  the  proper  thing. 

Mind  well    the  rules  for   trumps — you'll  often 

need  them. 
When  you  hold  five,  'tis  always  right  to  lead 

them; 

Or  if  the  lead  won't  come  in  time  to  you; 
Then  signal  to  your  partner  so  to  do. 

When,  second  hand,  a  doubtful  trick  you  see, 
Don't  trump  it  if  you   hold  more  trumps  than 

three; 
But  having  three  or  less,  trump  fearlessly. 

When   weak   in   trumps   yourself,   don't    force 

your  friend, 
But   always   force  the  adverse    strong    trump 

hand. 

For  sequences  stern  custom  has  de>  reed 

The  lowest  you  must   play,  if  you  don't  (ead. 

When  you   discard,  weak  suit  you  ought    to 

choose,  ' 

For  strong  ones  are  too  valuable  to  lose. 

While  many  of  these  plays  are  in 
use,  the  American  leads  are  con- 


sidered better  on  account  of  show- 
ing number  in  suit. 

SUITS    WITH   ACE   AT  HEAD. 

Holding  Ace,  King,  and  three  or 
more  small  ones,  lead  Ace,  then 
King. 

Holding  Ace,  King,  and  two 
small  ones,  lead  King,  then  Ace. 

Holding  Ace,  King,  Queen,  and 
one  small  one,  lead  King,  then 
Queen. 

Holding  Ace,  King,  Queen,  and 
more  than  one  small  one,  lead 
Queen,  then  Ace  with  five,  King 
witli  more  than  five. 

Holding  Ace,  King,  Queen, 
Knave,  lead  King,  then  Knave. 

Holding  Ace,  King,  Queen, 
Knave,  and  small  one,  lead  Knave, 
then  Ace  with  five,  King  with  six, 
and  Queen  with  more  than  six. 

Holding  Ace,  Queen,  Knave,  Ten, 
lead  Ace,  then  Ten. 

Holding  Ace,  Queen,  Knave,  and 
one  small  one,  lead  Ace,  then 
Queen.  With  two  or-  more  small 
ones  follow  the  Ace  with  Knave. 

Holding  Ace  and  four  or  more 
small  ones,  lead  Ace,  and  follow 
with  fourth  best.  Many  players 
lead  fourth  best. 

IN   TRUMPS. 

Holding  Ace,  King  and  five,  lead 
Ace,  then  King.  Holding  less  than 
five,  lead  fourtli  best. 

Holding  Ace,  King,  Queen, 
Knave,  lead  King,  then  Knave. 

All  other  suits  headed  by  Ace  are 
the  same  as  in  plain  suits. 

SUITS  WITH  KING  AT  HEAD. 

Holding  King,  Queen,  Knave, 
and  Ten,  lead  King  and  follow  with 
Ten. 

Holding  King,  Queen,  Knave,  and 
more  than  one  small  card,  lead 
Knave.  If  you  have  five  in  suit, 
follow  with  King  ;  if  more  than  five, 
with  Queen. 

Holding  King,  Queen,  Knave, 
with  or  without  one  small  card,  lead 
King,  then  Knave. 

Holding  King,  Queen,  and  small 
cards,  trumps,  lead  Queen,  if  you 


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WHIST 


have  seven  or  more  in  suit,  or  if  you 
hold  the  Ten  with  five  in  suit.  If 
you  have  fewer  than  seven  trumps, 
or  do  not  hold  the  Ten,  lead  the 
fourth  best  card. 

Holding  King,  Queen,  and  small 
cards,  common  suits,  lead  King,  if 
you  have  four  or  less  than  four  ;  if 
more  than  four,  lead  Queen. 

Holding  King,  Knave,  Ten,  Nine, 
with  or  without  small  cards,  lead 
Nine.  If  the  Nine  wins,  follow  with 
Knave,  if  you  have  four  in  suit ; 
with  Ten,  if  you  have  more  than 
four.  But  if  the  Nine  forces  the 
Queen,  or  Queen  and  Ace,  follow 
with  King,  if  you  have  four  in  suit; 
with  Knave,  if  five ;  and  with  Ten, 
if  more  than  five. 

Holding  King,  Knave,  and  Ten, 
alone,  lead  Ten  ;  with  small  ones, 
lead  fourth  best. 

Holding  King,  Knave,  and  small 
cards,  or  King  and  small  cards,  lead 
the  fourth  best. 

SUITS  WITH  QUEEN  A  T  HEAD. 

Holding  Queen,  Knave,  Ten,  and 
Nine,  with  or  without  small  cards, 
lead  Ten.  If  you  have  four  in  suit, 
follow  with  Queen  ;  if  more  than 
four,  with  Knave. 

Holding  Queen,  Knave,  and  small 
cards,  or  Queen  and  small  cards, 
lead  the  fourth  best. 

SUITS  WITH  KNA  VE  AT  HEAD. 

Holding  Knave,  Ten,  Nine,  Eight, 
with  or  without  small  cards,  lead  the 
Eight.  If  you  have  four  in  suit, 
follow  with  Knave;  if  five,  with  Ten  ; 
and  with  more  than  five,  with  Nine. 

Holding  Knave,  Ten,  Nine,  and 
small  cards,  or  Knave  and  small 
cards,  lead  the  fourth  best. 

SUITS  WITHOUT  HONORS. 

Holding  four  or  more  small  cards, 
lead  the  fourth  best. 

RULES. 

The  following  general  rules  will 
enable  the  learner  to  remember  the 
leads  : 

Lead  the  Ace,  if  you  have  King 
and  more  than  four  in  suit  (except 


in  trumps),  or  if  you  hold  Queen  and 
Knave  also. 

Never  lead  the  King  with  more 
than  four  in  suit. 

Never  lead  the  Queen  with  less 
than  five  in  suit. 

Never  lead  the  Knave  with  less 
than  five  in  suit.  If  you  lead  Ace 
from  a  long  suit,  and  do  not  hold 
King,  or  Queen  and  Knave,  follow 
with  your  original  fourth  best.  When 
the  Queen,  led  from  a  King-Queen 
suit  wins,  follow  with  the  fourth 
best  remaining. 

In  opening  a  suit  with  a  low  card, 
lead  the  fourth  best. 

Never  lead  from  a  single  card,  as 
it  is  apt  to  mislead  your  partner. 

Dummy.  This  is  played  by  three 
persons,  a  fourth  hand,  called  Dum- 
my, being  exposed  on  the  table. 
The  laws  are  the  same  as  those  of 
Whist,  with  the  exception  that  (i) 
Dummy  deals  at  the  commencement 
of  each  rubber;  (2)  Dummy  is  not 
liable  to  the  penalty  for  a  revoke  ;  (3) 
Dummy's  partner  is  not  liable  to  any 
penalty  for  an  error  whence  he  can 
gain  no  advantage. 

Double  Dummy  is  played  by  two 
persons,  each  having  a  dummy,  or 
exposed  hand,  for  his  partner.  The 
laws  are  the  same  as  in  Dummy 
Whist,  except  that  there  is  no  mis- 
deal. 

RULES  OF  THE  GAME. 

1.  If  there  is  a  misdeal,  the  deal 
passes  to  the  next  player,  unless  the 
mistake  was  caused  by  an  interrup- 
tion from  an  opponent,  in  which  case 
the  same  player  deals  again. 

2.  If  a  card  be  exposed  by  a  player, 
a  new  deal  by  the  same  dealer  may 
be  demanded    by   his   opponents,  if 
they  have  not  looked  at  their  hands. 

3.  A  player  must  not  deal  for  his 
partner  without  his  opponents'  per- 
mission. 

4.  The  dealer  must  take  the  trump 
into   his   hand    after   his  first   play, 
and  after  that  no  one  may  ask  what 
it  is,  but  any  one  may  ask  what  the 
trump  suit  is. 

5.  A  card  wrongly  exposed  on  the 


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table  must  be  played  whenever  it  is 
called  for,  unless  so  playing  it  would 
cause  a  revoke. 

6.  If  a  player  lead  out  of  turn,  he 
must  take  back  his  card,  which  is 
treated  as  exposed  ;  but  if   all   the 
others  have  played  to  the  lead,  it  is 
considered  good. 

7.  If   the  third  hand  play  before 
the  second  the  fourth  may  also  play 
before  the  second. 

8.  If   the   third    hand    have    not 
played,  and   the  fourth  play  before 
his  partner,  the  latter  may  be  called 
on  to  win  or  not  to  win  the  trick. 

9.  If  a  player  revoke,  his  opponent 
may   score  2  points,  unless  he  dis- 
cover  his   error  before   the  trick  is 
turned  and   quitted,  in  which   case 
he  may  change  his   play,   and    the 
wrongly  played  card  is  simply  treated 
as  exposed. 

10.  A   revoke  cannot  be  claimed 
after  the  cards  have  been  cut  for  the 
following  deal. 

11.  After  a  trick  has  been  turned 
and  quitted  it  cannot  be  looked  at. 

Bridge  Whist.  A  game  that  is 
played,  after  the  lead  of  the  first  card, 
like  Dummy  Whist. 

The  differences  lie  mainly  in  the 
declaration  of  trumps,  the  differing 
values  of  suits,  increasing  values  by 
going  over,  methods  of  scoring  and 
rubber  count. 

The  dealer  does  not  turn  a  trump. 
He  has  the  option  of  making  it,  but 
if  he  does  not  wish  to  do  so  his  part- 
ner must  make  it. 

The  value  of  the  tricks  above  six 
varies  as  follows,  according  to  the 
trumps  declared — spades  count  2, 
clubs  4,  diamonds  6,  hearts  8,  and 
"no  trump"  12.  After  the  declara- 
tion of  trump  suit  the  adversaries 
have  the  right  to  go  over  (that  is, 
double  the  value)  ;  the  dealer's  left- 
hand  adversary  having  the  first  right 
to  do  so  ;  if  he  does  not  wish  \o  go 
over,  or  double,  he  says  to  his  part- 
ner, "  May  I  play  ?  "  His  partner 
must  answer  "  Play  "  or  "  Over."  If 
either  adversary  goes  over,  the  dealer 
and  his  partner  have  the  right  to  go 


over  them,  the  player  who  declared 
the  trump  having  the  first  right ;  and 
the  going  over  may  be  repeated  until 
both  side  are  satisfied.  After  the 
leader — the  player  at  left  of  dealer — 
plays  his  first  card,  the  dealer's  part- 
ner places  his  hand  on  the  table  face 
up  and  the  dealer  plays  it  as  in 
Dummy  Whist. 

Honors  are  Ace,  King,  Queen, 
Jack,  and  Ten  of  the  trump,  or  the 
four  aces  when  "  no  trump  "  is  de- 
clared. Honors  are  credited  to  the 
original  holders,  and  are  valued  as 
follows  :  Three  honors  held  between 
the  partners  (called  simple  honors) 
count  the  same  as  two  tricks,  four 
honors  are  equal  to  four  tricks,  five 
honors  equal  to  five  tricks,  four 
honors  in  one  hand  equal  to  eight 
tricks,  four  in  one  hand  and  the  fifth 
in  partner's  equal  to  nine  tricks,  and 
five  honors  in  one  hand  equal  to  ten 
tricks. 

In  "  no  trump  "  three  aces  be- 
tween partners  count  thirty,  four 
aces  between  partners  forty,  and  four 
aces  in  one  hand  one  hundred. 

Slam  is  thirteen  tricks  scored  in- 
dependently of  the  revoke  penalty, 
and  adds  forty  to  the  honor  count. 

Little  Slam  is  twelve  tricks  simi- 
larly counted,  and  adds  twenty  to  the 
honor  count. 

Chicane  (one  hand  void  of  trumps) 
is  equal  in  value  to  simple  honors  ; 
that  is,  if  partner  of  player  having 
Chicane  scores  honors,  he  adds  the 
value  of  three  honors  to  his  score ;  : 
while  if  the  adversaries  score  honors 
it  deducts  an  equal  value  from  them. 

The  value  of  honors,  Slam,  Little 
Slam,  and  Chicane  is  in  no  wise 
affected  by  going  over. 

Each  game  consists  of  thirty  trick 
points.  The  rubber  is  the  best  of 
three  games ;  if  the  first  two  games 
be  won  by  the  same  partners  the 
third  is  not  played.  Tricks  and  hon- 
ors are  scored  in  separate  columns. 

At  the  conclusion  of  a  rubber  the 
total  score  for  tricks  and  honors  is 
added  up  and  100  added  to  the  win- 
ners' score — the  lesser  score  is  then 


WHIST 


771 


WHIST 


deducted  from  the  greater,  the 
remainder  being  the  value  of  the 
rubber. 

The  penalty  for  a  revoke  is  at  the 
option  of  the  adversaries,  who  may  at 
the  end  of  the  hand  take  three  tricks 
from  the  revoking  player  and  add 
them  to  their  own,  deduct  the  value 
of  three  tricks  (in  the  hand  where 
the  revoke  occurred)  from  the  score 
of  the  adversaries,  or  add  the  value 
of  three  tricks  to  their  own  score. 

The  penalty  for  a  revoke  takes 
precedence  of  all  other  scores. 

Dummy  is  not  liable  to  the  penalty 
fora  revoke.  No  player  should  pur- 
posely incur  a  penalty  because  he  is 
willing  to  pay  it,  nor  should  he  make 
a  second  revoke  to  conceal  a  first  one. 

Duplicate  Whist  is  that  form  of 
the  game  of  Whist  in  which  each 
deal  is  played  only  once  by  each 
player,  but  in  which  each  hand  is 
played  over  again  so  as  to  bring  the 
play  of  teams,  pairs,  or  individuals 
into  comparison. 

Each  player,  when  it  is  his  turn  to 
play,  must  place  his  card  face  up 
before  him,  leaving  it  there  until  all 
have  played  to  the  trick,  when  he 
must  turn  it  over  with  the  ends  to- 
wards the  winners  of  the  trick. 
When  the  deal  is  played  each  player 
must  place  his  hand  in  the  tray  or 
other  device,  face  clown,  and  the 
trump  card  is  placed  face  up  on  top 
of  the  dealer's  hand. 

The  points  made  on  each  deal  are 
recorded  on  score  cards  made  for  that 
purpose,  as  the  game  of  seven  points 
is  not  played  in  Duplicate  Whist. 

leralache,  or  Russian  Whist.  This 
is  exactly  like  our  Whist,  except  that 
there  are  no  trumps.  The  scoring 
varies  according  to  agreement,  but 
is  generally  as  in  Long  Whist. 

History.  The  game  of  Whist  is 
traced  back  by  some  to  the  Italian 
Trtonfo,  the  French  Triomphe,  one 
of  the  first  card  games  ;  but  others 
say  that  the  game  of  Trump,  from 
which  Whist  is  derived,  was  not  the 
same  as  these  games,  and  originated 
in  England.  Trump  was  played  in 


England  in  the  beginning  of  the  i6th 
century  and  was  probably  very  simi- 
lar to  the  game  of  Ruff  and  Honors, 
or  Slam,  which  followed  it.  Ruff 
and  Honors  was  played  by  four  per- 
sons with  a  full  pack  of  52  cards,  but 
only  twelve  were  dealt  to  each,  four 
being  left  in  the  stock,  the  topmost 
card  of  which  was  turned  for  trump. 
The  holder  of  the  ace  of  trumps  was 
allowed  to  exchange  four  cards  for 
those  in  the  stock,  and  the  game  was 
nine  points ;  but  in  other  respects 
the  game  was  like  Long  Whist. 
The  first  known  mention  of  Whist 
in  print  was  in  a  book  called  "  The 
Motto,"  published  in  1621,  where 
it  is  spelled  WThisk.  The  earliest 
known  use  of  the  present  spelling  is 
in  Butler's  "  Hudibras  "  (1663).  For 
about  fifty  years  after  this  it  was 
spelled  indifferently  either  way. 
Cotton,  in  his  "  Compleat  Gamester  " 
(1674),  says  :  "  Whist  is  a  game  not 
differing  much  from  this  [Ruff  and 
Honors],  only  they  put  out  the 
Deuces  and  take  in  no  stock."  The 
game  was  thus  played  with  48  cards. 
Whist  is  mentioned  in  George  Farqu- 
har's  play  of  "  The  Beaux's  Strat- 
agem" (1707),  and  in  1715  Alexander 
Pope  speaks  of  it  in  one  of  his  epis- 
tles. About  1725  the  game  was 
made  ten  points,  and  began  to  be 
played  with  52  cards  again.  In 
"  Whist-and-Swabbers,"  which  was 
much  played  about  this  time,  cer- 
tain cards  called  Swabbers  entitled 
their  holders  to  part  of  the  money 
wagered  on  the  game,  no  matter  who 
the  winners  might  be. 

The  game  was  much  studied  by 
a  party  of  gentlemen  who  frequented 
the  Crown  Coffee  House  in  London 
in  1730,  and  then  it  began  to  be 
played  in  its  modern  form.  Richard 
Seymour,  in  his  "  Compleat  Game- 
ster, for  the  use  of  the  Young 
Princesses,"  published  in  1734,  has 
an  article  on  "  Whist,  vulgarly  called 
Whisk."  He  gives  an  account  of 
the  game  as  it  was  played  in  his  time, 
from  which  it  appears  that  it  was 
then  much  used  by  card-sharpers,  a 


WHIST 


772 


WINDMILL,  THE 


full  account  of  their  various  methods 
of  cheating  being  given,  with  the 
way  to  defeat  them.  "  Formerly," 
he  says,  "  it  was  usual  to  deal  four 
cards  together ;  but  it  is  demon- 
strable there  is  no  safety  in  that 
method ;  but  now  the  cards  are 
dealt  round  one  and  one  at  a  time, 
as  the  securest  and  best  way."  It 
also  appears  from  this  book  that 
two-handed  and  three-handed  Whist 
were  sometimes  played.  In  the  lat- 
ter, each  player  had  twelve  cards, 
and,  says  Seymour,  "  always  two 
strive  to  suppress  and  keep  down 
the  rising  man."  About  this  time 
Whist  began  to  be  a  fashionable 
game,  and  in  1743  appeared  an 
anonymous  treatise  upon  it.  of 
which  it  is  thought  Edmund  Hoyle 
was  the  author.  At  this  time  Hoyle 
gave  lessons  in  Whist  for  a  guinea 
each,  and  he  did  so  much  for  the 
game  that  he  is  often  called  the 
"  father  of  Whist."  It  was  then 
thought  necessary  for  all  well-edu- 
cated people  to  know  how  to  play  it. 
In  the  "  Rambler  "  for  May  8,  1750, 
occurs  the  passage,  "  Papa  made 
me  drudge  at  Whist  till  I  was  tired 
of  it ;  and  Mr.  Hoyle,  when  he  had 
not  given  me  above  forty  lessons, 
said  I  was  one  of  his  best  scholars." 
Since  Hoyle's  time  there  have  been 
many  writers  on  the  game. 

Whist  had  been  treated  as  though 
the  art  of  the  game  depended  on 
arbitrary  rules,  but  it  is  now  granted 
that  all  rules  for  play  depend  on 
general  principles.  The  modern 
game  is  but  an  elaboration  of  the  old 
one.  Before  Hoyle,  Matthews  had 
an  idea  of  the  discard,  which  is 
now  accepted  by  all  advanced 
players.  In  the  writings  of  Des- 
chapelles,  a  noted  French  player, 
and  of  Clay,  Drayson,  and  Caven- 
dish, celebrated  English  players, 
the  rules  of  the  Crown  Coffee  House 
(1728)  are  still  the  important  ones. 
They  were  (i)  "  Lead  from  your 
strong  suit.  (2)  Study  your  partner's 
hand.  (3)  Attend  to  the  score." 
Hoyle  understood  that  it  was  neces- 


sary to  unblock,  without  knowing 
how  to  do  it  systematically.  These 
writers  all  had  a  desire  to  show 
length  and  strength  of  suit,  which 
has  been  met  by  N.  B.  Trist,  of  New 
Orleans,  who,  in  American  Leads, 
proposes  a  systematic  course  of  play 
when  opening,  and  continuing  leads 
from  strong  suits.  Within  the  last 
forty  years  Short  Whist  has  been 
substituted  for  Long  Whist  in  Eng- 
land. The  signal  for  trumps  has 
also  been  introduced,  and  is  now 
recognized  as  legitimate,  although 
at  first  it  was  strongly  opposed  by 
many  of  the  best  players. 

Whist  means  silence ;  and  it  is 
supposed  that  the  game  was  so 
named  from  the  necessity  of  silence 
while  it  is  being  played. 

WHISTLE,  Experiment  with  a, 
Fit  over  the  mouth-piece  of  a  toy 
fife  or  whistle  the  end  of  a  rub- 
ber tube  several  feet  long.  Blow 
through  the  tube,  and  at  the  same 
time  swing  the  whistle  around  in  a 
circle  so  that  it  will  sound  while 
swinging.  If  a  person  twenty  or 
thirty  feet  distant  listens  to  the 
whistle,  he  will  hear  its  sound  grow 
alternately  sharper  and  flatter,  as  it 
approaches  him  and  recedes  from 
him.  This  is  because  the  pitch  of 
sound  depends  on  the  speed  with 
which  the  sound-waves  reach  the 
ear,  and  they  get  to  the  ear  faster 
when  the  sounding  body  itself  is 
moving  toward  the  listener. 

WHO  WAS  HE  ?  A  game  played 
by  any  number  of  persons.  One 
begins  by  giving  a  brief  sketch  of 
some  historical  character,  and  then 
asking  "  Who  was  he  ?  "  He  who 
makes  the  first  correct  answer 
gives  another  similar  sketch,  and 
so  on  as  long  as  the  players  choose. 

WICKET.     See  CRICKET. 

WINDMILL,  THE.  A  SOLITAIRE 
game  of  CARDS,  played  with  two 
packs.  An  Ace  is  placed  on  the 
table  to  begin  with,  and  the  first 
eight  cards  played  are  laid  in  order 
in  a  circle  around  it,  so  as  to  re- 
semble the  sails  of  a  windmill,  but 


WINDMILL 


773 


WINE  GLASSES 


leaving  a  space  within.  In  this 
space  the  first  four  Kings  are 
placed,  one  above  the  Ace,  one  be- 


low it,  and  one  on  each  side.  One 
family  is  to  be  formed  on  each  of 
the  Kings  by  piling  downward,  and 


The  Windmill. 


four  families  on  the  Ace  by  piling 
upward,  beginning  another  family 
with  another  Ace  when  the  one 
before  it  is  completed.  Suit  need 
not  be  followed  in  any  of  the  piles. 
In  piling,  the  sails  of  the  windmill 
may  be  used,  each  being  at  once  re- 
placed by  the  next  card  played. 
Useless  cards  are  laid  aside  to  form 
stock,  of  which  the  top  card  can  be 
used  at  any  time,  instead  of  playing 
from  the  pack. 

WINE  GLASSES,  Experiments 
withi  i.  Dip  two  wine  glasses  un- 
derwater, and  while  they  are  there 
bring  them  mouth  to  mouth,  see- 
ing that  both  are  completely  full. 
Lift  them  out  together  and  stand 
them  on  the  table,  one  being  on  the 
other  and  both  still  full  of  water. 
It  will  be  found  that  the  upper  one 
can  be  lifted  up  a  very  little  way 
without  any  of  the  water  running 
out.  Holding  it  in  this  way,  pour 
slowly  on  the  foot  of  the  upper 
glass  some  red  wine,  or  some  al- 
cohol colored  with  carmine.  (See 


Fig.  i.)     It  will  run  off  the  foot 
in  drops,  fall  on  the  side  of  the 


Fig.  i. 

glass  and  trickle  down  to  the  open 
space  between    the    two   glasses, 


WINE  GLASSES 


774 


WOLF 


when  it  will  enter  the  water  and 
rise  into  the  upper  glass.  The 
water  in  the  upper  glass  can,  with 


Fig.  2. 

care,  be  colored  red  in  this  way, 
while  that  in  the  lower  glass  re- 
mains transparent.  The  wine  or 
alcohol  rises  in  the  water  because 
it  is  lighter. 

2.  Fill  a  soup  plate  with  water, 
and  on  a  cork  or  an  inverted  but- 
ter plate   in  the    middle    place   a 
crumpled   piece  of  paper  as  large 
as  one's  fist.     Set  fire  to  it  and  at 
once  turn  a  goblet  over  it.    The 
water  will   be  drawn   up  into  the 
goblet.  (See  Fig.  2.)   The  reason  is 
that  the  paper,  in  burning,  exhausts 
the  oxygen  under   the  goblet,  re- 
ducing the  pressure  there,  and  the 
pressure  of  the  outside   air   then 
forces  up  the  water. 

3.  Fill  a  glass  with  water  so  that 
it  almost  overflows,  and  then  place 
over  it  a   sheet    of    paper   which 
touches  both  the  edge  of  the  glass 
and  the  surface  of  the  water.     Turn 
the    glass   upside    down,  and  the 
water  will  not  run  out.    (See  Fig. 
3.)    To   guard   against   accidents, 
this  should  be  done  over  a  basin 


or  sink.  A  piece  of  glass  may  be 
used  instead  of  paper ;  but  if  the 
tumbler  be  tilted  a  little  to  one  side 
it  will  slide  off.  To  prevent  this, 
bits  of  cork  may  be  glued  to  it  on 
the  inside. 

4.  Place  a  lighted  candle  in  a  gob- 
let or  large  wine  glass.  After  it  has 
burned  a  few  seconds,  lay  on  the 
glass  a  piece  of  wet  paper  having  a 
hole  cut  in  the  middle,  and  then 
press  down  on  it  another  glass  in- 
verted. The  paper  is  to  make  the 
two  glasses  fit  together  very  tightly. 
Soon  after  the  upper  glass  has  been 
pressed  down  on  the  lower,  the  can- 
dle will  go  out  for  want  of  air,  and  it 
will  be  found  that  the  two  glasses 
stick  together  very  tightly,  so  that 
the  lower  can  be  lifted  by  the  up- 
per, and  so  that  it  requires  consid- 
erable force  to  pull  them  apart. 
This  is  because  some  of  the  air 
inside,  heated  by  the  candle,  has 
risen  out  of  the  glass,  so  that  the 


Fig.  3. 

pressure  outside  is  greater  than  that 
within,  and  the  two  glasses  are  thus 
held  together. 

WIZARD  OF  THE  EAST.  See 
GUESSING  THE  SIGN. 

WOLF.  An  outdoor  hiding  game, 
played  by  any  number  of  persons. 
One  of  the  players,  chosen  Wolf 
by  COUNTING  OUT,  hides,  while  the 
rest  of  the  party  stay  near  the 
goal  or  bye,  which  may  be  a  tree, 
stone,  or  other  object.  When 
they  have  waited  a  minute  or  so, 


WOLF 


775 


WRESTLING 


they  cry  out  "  Coming  !  say  noth- 
ing !  "  and,  if  there  is  no  reply,  they 
go  out  in  different  directions  to 
look  for  the  Wolf.  If  the  Wolf  is 
not  ready  when  he  hears  the  cry  he 
must  shout  "  No  ! "  and  the  oth- 
ers must  then  wait  a  reasonable 
time  before  they  shout  again. 
When  any  one  finds  the  Wolf  he 
cries  "  Wolf ! "  to  let  the  others 
know,  and  all  then  run  to  the  goal. 
If  the  Wolf  can  touch  any  of  them 
before  they  reach  it,  the  ones  caught 
become  Wolves  also,  and  hide  with 
him  next  time ;  but  if  he  catches  no 
one  he  must  hide  again  alone.  The 
game  goes  on  till  all  are  Wolves  and 
the  first  one  caught  by  the 
Wolf  is  Wolf  at  the  beginning 
of  the  next  game.  The  Wolf 
often  does  not  wait  to  be 
found,  but  runs  out  whenever 
he  thinks  there  is  a  good 
chance  to  catch  anyone.  If  he 
can  get  to  the  goal  before  any 
of  the  others  he  can  generally 
touch  many  of  them  as  they 
come  in.  In  such  a  case  one 
of  the  best  runners  can  often 
lead  the  Wolf  away  on  a  chase 

while  the  others  run  in  to  the 

goal.  The  game  may  be  block-  TZI 
ed  by  the  Wolf's  keeping  close 
to  the  goal  in  such  a  case,  or 
by  his  insisting  on  chasing  a 
player  he  cannot  catch.  The 
players,  therefore,  before  the  game, 
should  agree  either  that  the  Wolf 
must  select  some  one  player  to 
pursue,  and  allow  that  player  to  re 
turn  to  goal  if  not  caught  in  a  cer- 
tain time,  or  that  all  the  players 
must  run  in  to  goal,  letting  the 
Wolf  touch  whom  he  can.  When 
there  are  several  Wolves  they  may 
hide  in  the  same  place  or  different 
places,  as  they  choose,  and  any  one 
of  them  may  run  out  when  he 
pleases.  If  the  Wolves  arrange 
among  them  where  they  shall  hide 
and  how  they  shall  run  out,  they 
usually  succeed  in  catching  more 
players  than  when  each  follows  a 
method  of  his  own.  Any  player 


who  wishes  may  remain  at  the  goal, 
instead  of  running  out  to  look  for 
the  Wolves. 

This  game  is  sometimes  called 
"  Whoop  "  in  England.  There  is 
never  more  than  one  player  that 
hides,  and  he  tries  to  catch  but  one. 
The  one  caught  carries  his  captor 
to  the  goal  on  his  back,  and  then 
hides  in  his  turn. 

WORD  MAKING  AND  WORD 
TAKING.  See  LOGOMACHY. 

WRESTLING,  A  sport  in  which 
one  person  tries  to  throw  another 
to  the  ground.  There  are  several 
kinds,  which  differ  chiefly  in  the 
manner  in  which  thecontestants  are 


Wrestling — Fig.  i. 

allowed  to  hold  one  another.  The 
simplest  and  best  kind  for  boys  is 
the  kind  first  practised  in  Cumber- 
land, England.  In  this  country  this 
form  of  wrestling  is  commonly 
called  "  backhold  "  catch.  In  it  the 
contestants  are  allowed  to  hold 
each  other  in  only  one  way,  which 
is  arranged  before  the  wrestling 
begins.  The  wrestlers  stand  chest 
to  chest,  each  placing  his  chin  on 
the  other's  shoulder  and  grasping 
him  around  the  body,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  i,  the  right  arm  of  each  being 
under  his  opponent's  left.  They 
are  allowed  to  use  every  means  to 
throw  each  other,  except  kicking  or 
similar  injurv.  and  if  either  con- 


WRESTLING 


776 


WRESTLING 


testant  unclasps  his  hands  he  isre- 

garded  as  beaten,  just  as  if  he  had 
een  thrown.     A  wrestler  is  con- 
sidered thrown  when  both  shoul- 


Wrestling — Fig.  2. 


ders  touch  the  floor.  The  object 
of  each  contestant  in  this  kind 
of  wrestling  should  be  to  force  his 
right  shoulder  beneath  his  oppo- 
nent's arm-pit.  To  prevent  this, 
the  latter  must  keep  his  left  arm 
pressed  in  as  far  as  possible.  Each 
tries  to  throw  the  other  by  swing- 
ing him  sidewise,  pulling  him  for- 
ward, or  pushing  him  backward,  at 
the  same  time  trying  to  trip  him 
in  various  ways.  Some  of  the  de- 
vices employed  are  described  below. 

The  Back-heel.  The  wrestler  puts 
his  foot  behind  his  opponent's 
heel  and  tries  to  bend  him  over  it. 
To  meet  this,  the  latter  may  loosen 
his  hold  or  turn  his  side. 

The  Buttock.  The  wrestler  turns 
as  far  as  he  can  to  the  right,  then 
he  straightens  up  and  at  the  same 
time  throws  his  left  leg  back  of  his 
opponent's  left,  which  will  enable 
him  to  bend  him  over  backward  for 
a  fall  by  doubling  him  over  his  hip. 
To  meet  this  the  opponent  will 
hold  him  tight,  and  at  the  moment 
of  his  trying  to  trip,  he  will  endeav- 
or to  lock  his  left  leg  from  the  in- 
side around  the  left  of  his  adver- 
sary, and  then  bend  him  over  back- 
ward for  a  fall.  This  last  is  called 
a  "  back-hank." 

The  Hank.  The  wrestler  turns 
sidewise,  twists  his  leg  about  that 


of  his  adversary,  and  pulls  him 
backward.  To  meet  this  the  op- 
ponent should  lean  forward  and 
strengthen  his  hold. 

The  Click.  The  wrestler  pulls 
his  opponent  forward  to  make  him 
resist  by  dragging  back,  and  then 
suddenly  ceasing,  trips  him  up  with 
one  foot. 

The  Hipe.  The  wrestler  forces 
his  shoulder  under  his  adversary's 
right  arm,  lifts  him  up  as  far  as  pos- 
sible, and  at  the  same  time  catch- 
ing the  opponent's  left  leg  with  his 
right,  drags  it  up.  If  properly  done, 
this  brings  the  opponent  down  on 
his  back.  The  hipe  may  be  per- 
formed with  the  left  shoulder  and 
leg ;  and  though  this  is  not  so  easy, 
if  it  fails,  the  wrestler  is  left  in  a 
position  for  a  Buttock. 

Dog  Fall.  This  occurs  when  both 
wrestlers  fall  to  the  ground  togeth- 
er. They  must  then  break  their 
hold,  rise,  and  begin  the  contest 
anew. 


Wrestling— Fig.  3. 

In  another  method,  the  hold  is 
not  arranged  at  the  beginning  of 
the  contest,  but  the  wrestlers  stand 
face  to  face  with  their  hands  held 
out  before  them,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2. 


WRESTLING 


777 


WRESTLING 


The  object  of  each  is  now  to  seize 
his  opponent  under  the  latter's  arms 
which  is  called  getting  the  "  un- 
derhold,"  and  is  an  advantage.  In 
Fig.  3  the  boy  whose  back  is  toward 
the  spectator  has  the  underhold. 
The  opponent  tries  to  prevent  this 
by  pushing  aside  his  hands.  Neither 
may  succeed  in  getting  the  under- 
hold, in  which  case  the  wrestling  is 
similar  to  that  just  described.  If 
either  get  the  underhold,  he  may 
throw  his  opponent  by  lifting  him 
up  bodily  or  by  drawing  him  for- 
ward by  the  waist  and  pushing 
backward  against  his  breast,  as  well 


Wrestling — Fig.  4. 

as  in  the  other  ways  described. 
Sometimes  tripping  is  not  allowed 
in  this  kind  of  wrestling,  and  some- 
times several  other  holds  are  al- 
lowed, such  as  seizing  the  head 
with  one  or  both  hands  or  with  the 
arm  taking  the  shoulders  or  arms 
with  one  or  both  hands ;  seizing 
the  legs ;  or  a  combination  of  any 
two  of  these  holds. 

In  the  shoulder  grip,  shown  in 
Fig.  4,  the  wrestler  seizes  his  oppo- 
nent by  the  shoulders  with  both 
hands,  pulls  him  outwards,  to  right 
or  left,  and  throws  him  with  a  sud- 
den jerk,  using  any  trip  that  is  avail- 
able. 

One  of  the  arm  grips  is  shown  in 
Fig.  5,  where  the  wrestler  seizes  his 
opponent  with  both  hands  by  the 
left  fore-arm,  pulls  him  quickly  for- 
ward, and,  putting  the  arm  over  his 
shoulder,  throws  him,  as  shown  in 


the  cut.    Fig.  6  shows  a  method  of 
throwing  by  a  leg  grip. 

In  Collar  and  Elbow,  or  Cornish 
wrestling,  the  hold  is  by  the  jacket, 


Wrestling — Fig.  5. 

as  the  name  indicates.  When  the 
contestants  are  allowed  to  take  any 
hold  they  please  above  the  waist, 
the  method  is  called  "  Graeco  Ro- 
man ;  "  and  when  any  hold  what- 
ever is  permitted,  it  is  called 


Wrestling— Fig.  6. 

"  Catch  as  Catch  Can."  The  rules 
of  the  kinds  of  wrestling  most  gen- 
erally used  in  public  contests  in  this 
country  are  given  below. 


WRESTLING 


778 


WRESTLING 


COLLAR  AND  ELBOW. 

i.  The  men  shall  wear  short  coats 
or  jackets  made  of  canvas,  not  ex- 
tending below  the  hips,  with  strong 


Wrestling— Fig.  7. 


collar  and  elbow,  suitable  for  the 
grasp  of  an  opponent.  They  shall 
wear  rubber  sandals  on  the  feet. 

2.  Each  man  shall  take  hold  of 
the  collar  of  his  opponent  with  his 
right  hand,  while  with  the  left  hand 
he  must  take  hold  of  the  right  el- 
bow. 

3.  Both  men  shall  stand  up  breast 
and  breast,  with  limber  arms,  and 
show  fair  and  equal  play  with  the 
feet. 

4.  Either  man  breaking  his  hold 
with  one  or  both  hands,  to  save 
himself  from  a  fall,  shall  forfeit  said 
fall. 

5.  All  falls  must  be  square  back 
falls ;  either  two  hips  and  one  shoul- 
der or  two  shoulders  and  one  hip 
to  be  on  the  carpet  simultaneously, 
to  constitute  a  fall. 

6.  Striking  upon  the  face,   side 
or  knees  is  no   fall,   and   nothing 
shall  be  allowed  for  forcing  a  man 
from  such   positions  to   his  back. 
Going  down  on  one  or  both  knees 
is  fair,  as  long  as  no  holds  are 
broken. 

7.  A  rest  of  at  least  ten  and  not 
more  than  twenty  minutes  shall  be 
allowed  between  each  fall. 

8.  The  first  fall,  best  two  in  three 
or  three  in  five,  shall  win,  according 
to  mutual  agreement. 


9.  The  ring  shall  be  twenty-four 
feet  square,  and  nobody  shall  be  al- 
lowed inside  except  the  referee  and 
two  umpires. 

CA  TCH  AS  CA  TCH  CA N. 

1.  The  contestants  can  take  any 
hold,  trip  or  lock  they  please. 

2.  To  constitute  a  fall,  two  shoul- 
ders must  strike  the  floor  simulta- 
neously. 

3.  Long  or  short  drawers  must  be 
worn,  and  nothing  heavier  for  the 
feet  will  be  allowed  than  socks  and 
thin  slippers. 

4.  A  rest  of  at  least  ten  and  not 
more  than  twenty  minutes  shall  be 
allowed  between  each  fall. 

5.  The  umpires  shall  take  their 
positions  at  a  proper  distance  from 
the  contestants,  and  there  remain, 
and  will  not  be  allowed  to  talk  to  or 
advise  the   principals  during   the 
contest.     They  shall  however  have 
the  right  to  call  the  attention  of 
the  referee  to  any  point  which,  in 
their   judgment,  may  require  his 
decision. 

6.  Doing  anything  to  injure  an 
opponent  shall  be  considered  foul. 
For  each  violation  of  this  rule  the 
offender  shall  be  deemed  to  have 
lost  a  fall,  and  the  referee  shall  have 
the  power  to  award  the  match  to 
the  injured  party. 


Wrestling— Fig.  8. 
GRJECO-ROMAtf. 

i.  Wrestlers  are  allowed  to  take 
hold  anywhere  between  the  head 
and  the  belt  or  waist.  Grasping 
the  legs  is  strictly  forbidden. 


WRESTLING 


779 


WRESTLING 


2.  The  men  shall  use  open  hands, 
and  are  not  allowed  to  strike  or 
scratch,  to  clasp  one  of  their  own 
hands  within  the  other,  nor  inter- 
lace   their  fingers ;   but  they  can 
grasp  their  own  wrists,  to  tighten 
their  hold  around  their  opponent's 
body  or  otherwise. 

3.  The  principals  shall  have  their 
finger-nails  and  hair  cut  short,  and 
must  wrestle  either  barefooted  or  in 
their  socks. 

4.  Should  a  wrestler  fall  on  his 
knee,  shoulder  or  side,  a  new  start 
must  be  made. 


5.  Should  the  principals  roll  over 
each  other,  the  one  whose  shoul- 
der shall  touch  the  ground  first  is 
deemed  conquered. 

6.  A  rest  of  not    less  than  ten 
nor  more  than  twenty-five  minutes 
shall  be  allowed  between  each  bout. 

7.  Two  shoulders   touching  the 
ground  simultaneously  constitutes 
a  fall. 

History.  Wrestling  contests  have 
been  held  since  the  earliest  times. 
They  formed  part  of  the  Greek 
athletic  games.  At  first  the  Greeks 
used  to  wear  belts  in  these  contests, 


Wrestling — Fig.  9. 


but  finally  their  use  was  forbidden 
and  the  wrestlers  contended  naked, 
their  bodies  being  made  slippery 
with  oil.  In  the  middle  ages  wrest- 
ling was  a  sport  only  among  the 
lower  classes,  though  knights  and 
nobles  often  looked  on  at  wrestling 
bouts.  They  were  very  rough,  and 
the  wrestlers  were  frequently  maim- 
ed or  even  killed.  A  mediaeval 
wrestling  match  is  shown  in  Fig.  7. 
Fig.  8,  from  an  old  manuscript, 
shows  an  early  English  wrestling 
match  in  which  the  contestants 
mounted  on  the  shoulders  of  other 
men.  In  early  times  (Hth  and  1 5th 
centuries),  in  England,  such  matches 


were  held  on  feast  days  before  the 
Lord  Mayor  and  aldermen  of  Lon- 
don, dressed  in  their  robes  of  office. 
After  the  Reformation  the  sport 
was  not  in  favor,  yet  it  was  kept  up 
in  the  west  and  north  of  England 
and  by  students  at  the  Universities. 
Advocates  of  athletic  sports  tried 
hard  to  bring  it  into  favor  again, 
but  physicians  thought  it  caused 
rheumatism  and  ague,  and  it  was 
not  until  about  1826  that  it  began 
to  be  revived.  Since  that  time  it 
has  been  popular. 

The  Japanese  are  famous  wrest- 
lers. .  Fig.  9  shows  one  of  their  con- 
tests. 


YACHTING 


780 


YACHTING 


YACHTING.  Much  information 
about  different  kinds  of  boats  and 
rigging  will  be  found  in  the  article 
SAILING.  There  are  now  in  this 
country  about  75  yacht  clubs,  20  of 
which  are  in  New  York  and  10  in 
Boston.  Only  a  few  of  the  boats  are 
large  racers,  the  great  majority  of 
the  2000  boats  on  the  official  lists 
being  comparatively  small.  Besides 
these,  there  are  many  thousand 
others  whose  owners  belong  to  no 
club.  The  yacht  clubs  all  hold 
races  once  or  twice  a  year,  and  of- 
fer prizes  for  the  fastest  yacht.  As 
the  boats  are  of  many  different 
sizes,  what  is  called  a  system  of 
time-allowances  is  adopted,  that 
small  boats  may  race  on  even  terms 
with  larger  ones.  The  object  is 
to  give  a  greater  time-allowance 
the  smaller  the  boat,  and  then 
credit  it  with  the  difference  be- 
tween this  calculated  time  and 
the  real  time.  Thus  the  time-al- 
lowance of  a  small  boat  may  be  2 
minutes  per  mile.  If  the  course  is 
20  miles  long,  and  she  makes  it  in 
80  minutes,  her  corrected  time 
would  be  80-40,  or  40 ;  while  a 
larger  boat,  with  a  time-allowance 
of  half  a  minute,  whose  actual  time 
was  but  56  minutes,  would  be 
credited  with  56-10  or  46,  and 
would  therefore  be  beaten.  There 
has  been  much  discussion  over  the 
proper  method  of  calculating  time- 
allowances,  and  each  club  general- 
ly adopts  its  own  rules.  The  Eng- 
lish rule  is  based  on  the  length 
and  beam,  which  is  one  reason 
why  English  yachts  are  so  nar- 
row, the  time-allowance  being  thus 
larger.  The  New  York  clubs  use 
now  a  measurement  based  on  sail- 
area  and  length,  and  the  New 
England  Racing  Association  one 
based  on  length  alone.  In  the 
former  system  the  allowance  varies 
from  nothing  for  the  largest  yacht 
up  to  136  seconds  per  mile  for  the 


smallest;  and  in  the  latter,  from 
nothing  for  a  boat  116  feet  long 
up  to  5  minutes  29  seconds  for  one 
only  12  feet  long.  The  yachts  in  a 
club  are  usually  divided  into  class- 
es, according  to  their  rig  and 
measurement  for  time-allowance. 

Steam  launches  and  yachts. 
Steam  launches  are  usually  long 
and  narrow,  and  have  no  decks. 
The  boiler,  which  is  upright,  is 
placed  in  the  centre  of  the  boat, 
the  engine  aft,  and  the  boat  is 
driven  by  a  screw  propeller.  The 
length  varies  from  thirty  to  forty 
feet,  the  beam  from  seven  to  nine, 
and  the  draft  from  two  and  a  half 
to  three  feet. 

Steam  yachts  are  larger  than 
launches,  with  decks  and  cabins, 
and  some  of  them  are  fitted  up 
with  great  magnificence.  The 
largest  steam  yacht  in  this  country 
is  the  Alva,  owned  by  W.  K.  Van- 
derbilt,  which  is  285  feet  long  and 
has  32.3  feet  beam.  Steam  yachts 
generally  have  also  masts  and  sails, 
to  be  used  in  case  of  accident  to 
the  machinery. 

Some  steam  yachts  have  what  is 
called  a  safety-coil  boiler,  in  which 
a  coil  of  pipe  contains  the  water, 
and  there  is  no  danger  ot  explo- 
sion. Small  launches  have  what 
are  called  naphtha  engines,  in  which 
the  expansion  of  a  small  quantity 
of  naphtha  vapor  drives  the  piston. 
These  engines  occupy  little  room, 
and  can  be  run  by  any  one.  To 
run  a  steam-engine  a  license  from 
the  United  States  Government  is 
required.  The  only  steam  yacht 
club  in  this  country  is  the  Ameri- 
can Yacht  Club,  formed  in  New 
York  in  1883.  There  are  several 
systems  of  time-allowance  for  steam 
yacht  racing,  most  of  which  are 
based  simply  on  the  ^ngth  of  the 
yacht.  In  the  system  devised  by 
Dr.  C.  E.  Emery,  a  yacht  50  feet 
long  is  allowed  a  speed  of  9.94? 


VACHTING 


781 


YACHTING 


knots  an  hour,  and  one  of  300  feet 
18.074  knots;  so  that  if  the  for- 
mer should  make  12  knots  in  a  race 
while  the  latter  made  19,  the  small- 
er yacht  would  be  considered  the 
winner.  The  best  recorded  time 
made  by  a  steam  yacht  was  from 
Larchmont,  N.  Y.,to  New  London, 
Conn,  (about  90  miles),  in  4  hours, 
34  minutes,  57  seconds,  by  the 
Atlanta,  July  15,  1886. 

History.  Sailing  for  pleasure  is 
a  very  old  form  of  amusement.  In 
the  1 7th  century  Englishmen  were 
accustomed  to  buy  their  pleasure- 
boats  from  the  Dutch,  and  called 
them  yachts,  from  the  Dutch  jagt, 
a  swift  form  of  sailing  vessel.  The 
first  yacht  race  on  record  was 
in  1661,  between  Charles  II.,  King 
of  England,  and  his  brother  the 
Duke  of  York,  afterward  James  II. 
The  first  organized  yacht  club 
was  the  Cork  Harbor  Water  Club, 
of  Cork,  Ireland,  formed  in  1720, 
which  was  soon  followed  by  the 
Royal  Yacht  Club  and  others  in 
England.  The  yachts  of  this  pe- 
riod were  broad,  had  blunt  or 
"bluff"  bows,  and  drew  but  little 
water.  The  fourteen  sail-boats 
owned  by  Charles  II.  varied  in 
length  from  31  to  66  feet,  in  beam 
from  I2}^to2i.6feet,andindraught 
water  from  6  to  7.6  feet.  Before 
the  present  century  Americans 


adopted  a  longer,  deeper  and  nar- 
rower boat.  The  English  followed, 
and  have  gone  on  in  the  same  di- 
rection until  the  English  "  cutter  " 
has  become  the  narrowest  and 
deepest  of  yachts.  I  n  this  country, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  tendency 
has  been  to  return  to  boats  of  the 
old  type,  called  by  some  people,  in 
derision,  "  skimming  dishes,"  be- 
cause they  are  broad  and  shallow. 
One  reason  why  the  English  favor 
such  deep  boats  is  because  of  the 
rough  seas  and  deep  water  near 
England,  and  deep  vessels  sail  bet- 
ter in  very  rough  water.  In  this 
country  the  first  yacht  club,  the 
New  York  Club,  was  formed  in  1844. 
In  1851,  during  the  World's 
Fair  in  London,  a  keel  schooner- 
yacht,  called  the  America,  built  for 
the  purpose,  was  sent  to  England 
from  New  York  to  compete  with 
English  yachts.  She  raced,  Aug. 
22,  1851,  fifteen  English  yachts,  for 
a  silver  cup,  and  won  it.  This 
victory  created  great  interest  in 
yachting  in  both  countries.  In 
1857  the  cup  won  by  the  America 
was  given  by  her  owners  to  the 
New  York  Yacht  Club,  to  be  held 
till  won  by  some  foreign  yacht.  A 
list  of  the  races  for  it,  all  of  which 
have  been  held  near  New  York, 
over  a  forty  mile  course,  is  given  in 
the  appendix. 


ZOETROPE 


782 


ZOETROPE 


ZOETROPEi  A  toy  by  which  a 
succession  of  figures  in  different 
attitudes  are  made  to  appear  like 
a  single  one  in  motion.  The  sim- 
plest form  of  the  toy  consists  of  two 


Zoetrope — Fig.  i. 

disks  fastened  on  the  same  axis  six 
or  eight  inches  apart,  so  that  they 
will  turn  on  it  together.  The 


Zoetrope — Fig.  a. 

figures  are  arranged  on  one,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  i,  and  in  the  other 
are  a  number  of  slits  equal  to  that 
of  the  figures.  The  figures  repre- 


sent some  action  at  successive  in- 
stants ;  thus,  in  the  first  picture  the 
man  has  his  bow  drawn  to  one 
side ;  in  the  next  it  is  pushed  a 
little  farther  along,  and  so  on.  If 
any  one  look  through  the  slits 
while  the  discs  are  turned,  and 
direct  his  attention  to  any  one 
spot,  he  will  see  a  different  picture 
in  that  spot  every  time  a  new  slit 
comes  in  front  of  his  eye,  and  he 
will  not  see  one  picture  moving 
away  from  the  spot  and  another 
coming  up,  because  the  pasteboard 


Zoetrope— Fig.  3. 

between  the  slits  then  comes  be- 
tween. Thus  he  will  see  in  the 
same  place  a  succession  of  momen- 
tary pictures,  each  in  a  slightly 
different  posture,  and  it  will  seem 
to  him  as  though  he  saw  the  man 
playing  the  bass  viol.  In  this  way 
an  endless  variety  of  movements 
may  be  counterfeited. 

The  disk  bearing  the  figures  is 
often  made  a  little  smaller  than  the 
one  with  the  slits,  and  fastened 
with  it  on  the  axis  at  the  same 
point  (see  Fig.  2).  The  observer 
then  looks  through  the  slits  at  a 
mirror,  and  the  effect  is  the  same 


ZOETROPE 


783 


ZOETROPE 


>!lfej>* 


a? 

si. 


ZOETROPE 


784 


ZOETROPE 


as  before.  The  zoetrope  in  this 
shape  is  more  easy  to  manage. 
Another  form  is  a  round  box,  open 
at  the  top,  which  revolves  on  an 
upright  stand  (Fig.  3).  The  fig- 
ures are  on  strips  of  paper  which 
fit  around  the  inside  of  the  box, 
and  the  slits  are  vertical  ones 
in  the  edge.  Six  such  slips  are 
shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  observer 
looks  through  the  slits  toward  the 
figures  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
box.  The  effect  is  the  same  as  be- 


fore, though  in  this  case  the  figures 
and  slits  are  moving  in  opposite 
directions.  An  arrangement  has 
been  devised  by  a  Frenchman  for 
showing  the  zoetrope  to  a  large 
audience  with  the  aid  of  the 
MAGIC  LANTERN.  The  word  zoe- 
trope is  from  the  Greek  zoe,  life, 
and  trepdn,  to  turn.  The  toy 
is  also  called  the  Magic  Wheel 
and  the  Zoopraxiscope,  from  the 
Greek  zoe,  life,  praxis,  action,  and 
skofetn,  to  see. 


BY    ALICE   CALHOUN    HAINES 

For  Young  Folks  from  9  to  16  Years  old. 

PARTNERS  FOR  FAIR 

With  illustrations  by  FAITH  AVERY.    $1.35  net 

A  story  full  of  action,  not  untinged  by  pathos,  of  a  boy 
and  his  faithful  dog  and  their  wanderings  after  the  poor- 
house  burns  down.  They  have  interesting  experiences  with  a 
traveling  circus;  the  boy  is  thrown  from  a  moving  train,  and 
has  a  lively  time  with  the  Mexican  Insurrectos,  from  whom  he 
is  rescued  by  our  troops. 

THE  LUCK  OF  THE  DUDLEY  GRAHAMS 

Illustrated  by  FRANCIS  DAY.    300  pp.,  I2mo.    $1.35  net. 
A  family  story  of  city  life.    Lightened  by  humor  and  an 
airship. 

"Among  the  very  best  of  books  for  young  folks.  Appeals  especially 
to  girls." — Wisconsin  List  for  Township  Libraries. 

"Promises  to  be  perennially  popular.  A  family  of  happy,  healthy, 
inventive,  bright  children  make  the  best  of  restricted  conditions  and 
prove  themselves  masters  of  circumstances." — Christian  Register, 

"Sparkles  with  cleverness  and  humor." — Brooklyn  Eagle. 

COCK-A-DOODLE  HILL 
A  sequel  to  the  above.  Illustrated  by  FRANCIS  DAY. 

296   pp.,    I2mo.     $i.35  net. 

"Cockle-a-doodle  Hill"  is  where  the  Dudley  Graham  family 
went  to  live  when  thej'  left  New  York,  and  here  Ernie  started 
her  chicken-farm,  with  one  solitary  fowl,  "Hennerietta."  The 
pictures  of  country  scenes  and  the  adventures  and  experiences 
of  this  household  of  young  people  are  very  life-like. 

"No  better  book  for  young  people  than  'The  Luck  of  the  Dudley 
Grahams'  was  offered  last  year.  'Cock-a-Doodle  Hill'  is  another  of 
similar  qualities." — Philadelphia  Press. 

HENRY     HOLT     AND     COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  Cvm'12)  NEW  YORK 


COMPANION  STORIES  OF  COUNTRY  LIFE 

FOR  BOYS By  CHARLES  <P.  &URTON 

THE  BOYS  OF  BOB'S  HILL 

Illustrated  by  GEORGE  A.  WILLIAMS.    12mo.    $1.30. 

A  lively  story  of  a  party  of  boys  in  a  small  New  England 
town. 

"A  first-rate  juvenile  ...  a  real  story  for  the  live  human  boy— any 
boy  will  read  it  eagerly  to  the  end  ...  quite  thrilling  adventures." — 
Chicago  Record-Herald. 

"Tom  Sawyer  would  have  been  a  worthy  member  of  the  Bob's  Hill 
crowd  and  shared  their  good  times  and  thrilling  adventures  with 
uncommon  _relish.  ...  A  jolly  group  of  youngsters  as  nearly  true  to 
the  real  thing  in  boy  nature  as  one  can  ever  expect  to  find  between 
covers." — Christian  Register. 

THE  BOB'S  CAVE  BOYS 

Illustrated  by  VICTOR   PERARD.     $1.30  net. 

"It  would  be  hard  to  find  anything  belter  in  the  literature  of  New 
England  boy  life.  Healthy,  red-blooded,  human  boys,  full  of  fun, 
into  trouble  and  out  again,  but  frank,  honest,  and  clean." — The  Con- 
gregationalist. 

THE  BOB'S  HILL  BRAVES 

Illustrated  by  H.  S.  DELAY.    12mo.    $1.30  net. 

The  "Bob's  Hill"  band  spend  a  vacation  in  Illinois,  where 
they  play  at  being  Indians,  hear  thrilling  tales  of  real  Indians, 
and  learn  much  frontier  history.  A  history  of  especial  inter- 
est to  "Boy  Scouts." 

"Merry  youngsters.  Capital.  Thrilling  tales  of  the  red  men  and 
explorers.  These  healthy  red-blooded,  New  England  boys." — Phila- 
delphia Press. 

THE  BOY  SCOUTS  OP  BOB'S  HILL 

Illustrated  by  GORDON  GRANT.     12mo.     $1.30  net. 

The  "Bob's  Hill"  band  organizes  a  Boy  Scouts  band  and 
have  many  adventures.  Mr.  Burton  brings  in  tales  told  around 
a  camp-fire  of  La  Salle,  Joliet,  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  and 
the  Northwestern  Reservation. 

CAMP  BOB'S  HILL 

Illustrated  by  GORDON  GRANT.    $1.30  net. 
A  tale  of  Boy  Scouts  on  their  summer  vacation. 

HENRY     HOLT     AND     COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  NEW  YORS 


BY    CARROLL    WATSON    RANKIN 

STORIES  FOR  GIRLS 
THE  CINDER  POND 

Illustrated  by  ADA  C.  WILLIAMSON.  $1.35  net. 
Years  ago,  a  manufacturer  built  a  great  dock,  jutting  out 
from  and  then  turning  parallel  to  the  shore  of  a  northern 
Michigan  town.  The  factory  was  abandoned,  and  following 
the  habits  of  small  towns,  the  space  between  the  dock  and 
the  shore  became  "The  Cinder  Pond."  Jean  started  life  in  the 
colony  of  squatters  that  came  to  live  in  the  shanties  on  the 
dock,  but  fortune,  heroism,  and  a  mystery  combine  to  change 
her  fortunes  and  those  of  her  friends  near  the  Cinder  Pond. 

THE  CASTAWAYS  OF  PETE'S  PATCH 

Illustrated  by  ADA  C.  WILLIAMSON.    $1.35  net. 
A  tale  of  five  girls  tnd  two  youthful  grown-ups  who  enjoyed 
unpremeditated  camping. 

DANDELION  COTTAGE 

x  Illustrated  by  Mmes.  SHINN  and  FINLEY.    $1.35  net. 
Four  young  girls  secure  the  use  of  a  tumbledown  cottage. 
They  set  up  housekeeping  under  numerous  disadvantages,  and 
have  many  amusements  and  queer  experiences. 

"A  capital  story.  It  is  refreshing  to  come  upon  an  author  who  can 
tell  us  about  real  little  girls,  with  sensible  ordinary  parents,  girls  who 
are  neither  phenomenal  nor  silly." — Outlook. 

THE  ADOPTING  OF  ROSA  MARIE 

A  sequel  to  "Dandelion  Cottage."    Illustrated  by  Mrs.  SHINN. 

$1.35  net. 

The  little  girls  who  played  at  keeping  house  in  the  earlier 
hook,  enlarge  their  activities  to  the  extent  of  playing  mother 
to  a  little  Indian  girl. 

"Those  who  have  read  'Dandelion  Cottage'  will  need  no  urging  to 
follow  further.  ...  A  lovable  group  of  four  real  children,  happily  not 
perfect,  but  full  of  girlish  plans  and  pranks.  ...  A  delightful  sense 
of  humor." — Boston  Transcript. 

THE  GIRLS  OF  GARDENVILLE 

Illustrated  by  MARY  WELLMAN.    12mo.     $1.35  net. 
Interesting,  amusing,  and  natural  stories  of  a  girls'  club. 

"Will  captivate  as  many  adults  as  if  it  were  written  for  them.  ... 
The  secret  of  Mrs.  Rankin's  charm  is  her  naturalness  .  .  .  real  girls 
.  .  .  not  young  ladies  with  'pigtails,'  but  girls  of  sixteen  who  are  not 
twenty-five  ...  as  original  as  amusing." — Boston  Transcript. 

HENRY    HOLT    AND     COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  NEW  YORK 


BOOKS   OF   PLAYS   FOR   YOUNG   FOLK 

DESIGNED  FOR   USE  IN  THE  SCHOOLS 
By   CONSTANCE   D'ARCY   MACKAY 
PATRIOTIC   PLAYS  AND   PAGEANTS 

PAGEANT  OF  PATRIOTISM  (Outdoor):— Prologue  by  the  Spirit 
of  Patriotism,  *  Princess  Pocahontas,  Pilgrim  Interlude,  Ferry  Farm 
Episode,  "  George  Washington's  Fortune,  *  Daniel  Boone  :  Patriot, 
Benjamin  Franklin  Episode,  Abraham  Lincoln  Episode,  Final 
Tableau,  March  of  Players. 

PAGEANT  OF  PATRIOTISM  (Indoor)  a  variation  of  the  above. 

HAWTHORNE  PAGEANT  (for  Outdoor  or  Indoor  Production):— 
Chorus  of  Spirits  of  the  Old  Manse,  Prologue  by  the  Muse  of  Haw- 
thorne,  First  Episode  (In  Witchcraft  Days),  Dance  Interlude, 
Second  Episode  ^Merrymount),  Procession  of  Player  Folk. 

The  portions  of  the  pageants  marked  with  a  star  (*)  are  sepa- 
rate, one-act  plays  especially  suitable  for  separate  performance  in 
school  and  home.  There  are  full  directions  for  simple  costumes, 
scenes,  and  staging.  i2mo.  $1.35  net. 

THE   HOUSE   OF   THE   HEART 

Short  plays  in  verse  to  be  acted  by  children  of  fourteen  or 
younger.  $1.20  net;  by  mail  $1.25. 

INCLUDES: — "The  House  of  the  Heart"  (Morality  Play)— 
"The  Enchanted  Garden"  (Flower  Play— "A  Little  Pilgrim's 
Progress"  (Morality  Play.  —  "A  Pageant  of  Hours"  (To  be  given 
Out  of  Doors)— "On  Christmas  Eve."  "The  Elf  Child."  "The 
Princess  and  the  Pixies."  "The  Christmas  Guest."  (Miracle 
Play.)  Etc. 

"An  addition  to  child  drama  which  has  been  sorely  needed."— Boston 
Transcript. 

THE   SILVER   THREAD 

And  Other  Folk  Plays.     $1.20  net;  by  mail  $1.30. 

CONTENTS: — "The  Silver  Thread"  (Cornish);  "The  Forest 
Spring"  (Italian);  "  The  Foam  Maiden  "  (Celtic);  "Troll  Magic" 
(Norwegian);  "The  Three  Wishes"  (French);  "A  Brewing  of 
Brains"  (English);  "Siegfried"  (German);  "The  Snow  Witch" 
(Russian). 

HENRY     HOLT     AND     COMPANY 

PUBLISHERS  NEW  YORK 


UfBRARYfl, 


University  of  California 

SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

405  Hilgard  Avenue,  Los  Angeles,  CA  90024-1388 

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